Chapter 1 Atomic structure

1.1 Fundamental particles

Key Concepts

1. Atoms
a. The smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an
element.
b. Composed of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and
electrons.
2. Subatomic Particles

Particl Relative Relative

Location
e Mass Charge
Proton 1 +1 Nucleus
Neutro
1 0 Nucleus
n

1/1836
Electro Orbitals around
-1
n nucleus
3. Atomic Structure
a. Nucleus: Central, positively charged region containing protons
and neutrons.
b. Electron Cloud: Negatively charged space around the nucleus
where electrons are likely to be found.

Historical Development of the Atomic Model

1. John Dalton (1803)

a. Proposed the idea that matter is composed of indivisible atoms.
b. Atoms of the same element are identical.
2. J.J. Thomson (1897)
a. Discovered the electron using cathode ray experiments.
b. Proposed the "plum pudding model" (electrons in a positive
'soup').
3. Ernest Rutherford (1911)
a. Conducted the gold foil experiment.
 b. Discovered the nucleus, a small, dense, positively charged core.
c. It is proposed that electrons orbit the nucleus.
4. Niels Bohr (1913)
a. Suggested that electrons occupy fixed energy levels (shells).
b. Electrons can move between levels by absorbing or emitting
energy.
5. James Chadwick (1932)
a. Discovered the neutron, which has no charge and similar mass
to the proton.

Key Terms

1. Proton Number (Atomic Number, Z):

a. The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus.
b. Defines the element.
2. Mass Number (A):
a. Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
b. Mass Number (A)=Protons (Z)+Neutrons.
3. Isotopes:
a. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
b. They have the same proton number but different mass numbers.
c. Example: Carbon-12 and Carbon-14.

a. Weighted mean mass of an atom relative to 1/121/121/12 of the

4. Relative Atomic Mass (Ar ):

mass of a carbon-12 atom.

Ar = ∑ (isotopic mass × relative abundance) / total abundance

1.2 Mass number, atomic number, and isotopes

Key Concepts

1. Atomic Number (Z)

a. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
b. Determines the element and its position on the periodic table.
c. In a neutral atom, the number of protons equals the number of
electrons.
2. Mass Number (A)
 a. The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom’s
nucleus.
b. Formula: Mass Number(A) = Protons(Z) + Neutrons
3. Isotopes
a. Atoms of the same element with the same atomic number
but different mass numbers due to varying numbers of
neutrons.
b. Examples:
i. 12C and 14C.
ii. Both have 6 protons, but 14C has 8 neutrons instead of 6.

Key Terms

Term Definition
Atomic Number
Number of protons in the nucleus.
(Z)
Mass Number
Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
(A)
Found in the nucleus, contributes to mass, but does not
Neutrons
affect charge.
Atoms of the same element with the same atomic
Isotopes
number but different numbers of neutrons.
Relative Atomic The weighted mean mass of an atom relative to1/12 of
Mass (Ar ) the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

Isotopes in Detail

1. Characteristics of Isotopes:
a. Same chemical properties (due to identical electron
configurations).
b. Slightly different physical properties (e.g., density,
melting/boiling points) due to different masses.

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar )

 Definition:
The average mass of atoms of an element, weighted according to the
abundance of its isotopes, compared to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12
atom.

 Formula:

Ar =total abundance∑ (isotopic mass × relative abundance)

 Example Calculation:

Chlorine has two isotopes:

o 35Cl, abundance 75%, mass 35.

o 37Cl, abundance 25%, mass 37.
o Ar =100(35×75) +(37×25) =35.5

Importance of Isotopes

1. Applications:
a. Carbon-14: Radiocarbon dating.
b. Uranium-235: Nuclear energy and weapons.
c. Cobalt-60: Cancer treatment (radiotherapy).
2. Environmental Significance:
a. Stable isotopes (e.g., oxygen isotopes in climate studies).
b. Radioisotopes (decay over time, used for dating and tracing
processes).

1.3 The arrangement of the electrons

Key Concepts

1. Electron Arrangement
a. Electrons in an atom are arranged in energy levels
(shells) around the nucleus.
b. These energy levels are further divided into subshells
and orbitals.
2. Energy Levels (Shells)
 a. Numbered from 1 (closest to the nucleus) to higher

b. Maximum number of electrons per shell: Maximum

numbers (farther from the nucleus).

