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Level 2. Elementary Fluids Mechanics Handout (10)

Syllabus:
What is a Fluid? – just so we are clear!

Dimensional Analysis – a powerful tool to find relationships between

variables.

Fluid Statics – fluids not in motion, particularly with application to water.

Fluid Dynamics – fluids in motion, here without friction, particularly air flow
and water flow.
Continuity
Bernoulli’s Equation and Energy Equation
Momentum Equation and Forces

Aims of this lecture:

1. To introduce the idea of total head and stagnation (total) pressure
2. To apply Bernoulli’s equation using flow measurement as an example

10.1. Total Head and Pressure

In Section 9.4.2 we saw that Bernoulli’s equation can be written as a head equation
(9.3), with the total being a constant. This constant is known as the Total Head.
Or rewriting Eqn. 9.2:
2
u p
 z  Dynamic head+ pressure head + Potential head = Total Head, H
2g g

Using the pressure form of Bernoulli’s equation gives us the Total or Stagnation
Pressure, p0
p  21 u 2  gz  Static pressure + Dynamic pressure + Potential pressure
= Total or Stagnation Pressure, p0 (also known as Pitot pressure)

Stagnation pressure refers to the fact that it is the pressure which the fluid would
reach if it were brought to rest (stagnated) without violating the assumptions of
Bernoulli’s equation:

This is used in the measurement of velocity with a pitot-static tube:

• Pitot-tube: is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a
pipe or a channel.
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• Principle: If the velocity at any point decreases, the pressure at that point
increases due to the conservation of the kinetic energy into pressure energy.
• In simplest form, the pitot tube consists of a glass tube, bent at right angles.

• Let = diameter at the

inlet (section 1)
=pressure at section 1
=pressure at section 2
=velocity at section 1
=velocity at section 1=0
=area section 1
H= depth of tube in the
liquid. • Point 2 is just at the inlet of
h= rise of liquid in the tube the Pitot-tube.
above the free surface
• Point 1 is far away from the
tube.

• Applying Bernoulli’s equations at sections 1 and 2, we get

But and 0
= Pressure head at 1=H
= Pressure head at 2=h+H

Substituting these values, we get


This is theoretical velocity. Actual velocity is given by

= coefficient of pitot-tube

p1 2  p0  p  12 u 2
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Figure .Pitot tube. The static pressure, dynamic pressure and total pressure in a stagnation
point

Source: fluid.itcmp.pwr.wroc.pl/~znmp/dydaktyka/fundam_FM/Lecture9_10.pdf

Thus by measuring the pressure difference we can calculate the velocity, u.

Class Example 10.1:

A pitot-static tube is used to determine the velocity of a light aircraft. The pressure
measured across the probe is 1200 Pa. What is the velocity of the plane?
Assume an air density of 1.1 kg/m3.

Answer 10.1:
2  1200
Using Bernoulli, we get 1200 = ½ρu2. Thus u  46.7 m/s
1 .1
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We get the same idea with Total Head.

3

So if in Example 9.3 a pitot tube (i.e. a pitot

static tube without the static holes) were to
h
be placed in the flow at entry to the fire 20.39
hose nozzle and connected to a vertical m
pipe to measure the pressure, the fluid
would rise to the total head value above 2
the datum, i.e. 20.39 m.
0.5 m
Note: The level of the entry pipe and its diameter 1 do
not matter – the total head above the datum is
always the same.

Class Question 10.1:

We have seen the head above the datum is always the same. However the static
pressure in the pipe is affected by its level and its diameter.
Level of pipe below datum increasing – Does static pressure increase or decrease?
Larger diameter – Does static pressure increase or decrease?
(look at the terms in Bernoulli’s equation)

10.2. Measurement of Flowrate

The pitot-static tube can be used to measure the velocity at a point in the flow.
However very often we want to measure the total volumetric or massflow of fluid in
a pipe. Two common ways of doing this are the Venturi Meter and the Orifice
Meter

10.2.1. The Venturi Meter

The flow enters where a pressure tapping
measures the static pressure there. The diameter
decreases, so by the continuity equation the
velocity increases. Thus, by Bernoulli’s equation
the pressure falls at the throat of the venturi (an
engineer’s name, but often used to mean this sort
1 2
of diameter reduction). A second tapping measures the static pressure there, the
pressure difference gives the flow rate.