Electrons=2n2,where n is the shell number.\

text{Maximum Electrons} = 2n^2, \text{where } n \
text{ is the shell number.}Maximum

i. Shell 1: 222 electrons.

Electrons=2n2,where n is the shell number. Example:

ii. Shell 2: 888 electrons.

iii. Shell 3: 181818 electrons.

Subshells and Orbitals

a. Each energy level contains subshells: s,p,d,fs, p, d,

1. Subshells

fs,p,d,f.

i. sss: 2 electrons.
b. Subshell capacities:

ii. ppp: 6 electrons.

iii. ddd: 10 electrons.
iv. fff: 14 electrons.
2. Orbitals
a. Each orbital holds a maximum of 2 electrons.

i. sss: Spherical.
b. Shape of orbitals:

ii. ppp: Dumbbell-shaped.

c. Example: The ppp-subshell has 3 orbitals, each capable
of holding 2 electrons.

Electron Configurations

1. Rules for Filling Orbitals

 a. Aufbau Principle: Electrons fill orbitals starting with
the lowest energy level.
b. Pauli Exclusion Principle: Each orbital can hold at
most 2 electrons with opposite spins.
c. Hund's Rule: Electrons occupy orbitals singly before
pairing up in the same subshell.

a. 1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,6s,4f,5d,6p1s, 2s, 2p,

2. Order of Filling Subshells

3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d,
6p1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,6s,4f,5d,6p.
b. Note: 4s4s4s is filled before 3d3d3d because it has a
lower energy.
3. Notation
a. Written as a sequence showing the number of electrons

b. Example: Oxygen (Z=8Z = 8Z=8): 1s22s22p41s^2

in each subshell.

2s^2 2p^41s22s22p4

Electron Arrangement and the Periodic Table

1. Groups
a. Elements in the same group have the same number of
outer-shell electrons, leading to similar chemical
properties.
2. Periods
a. Elements in the same period have the same number of
energy levels.
3. Blocks of the Periodic Table
a. s-block: Group 1 and 2 (alkali and alkaline earth
metals).
b. p-block: Groups 13–18 (nonmetals, metalloids, and
noble gases).
c. d-block: Transition metals.
 d. f-block: Lanthanides and actinides.

Ions and Electron Configurations

1. Cations (Positive Ions)

b. Example: Sodium ion (Na+\text{Na}^+Na+):

a. Electrons are removed from the outermost shell.

Na:1s22s22p63s1becomesNa+:1s22s22p6\text{Na}:
1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^1 \quad \text{becomes} \quad \
text{Na}^+: 1s^2 2s^2
2p^6Na:1s22s22p63s1becomesNa+:1s22s22p6
2. Anions (Negative Ions)
a. Electrons are added to the outermost shell.
b. Example: Chloride ion Cl:1s22s22p63s23p5 becomes
Cl−:1s22s22p63s23p6

Key Terms

Term Definition
Energy Level Regions around the nucleus where electrons are likely to

Divisions within energy levels (s,p,d,fs, p, d, fs,p,d,f).

(Shell) be found.
Subshell
Region of space where an electron is likely to be found
Orbital
(holds 2 electrons).
Ground State Lowest energy configuration of an atom.
When electrons absorb energy and jump to higher energy
Excited State
levels.

1.4 The mass spectrometer

Key Concepts

1. Purpose of a Mass Spectrometer

 a. A mass spectrometer is an analytical instrument used

i. The relative atomic mass (ArA_rAr ) of

to determine:

ii. The relative molecular mass (MrM_rMr ) of

elements.

compounds.
iii. The isotopic composition of elements.
2. Basic Principle
a. Atoms or molecules are ionized, accelerated, and

(m/zm/zm/z).
separated based on their mass-to-charge ratio

Stages of a Mass Spectrometer

1. Ionization
a. The sample is vaporized and ionized to form positive
ions.
b. Two common methods:
i. Electron Impact: High-energy electrons knock

1. Example: X+e−→X++2e−\text{X} + e^- \to \

out electrons from the sample.

text{X}^+ + 2e^-X+e−→X++2e−.
ii. Electrospray Ionization: A solution of the
sample is sprayed into a fine mist, and a proton is

1. Example: X+H+→XH+\text{X} + \
added.

text{H}^+ \to \text{XH}^+X+H+→XH+.

2. Acceleration
a. The positive ions are accelerated by an electric field,

b. Kinetic energy equation: KE=12mv2KE = \frac{1}

giving them all the same kinetic energy.

{2}mv^2KE=21 mv2
3. Ion Drift (Flight Tube)
 a. Ions pass through a region with no electric field, drifting
based on their velocities.
b. Lighter ions travel faster than heavier ions.
4. Detection
a. Ions hit a detector, generating a current.
b. The size of the current is proportional to the ion
abundance.
5. Data Analysis

abundance against m/zm/zm/z values.

a. A mass spectrum is produced, showing relative

Mass Spectrum Interpretation

1. Peaks in a Mass Spectrum

m/zm/zm/z value.
a. Each peak corresponds to an ion with a specific

b. The height of a peak indicates the relative abundance

of that ion.

a. Isotopes: Peaks at different m/zm/zm/z values

2. Key Features

b. Molecular Ion Peak (M+M^+M+): The peak with the

correspond to isotopes of an element.

highest m/zm/zm/z value represents the molecular ion

and provides the relative molecular mass of a
compound.
c. Fragmentation Peaks: Smaller peaks correspond to
fragments of the molecule.

Applications of Mass Spectrometry

1. Isotopic Analysis

to calculate the relative atomic mass (ArA_rAr ).

a. Determine the relative abundance and mass of isotopes
 35Cl^{35}\text{Cl}35Cl and 37Cl^{37}\text{Cl}37Cl.
b. Example: Chlorine spectrum shows peaks for

2. Identifying Compounds
a. Identify unknown organic compounds by analyzing
fragmentation patterns.
3. Proteomics
a. Used in biology to determine the structure of proteins
and peptides.

Calculations Involving Mass Spectrometry

1. Relative Atomic Mass (ArA_rAr )

a. Formula: Ar=∑(isotopic mass×relative abundance)total
abundanceA_r = \frac{\sum (\text{isotopic mass} \
times \text{relative abundance})}{\text{total
abundance}}Ar =total abundance∑(isotopic
mass×relative abundance)
2. Example Calculation

i. 79Br^{79}\text{Br}79Br, abundance 50%.

a. A sample contains two isotopes of bromine:

ii. 81Br^{81}\text{Br}81Br, abundance 50%.

b. Calculate ArA_rAr : Ar=(79×50)+(81×50)100=80.0A_r
= \frac{(79 \times 50) + (81 \times 50)}{100} = 80.0Ar
=100(79×50)+(81×50) =80.0

Key Terms

Term Definition
The process of removing or adding electrons to
Ionization
form ions.

(m/zm/zm/z)
Mass-to-Charge Ratio
The mass of an ion divided by its charge.

Molecular Ion Peak The peak with the highest m/zm/zm/z,

 representing the molecular ion.
The breaking of a molecule into smaller pieces
Fragmentation
during ionization.

1.5 More about electron arrangements in atoms

Key Concepts

1. Electron Configuration Overview

a. Electrons in an atom are arranged in energy levels
(shells), which are divided into subshells and
orbitals.
b. Electron configuration describes the distribution of
electrons among these subshells.

a. Subshells: s,p,d,fs, p, d, fs,p,d,f.

2. Subshells and Orbitals Recap

i. sss-subshell: 1 orbital, 2 electrons.

b. Orbital capacities:

ii. ppp-subshell: 3 orbitals, 6 electrons.

iii. ddd-subshell: 5 orbitals, 10 electrons.
iv. fff-subshell: 7 orbitals, 14 electrons.

Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table

1. Periodic Table Blocks

a. The periodic table is divided into blocks based on the
subshell being filled:
i. s-block: Groups 1–2 and helium.
ii. p-block: Groups 13–18.
iii. d-block: Transition metals.
iv. f-block: Lanthanides and actinides.
2. Periodic Trends in Electron Configurations
a. Group: Elements in the same group have the same
number of outer-shell electrons.
 b. Period: The period number corresponds to the highest
principal energy level occupied.
3. Writing Electron Configurations

1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,6s,4f,5d,6p1s, 2s, 2p,

a. Use the order of filling subshells:

3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d,
6p1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,6s,4f,5d,6p
b. Example: Sulfur (Z=16Z = 16Z=16):
1s22s22p63s23p41s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2
3p^41s22s22p63s23p4

Electron Configurations of Ions

1. Cations (Positive Ions)

a. Electrons are removed from the outermost energy

b. Example: Na+\text{Na}^+Na+:
level first.