A1
Continuity: 1u1A1  2u2 A2 So, for constant density u2  u1
A2
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u12 u 22
Bernoulli: p1   gz1  p2   gz 2
2 2
And since z1  z2 then p1  p2 

2
u 2
2  u12 
A1
From continuity: u 2  u1. , so substituting for u2 gives :-
A2
1
   2

u12  A1 
2
  p  p   
2  1 
p1  p2     1 or u1  2 1 . 2
2  A2     A 
    1 2  1 
  A2 
  
 p  p   
2 1 2  1 
Thus the volume flow rate Q  A1u1  A1 . 2
  A 
  1
2  1 
  A2 

The venturi meter is widely used to measure flow rate since

Q  p1  p2
(Can you show this by dimensional analysis?)

The above analysis assumes ideal conditions, in particular that the flow is inviscid.
For real devices there must be a small energy loss due to friction so the actual flow
rate is slightly less than the ideal. This difference may be taken into account using
a coefficient of discharge, CD

  
 p  p   
2  1 
i.e. Q actual  CDQ ideal  CD A1 2 1 . 2 ……….………………. Eqn.10.1
   A 
  1 2  1 
  A2 

Or
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐
𝑸𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒅 √𝟐𝒈𝒉 Typically, Cd  0.95  0.98
√𝑨𝟐𝟏 −𝑨𝟐𝟐
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Vena Contracta
10.2.2. The Orifice Meter
The orifice meter is similar in operation to the
venturi meter but the abrupt changes of diameter
result in greater energy losses. The flow
1 2 continues to contract after the orifice diameter,
so that the minimum area is less than the
geometric area of the orifice. This phenomenon is
known as the Vena Contracta.

Because of the loss in energy going through the

sharp contraction, the pressure drop is much higher than for a venturi meter. The
flow may be calculated from, Eqn 10.1, but the value of the discharge coefficient is
much lower, typically CD = 0.6 – 0.65.
Its advantages lie in its simplicity and low cost.
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Level 2 Fluid Mechanics (11)

Syllabus:
What is a Fluid? – just so we are clear!

Dimensional Analysis – a powerful tool to find relationships between

variables.

Fluid Statics – fluids not in motion, particularly with application to water.

Fluid Dynamics – fluids in motion, here without friction, particularly air flow
and water flow.
Continuity
Bernoulli’s Equation and Energy Equation
Momentum Equation and Forces

Aims of this lecture:

1. Calculate the Change of Momentum for fluid flow.
2. Obtain the Momentum Equation from Newton’s 2nd. law
3. Consider the different Forces acting on the fluid.
4. Apply the Momentum equation to flow in more than one dimension.
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11.1 The Momentum Equation for Steady Flow

11.1.1 Rate of Change of Momentum

 Newton’s 2nd Law can be written:

• The Rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force
acting on the body, and takes place in the direction of the force.
• To determine the rate of change of momentum for a fluid we will consider a
streamtube as we did for the Bernoulli’ equation.
• We start by assuming that we have steady flow which is non-uniform flowing
in a stream tube. (Figure below)

Figure.A streamtube in one direction

• In time δt a volume of the fluid moves from the inlet a distance 𝑢𝛿𝑡, so the volume
entering the streamtube in time δt is
𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑢 δt
• This has a mass,
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 𝑢 δt
 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 𝑢 δt𝑢

• Similary, at the exit, we can obtain an expression for the momentum leaving the
streamtube:
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠 × 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 𝑢 δt𝑢
• We can now calculate the force exerted by the fluid using Newton’s 2nd Law. The
force is equal to the rate of change of momentum. So
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝜌 𝐴 𝑢 𝛿 𝑢 −𝜌 𝐴 𝑢 𝛿 𝑢
𝐹 ……….. eq11.1
𝛿
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• We know from continuity that 𝑄 𝑢 𝑢 , and if we have a fluid of constant

density , i.e𝜌 𝜌 𝜌 , then we can write
 𝐹 𝑄𝜌 𝑢 − 𝑢

• This force is acting in the direction of the flow of the fluid

• This analysis assumed that the inlet and outlet velocities were in the same
direction. i.e. a one-dimensional system.