Na=1s22s22p63s1becomesNa+=1s22s22p6\text{Na}
= 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^1 \quad \text{becomes} \quad \
text{Na}^+ = 1s^2 2s^2
2p^6Na=1s22s22p63s1becomesNa+=1s22s22p6
2. Anions (Negative Ions)

b. Example: Cl−\text{Cl}^-Cl−:
a. Electrons are added to the outermost energy level.

Cl=1s22s22p63s23p5becomesCl−=1s22s22p63s23p6\
text{Cl} = 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^5 \quad \
text{becomes} \quad \text{Cl}^- = 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6
3s^2
3p^6Cl=1s22s22p63s23p5becomesCl−=1s22s22p63s2
3p6
3. Transition Metals and d-Orbitals
a. Transition metals lose 4s electrons before 3d electrons
when forming cations.
 b. Example: Fe3+\text{Fe}^{3+}Fe3+:
Fe=1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6becomesFe3+=1s22s22p
63s23p63d5\text{Fe} = 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^6
4s^2 3d^6 \quad \text{becomes} \quad \
text{Fe}^{3+} = 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^6
3d^5Fe=1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6becomesFe3+=1s22
s22p63s23p63d5

Exceptions to the Aufbau Principle

1. Chromium (Z=24Z = 24Z=24)

a. Expected: [Ar]4s23d4[\text{Ar}] 4s^2 3d^4[Ar]4s23d4
b. Actual: [Ar]4s13d5[\text{Ar}] 4s^1 3d^5[Ar]4s13d5
c. Reason: Half-filled ddd-subshell provides extra stability.
2. Copper (Z=29Z = 29Z=29)
a. Expected: [Ar]4s23d9[\text{Ar}] 4s^2 3d^9[Ar]4s23d9
b. Actual: [Ar]4s13d10[\text{Ar}] 4s^1 3d^{10}

c. Reason: Fully filled ddd-subshell provides extra

[Ar]4s13d10

stability.

Key Terms

Term Definition
Principal
Main energy level occupied by electrons.

Divisions within energy levels (s,p,d,fs, p, d, fs,p,d,f).

Energy Level
Subshell
A region of space where an electron is likely to be found,
Orbital
holding up to 2 electrons.
Aufbau
Electrons fill the lowest energy orbitals first.
Principle
Hund's Rule Electrons fill orbitals singly before pairing.
Exam Tips

1. Order of Filling: Memorize the order in which subshells are

filled.

highest energy level (e.g., 4s4s4s before 3d3d3d).

2. Ion Configurations: Always remove electrons from the

3. Transition Metal Exceptions: Remember chromium and

copper configurations.

1.6 Electron arrangements and ionisation energy

Key Concepts

1. Ionization Energy
a. Definition: The first ionization energy is the energy
required to remove one mole of electrons from one
mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous 1+
ions. X(g)→X+(g)+e−
2. Successive Ionization Energies
a. Refers to the energies required to remove electrons

b. Example: For Mg\text{Mg}Mg:

one by one from the same atom.

i. First ionization: Mg(g)→Mg+(g)+e−\text{Mg(g)} \

to \text{Mg}^+(g) + e^-Mg(g)→Mg+(g)+e−
ii. Second ionization: Mg+(g)→Mg2+(g)+e−\
text{Mg}^+(g) \to \text{Mg}^{2+}(g) + e^-Mg+
(g)→Mg2+(g)+e−

Factors Affecting Ionization Energy

1. Nuclear Charge
 a. More protons in the nucleus → Stronger attraction
between the nucleus and electrons → Higher
ionization energy.
2. Distance from the Nucleus (Atomic Radius)
a. Electrons farther from the nucleus experience less
nuclear attraction → Lower ionization energy.
3. Electron Shielding
a. Inner electrons repel outer electrons, reducing the
attraction between the nucleus and outer electrons →
Lower ionization energy.
4. Electron Pairing
a. In orbitals where electrons are paired, repulsion makes
it easier to remove one electron → Lower ionization
energy for paired electrons.

Trends in Ionization Energy

1. Across a Period
a. Ionization energy increases:
i. Nuclear charge increases.
ii. Atomic radius decreases.
iii. Shielding remains constant (same shell).
2. Down a Group
a. Ionization energy decreases:
i. Atomic radius increases.
ii. Shielding increases (more inner shells).
iii. Nuclear attraction decreases despite increased
nuclear charge.

Graph of Successive Ionization Energies

1. Pattern:
 a. A large jump in ionization energy occurs when
removing an electron from a new, inner shell (closer

b. Example: For Mg\text{Mg}Mg:

to the nucleus).

i. 1st and 2nd ionization energies are low (outer 3s-

electrons).

2p2p2p-electrons).
ii. 3rd ionization energy is much higher (inner

2. Uses of Successive Ionization Energies:

a. Identifying the group of an element:
i. A large jump in ionization energy indicates the

ii. Example: Mg\text{Mg}Mg: Large jump between

number of outer electrons.

2nd and 3rd ionizations → Group 2.

Electron Arrangements and Ionization Energy

1. Subshell Effects
a. Removing electrons from a full or half-full subshell

b. Example: Removing an electron from N\text{N}N:

requires more energy (stability).

1s22s22p31s^2 2s^2 2p^31s22s22p3 is harder than

from O\text{O}O: 1s22s22p41s^2 2s^2
2p^41s22s22p4 (due to pairing in O\text{O}O).
2. Anomalies in Trends

i. Be\text{Be}Be: 1s22s21s^2 2s^21s22s2 →

a. Be → B:

Removing 2s2s2s-electron.
ii. B\text{B}B: 1s22s22p11s^2 2s^2 2p^11s22s22p1
→ Removing 2p2p2p-electron (higher energy).
iii. Result: Lower ionization energy for B\text{B}B.
b. N → O:
 i. N\text{N}N: 1s22s22p31s^2 2s^2
2p^31s22s22p3 → Half-filled 2p2p2p-subshell is

ii. O\text{O}O: 1s22s22p41s^2 2s^2

stable.

2p^41s22s22p4 → Paired electrons in 2p2p2p

iii. Result: Lower ionization energy for O\text{O}O.

cause repulsion.

Key Terms

Term Definition
First Ionization Energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from
Energy one mole of gaseous atoms.
Successive Energies required to remove additional electrons one
Ionization Energies by one from an atom.
Reduction of nuclear attraction by inner electrons
Shielding
repelling outer electrons.
Nuclear Charge Total positive charge of the nucleus due to protons.

Chapter 2 Amount of substance

2.1 Relative atomic and molecular masses, the Avagadro’s
constant, and the mole

Key Definitions

 Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): The weighted average mass of

an atom of an element compared to 1/12th the mass of a
carbon-12 atom.
 Relative Molecular Mass (Mr): The sum of the relative

 Avogadro’s Constant (NAN_ANA ): 6.022×1023

atomic masses of all atoms in a molecular formula.

mol−16.022 \times 10^{23} \, \text{mol}^{-

 1}6.022×1023mol−1, the number of particles in one mole of

 The Mole: A unit representing 6.022×10236.022 \times

a substance.

10^{23}6.022×1023 particles (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.)

of a substance.

Key Concepts

1. Relative Atomic Mass (Ar):

b. Formula: Ar=∑(isotopic mass×abundance)total

a. Calculated using isotopic abundances.

abundanceA_r = \frac{\sum (\text{isotopic mass} \

times \text{abundance})}{\text{total abundance}}Ar
=total abundance∑(isotopic mass×abundance)
c. Unitless.

a. Applies to molecules (e.g., H2OH_2OH2 O) and is

2. Relative Molecular Mass (Mr):

calculated by summing the ArA_rAr values of all

3. Avogadro's Constant (NAN_ANA ):

constituent atoms.

a. Links macroscopic quantities (moles) with microscopic

b. NAN_ANA is derived from the number of atoms in 12 g

quantities (particles).

of 12C^{12}C12C.
4. The Mole Concept:

as there are atoms in 12 g of 12C^{12}C12C.

a. The amount of substance containing as many entities

(e.g., Mr(H2O)=18⇒18 g/molM_r(\text{H}_2O) = 18 \

b. Mass of 1 mole (in grams) = Relative formula mass

Rightarrow 18 \, \text{g/mol}Mr (H2 O)=18⇒18g/mol).