From equation 11.1, we can say (generally)

 change of momentum is M x  u x , 2 m t  u x ,1 m t
 t  u x,1m
M x u x,2 m  t
Thus the rate of change of momentum (in the ‘x’ direction) is: 
t t

Or M x m
 u x ,2  m  u x,2  u x,1 
 u x,1  m ………………..Eqn. 11.2

MOMENTUM EQUATION FOR TWO- AND THREEDIMENSIONAL

FLOW ALONG A STREAMLINE

Figure below shows a two-dimensional problem in which v1makes an Angle θ with

the x axis, while v2 makes a corresponding angle Φ . Since both momentum and
force are vector quantities, they can be resolved into components in the x and y
directions and equation (5.4) applied. Thus, if F x and F y
are the components of the resultant force on the element of fluid ABCD,
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Since the dynamic forces equations above must be supplemeted by the static
forces acting over the inlet and outlet sections, therefore

Class Example 11.1:

What is the rate of change of momentum for the nozzle (1 to 2) of
1
Class Example 9.3? Take the diameter of the nozzle exit as
0.025 m and the diameter at inlet 0.075 m (u2 = 20 m/s).
KM
Answer 11.1: (Take the ‘x’ direction as vertically upwards)
  0.025 2
The mass flow is m  A2u x 2   20  1000  9.817 kg/s
4
At inlet, 1, we had u1 = 20/9 = 2.222 m/s
Applying Eqn. 11.1, M x  m u x,2  u x,1   9.817  20  2.222  174.5 N
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11.1.3 Forces acting on the Fluid

The forces have four main sources:

Pressure Forces, Shear Forces (Viscosity), Body Forces (Gravity), Reaction

Forces

Here we shall generally not consider shear forces, but sometimes they are
important. We shall not consider any body forces other than gravity.


Pressure Forces, P
The inlet and outlet pressure forces in the different component directions are
calculated from the inlet and outlet pressures multiplied by the areas perpendicular
to the different component directions. Thus in the ‘x’ direction:
  (pressures x perpendicu lar areas in  ve ' x' direction)
Px 
  (pressures x perpendicu lar areas in  ve ' x' direction)
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
Gravity Forces, G
Gravity forces always act in the vertically downwards direction. So its components
have to be taken in the ‘x’, ‘y’, ‘z’ directions.

Class Example 11.2:

What are the pressure forces and gravity force acting on the
fluid in the nozzle of Ex 11.1? Assume the internal volume of
the nozzle is 1.9 x 10-3 m3
2
Answer 11.2:
Remember the ‘x’ direction is vertically upwards. G

From Ex. 9.3 we had the pressure at 1 is 2.024 bar or 1

202,400 N/m2 (gauge), and at point 2 it was atmospheric
(zero gauge).

At point 1 the Pressure Force is +p1.A1 vertically upwards (+ve)

At point 2 the Pressure Force is –p2.A2 vertically downwards (-ve)
Around the sides the atmospheric pressure act. Its ‘x’ component will be downward
on the conical sides of the nozzle, whose projected area must be (A1 – A2). So the
pressure force on the sides is –pa.(A1 – A2)

Thus Px = p1.A1 - p2.A2 - pa.(A1 – A2)

In Example 9.3, we had p2 = pa, atmospheric pressure.
Thus Px = p1.A1 – pa.A2 - pa.(A1 – A2) = (p1 – pa). A1
The area, A1    0.075
2
 4.418  10  3 m2
4
(p1 – pa) is the gauge pressure at 1, that is 2.024 bar.
So Px = 202400 x 4.418 x 10-3 = +894.2 N (upwards)
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To get the gravity force, we need the volume of the inside of the nozzle, which will
be volume of the water in the nozzle – given as 1.9 x 10-3 m3. Thus the mass of
water in the nozzle = 1.9 kg.
So Gx = -1.9 x 9.81 = -18.6 N (downwards)

Reaction Forces, R
This is the force of reaction by some external force on the fluid. Examples would
be the forces supplied by the joints of a bent duct to hold it in place, or the force an
aerofoil applies to an air flow. Note: The usual convention is to write the equation in
terms of forces acting on the fluid, however you will often be interested in the force
exerted

by the fluid on a duct or other object which requires a reversal of sign, i.e. -
R . Be strict with your sign convention!