Equations

1. Number of Moles:

n=mMn = \frac{m}{M}n=Mm

Where:

a. nnn: Moles
b. mmm: Mass (g)
c. MMM: Molar mass (g/mol)
2. Number of Particles:

Particles=n×NA\text{Particles} = n \times N_AParticles=n×NA

3. Mass of a Single Particle:

Mass of one particle=MNA\text{Mass of one particle} = \frac{M}

{N_A}Mass of one particle=NA M

Examples

1. Calculating Moles from Mass:

Given: Mass of NaCl=58.5 g,Mr(NaCl)=58.5 g/mol.\

text{Given: } \text{Mass of NaCl} = 58.5 \, \text{g}, M_r(\
text{NaCl}) = 58.5 \, \text{g/mol}.Given: Mass of NaCl=58.5g,Mr
(NaCl)=58.5g/mol. n=mM=58.558.5=1 mol.n = \frac{m}{M} = \
frac{58.5}{58.5} = 1 \, \text{mol}.n=Mm =58.558.5 =1mol.

2. Number of Particles in 2 Moles of O2O_2O2 :

Particles=2×6.022×1023=1.2044×1024.\text{Particles} = 2 \
times 6.022 \times 10^{23} = 1.2044 \times
10^{24}.Particles=2×6.022×1023=1.2044×1024.
Applications

 Determining the amount of reactants/products in a chemical

reaction.
 Calculating concentrations in solutions.
 Understanding stoichiometry in reactions.

2.2 Moles in Solution

Key Definitions

 Concentration: The amount of solute (in moles) dissolved

(Molarity, MMM).
in each volume of solution. Typically expressed in mol/dm³

 Standard Solution: A solution of known concentration,

prepared for use in quantitative analysis.

Key Concepts

1. Concentration and Volume Relationship:

a. The relationship between moles, concentration, and

b. Formula: n=C×Vn = C \times Vn=C×V Where:

volume is fundamental in solution chemistry.

i. nnn: Number of moles (mol)

ii. CCC: Concentration (mol/dm³)
iii. VVV: Volume (dm³)
2. Units of Volume:
a. 1 dm³ = 1 liter (L) = 1000 cm³ (mL).
b. Ensure all volumes are in dm³ for consistency.
3. Dilution of Solutions:
a. When diluting a solution, the number of moles of solute

b. Formula: C1V1=C2V2C_1 V_1 = C_2 V_2C1 V1 =C2 V2

remains constant.

Where:
 i. C1C_1C1 , C2C_2C2 : Initial and final

ii. V1V_1V1 , V2V_2V2 : Initial and final volumes.

concentrations.

4. Preparing a Standard Solution:

a. Accurately weigh a solute.
b. Dissolve in a small amount of distilled water.
c. Transfer to a volumetric flask and fill to the mark with
distilled water.

Equations

1. Moles from Concentration and Volume:

n=C×Vn = C \times Vn=C×V

2. Mass of Solute from Concentration:

m=n×Mm = n \times Mm=n×M

Combine with the first formula:

m=C×V×Mm = C \times V \times Mm=C×V×M

Where:

a. mmm: Mass of solute (g)

b. MMM: Molar mass (g/mol).
3. Concentration after Dilution:

C2=C1V1V2C_2 = \frac{C_1 V_1}{V_2}C2 =V2 C1 V1

Examples

1. Finding Moles in a Solution:

Given: C=0.5 mol/dm3,V=250 cm3=0.250 dm3.\text{Given: } C =
0.5 \, \text{mol/dm}^3, V = 250 \, \text{cm}^3 = 0.250 \, \
text{dm}^3.Given: C=0.5mol/dm3,V=250cm3=0.250dm3.
n=C×V=0.5×0.250=0.125 mol.n = C \times V = 0.5 \times 0.250
= 0.125 \, \text{mol}.n=C×V=0.5×0.250=0.125mol.

2. Diluting a Solution:

Initial: C1=2.0 mol/dm3,V1=50 cm3=0.050 dm3.\text{Initial: }

C_1 = 2.0 \, \text{mol/dm}^3, V_1 = 50 \, \text{cm}^3 = 0.050 \,
\text{dm}^3.Initial: C1 =2.0mol/dm3,V1 =50cm3=0.050dm3.
Final: V2=250 cm3=0.250 dm3.\text{Final: } V_2 = 250 \, \
text{cm}^3 = 0.250 \, \text{dm}^3.Final: V2
=250cm3=0.250dm3. C2=C1V1V2=2.0×0.0500.250=0.4
mol/dm3.C_2 = \frac{C_1 V_1}{V_2} = \frac{2.0 \times 0.050}
{0.250} = 0.4 \, \text{mol/dm}^3.C2 =V2 C1 V1
=0.2502.0×0.050 =0.4mol/dm3.

Applications

 Titrations for determining concentrations of unknown

solutions.
 Preparing specific concentrations for experiments.
 Calculating reactants/products in reactions in aqueous
solutions.

Summary Points

 Use n=C×Vn = C \times Vn=C×V to calculate moles in a

solution.
 Convert volumes to dm³ before calculations.
 Dilution maintains moles but changes concentration.
2.3 The ideal gas equation

Key Definition

 Ideal Gas Equation: Relates the physical properties of an

ideal gas (pressure, volume, temperature, and amount of

 Formula: pV=nRTpV = nRTpV=nRT Where:

substance).

o ppp: Pressure (Pa)

o VVV: Volume (m³)
o nnn: Number of moles (mol)
o RRR: Ideal gas constant (8.31 J/mol\cdotpK8.31 \, \
text{J/mol·K}8.31J/mol\cdotpK)
o TTT: Temperature (K)

Key Concepts

1. Conditions:
a. Gases behave ideally under low pressure and high
temperature.
b. Deviations occur at high pressures (molecules close
together) or low temperatures (intermolecular forces
become significant).
2. Unit Conversions:

i. 1 atm=101,325 Pa1 \, \text{atm} = 101,325 \, \

a. Pressure:

text{Pa}1atm=101,325Pa
ii. 1 kPa=1,000 Pa1 \, \text{kPa} = 1,000 \, \
text{Pa}1kPa=1,000Pa

i. 1 dm3=1,000 cm3=0.001 m31 \, \text{dm}^3 =

b. Volume:

1,000 \, \text{cm}^3 = 0.001 \, \

text{m}^31dm3=1,000cm3=0.001m3
 i. K=°C+273.15\text{K} = \text{°C} +
c. Temperature:

273.15K=°C+273.15

a. At standard temperature and pressure (T=273 K,p=1

3. Molar Volume at Standard Conditions:

atmT = 273 \, \text{K}, p = 1 \, \

text{atm}T=273K,p=1atm), 1 mole of any gas occupies
22.4 dm322.4 \, \text{dm}^322.4dm3.
b. At room temperature and pressure (T=298 K,p=100
kPaT = 298 \, \text{K}, p = 100 \, \
text{kPa}T=298K,p=100kPa), 1 mole occupies 24
dm324 \, \text{dm}^324dm3.

Equations

1. Ideal Gas Equation:

pV=nRTpV = nRTpV=nRT

a. Moles (nnn): n=pVRTn = \frac{pV}{RT}n=RTpV

2. Rearranged for Specific Variables:

b. Volume (VVV): V=nRTpV = \frac{nRT}{p}V=pnRT

a. Using mass (mmm) and molar mass (MMM):

3. Density of Gas:

Density=pMRT\text{Density} = \frac{pM}
{RT}Density=RTpM

Examples

1. Finding Volume of Gas:

Given: n=2.0 mol,T=300 K,p=100,000 Pa.\text{Given: } n =

2.0 \, \text{mol}, T = 300 \, \text{K}, p = 100,000 \, \
text{Pa}.Given: n=2.0mol,T=300K,p=100,000Pa.
V=nRTp=2.0×8.31×300100,000=0.04986 m3 (or 49.86 dm3).V
= \frac{nRT}{p} = \frac{2.0 \times 8.31 \times 300}{100,000} =
0.04986 \, \text{m}^3 \, \text{(or } 49.86 \, \text{dm}^3\
text{)}.V=pnRT =100,0002.0×8.31×300 =0.04986m3(or
49.86dm3).

2. Finding Moles in a Gas:

Given: p=2 atm=202,650 Pa,V=0.05 m3,T=298 K.\text{Given: } p

= 2 \, \text{atm} = 202,650 \, \text{Pa}, V = 0.05 \, \text{m}^3, T
= 298 \, \text{K}.Given: p=2atm=202,650Pa,V=0.05m3,T=298K.
n=pVRT=202,650×0.058.31×298=4.10 mol.n = \frac{pV}{RT} = \
frac{202,650 \times 0.05}{8.31 \times 298} = 4.10 \, \
text{mol}.n=RTpV =8.31×298202,650×0.05 =4.10mol.