Thus, we can write the momentum equation (11.4) as:

 Px  Gx  R x   m u X   m u X …………..Eqn. 11.5
OUT IN

With similar expressions in the ‘y’ and ’z’ directions.

Class Example 11.2:

Using the momentum equation determine the force and its direction that the fluid
exerts on the nozzle.

Answer 11.3:
Using the result from 11.1:
Momentum change (out – in) was 174.5N
Pressure force, Px = +894.2 N
Gx = -18.6 N

Thus Momentum Equation is:

894.2 -18.6 + Rx = 174.5

So Rx = 174.5 – 894.2 +18.6 = -701.1 N (downwards)

This is the force of the nozzle on the water

Thus the force the fluid exerts on the nozzle is the opposite = 701.1 N (upwards).
(If the nozzle is not held firmly it will tend to move UPWARDS)
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11.2 Application of the Momentum Equation. (More information)

11.2.1 Assumptions:
We did not have to make many assumptions in deriving the momentum equation and
so these will rarely be an obstacle to using it.

Steady flow: We assumed that the average velocity of the fluid inside the control
volume was not changing in time.
We cannot therefore apply the momentum equation if the flow conditions
at a given location are changing rapidly in time.

Uniform flow: It is common to assume that pressure and velocity are uniform
across the inlet and outlets.

The momentum equation still holds for non-uniform inlet/outlet conditions but you
cannot simply take the inlet massflow multiplied but the average inlet velocity - you
need to sum massflow contributions multiplied by their
corresponding velocity. This process could be R
described as using the mass-weighted average δr u
velocity. r

For example the friction in a pipe causes the velocity

to vary with radius. Thus to obtain the momentum we
have to integrate. Assuming the velocity is
symmetrical about the axis, the mass flow through the
element of radius is: m  .u.2 .r .r
So the momentum is: M  .u 2 .2 .r .r
R
Integrating gives: M  .2 .0 u 2.r .r

Handling non-uniform pressures on the inlet/outlet is less of an issue since we would

normally used the area-weighted average pressure.
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We can apply the momentum for a range of systems including:

Flow with viscous forces

eg: -skin friction
-separation

Flow with Work Transfer

eg: -Turbines
-Pumps
-Compressors

Flow with Heat Transfer

eg: -Heat exchangers
-Combustion
(but we should

11.2.2 Applications:

1. Force due to the flow of fluid round a pipe bend.

2. Force on a nozzle at the outlet of a pipe
3. Impact of a jet on a plane surface

Example . In a 45° bend a rectangular air duct of 1 m2 cross-sectional area is gradually

reduced to 0.5 m2 area. Find the magnitude and direction of force required to hold the duct
in position if the velocity of flow at 1 m2 section is 10 m/s, and pressure is 30 kN/m2.
Take the specific weight of air as 0.0116 kN/m3.
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11.3. MOMENT OF MOMENTUM EQUATION

Moment of momentum equation is derived from moment of momentum principle which

states
as follows:
“The resulting torque acting on a rotating fluid is equal to the rate of change of moment
of momentum”.
When the moment of momentum of flow leaving a control volume is different from that
entering it, the result is a torque acting over the control volume.
Let, Q = Steady rate of flow of fluid,
ρ = Density of fluid,
V1 = Velocity of fluid at section 1,
r1 = Radius of curvature at section 1, and
V2 and r2 = Velocity and radius of curvature at section 2.
Momentum of fluid at section 1= Mass × velocity = ρQ × V1
∴ Moment of momentum per second of fluid at section 1 = ρQ × V1 × r1
Similarly, moment of momentum per second of fluid at section 2 = ρQ × V2 × r2
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∴ Rate of change of moment of momentum = ρQ V2 r2 – ρQV1r1 = ρQ(V2 r2 – V1r1)

According to the moment of momentum principle, Resultant torque = Rate of change of
moment of momentum
T =ρ Q (V2 r2 – V1r1) ...(6.31)
Eqn. (6.31) is known as moment of momentum equation. This equation is used:
(i) To find torque exerted by water on sprinkler, and
(ii) To analyse flow problems in turbines and centrifugal pumps

CLASS Example .
Figure below shows an unsymmetrical sprinkler. It has a frictionless
shaft and equal flow through each nozzle with a velocity of 8 m/s relative to the
nozzle. Find the speed of rotation in r.p.m.
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solution :