Applications

 Calculating gas volumes in chemical reactions.

 Determining molar masses from experimental data.
 Predicting behavior of gases under varying conditions.

Summary Points

 Use pV=nRTpV = nRTpV=nRT for all ideal gas calculations.

 Always convert to standard SI units:
o Pressure in Pascals (Pa).
o Volume in cubic meters (m³).
o Temperature in Kelvin (K).
 Check for standard conditions to use molar volumes directly.
2.4 Empirical and molecular formulae

Key Concepts

1. Empirical Formula
a. The simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each

b. Example: Glucose (C6H12O6\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\

element in a compound.

text{O}_6C6 H12 O6 ) → Empirical formula is CH2O\

text{CH}_2\text{O}CH2 O.
2. Molecular Formula
a. The actual number of atoms of each element in a
molecule of a compound.

C6H12O6\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6C6 H12 O6 .
b. Example: The molecular formula of glucose is

3. Relationship

the empirical formula: Molecular formula=n×Empirical

a. The molecular formula is a whole-number multiple of

formula\text{Molecular formula} = n \times \

text{Empirical formula}Molecular formula=n×Empirical

b. Where nnn is calculated as: n=Molecular

formula

massEmpirical formula massn = \frac{\text{Molecular

mass}}{\text{Empirical formula mass}}n=Empirical
formula massMolecular mass

Steps to Determine the Empirical Formula

1. Obtain Data
a. Usually given as percentages or masses of each
element.
2. Convert to Moles
 mass (Mr\text{M}_rMr ): \text{Moles} = \frac{\
a. Divide each element's mass or percentage by its molar

text{Mass or %}}{\text{Molar mass}}

3. Simplify the Ratios
a. Divide all mole values by the smallest mole value.
4. Adjust to Whole Numbers
a. If necessary, multiply ratios by a common factor to
achieve whole numbers.

Steps to Determine the Molecular Formula

2. Calculate nnn using: n=Molecular massEmpirical formula

1. Find the Empirical Formula (as above).

massn = \frac{\text{Molecular mass}}{\text{Empirical

formula mass}}n=Empirical formula massMolecular mass
3. Multiply the Empirical Formula by nnn to get the
molecular formula.

Examples

1. Finding Empirical Formula

a. A compound contains 40% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen, and
53.3% oxygen.

C:4012=3.33,H:6.71=6.7,O:53.316=3.33\text{C}: \
b. Step 1: Convert percentages to moles:

frac{40}{12} = 3.33, \quad \text{H}: \frac{6.7}{1} =

6.7, \quad \text{O}: \frac{53.3}{16} = 3.33C:1240

c. Step 2: Divide by smallest value (3.33): C:1,H:2,O:1\

=3.33,H:16.7 =6.7,O:1653.3 =3.33

text{C}: 1, \quad \text{H}: 2, \quad \text{O}:

1C:1,H:2,O:1
d. Empirical formula: CH2O\text{CH}_2\text{O}CH2 O.
2. Finding Molecular Formula
 b. Empirical formula mass: 12+2(1)+16=3012 + 2(1) +
a. The molecular mass of the compound is 180 g/mol.

16 = 3012+2(1)+16=30.
c. Calculate nnn: n=18030=6n = \frac{180}{30} =
6n=30180 =6
d. Molecular formula: C6H12O6\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\
text{O}_6C6 H12 O6 .

Key Terms

Term Definition
Empirical Simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a
Formula compound.
Molecular Actual number of atoms of each element in a
Formula molecule.
Amount of substance measured in terms of the
Moles
number of entities.

2.5 Balanced Equations and Related Calculations

Key Concepts

1. Balanced Chemical Equations

a. A balanced equation has equal numbers of each
type of atom on both sides of the reaction.
b. Reflects the law of conservation of mass: Matter is
neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

a. (s)(s)(s): Solid
2. State Symbols

b. (l)(l)(l): Liquid
c. (g)(g)(g): Gas
d. (aq)(aq)(aq): Aqueous (dissolved in water)
 3. Stoichiometry
a. The relationship between the quantities of reactants
and products in a balanced equation.

Steps to Balance an Equation

1. Write the unbalanced equation using correct chemical

formulas.
2. Adjust the coefficients (numbers in front of formulas) to
balance the number of atoms for each element.
3. Ensure that the charge (if applicable) is balanced in ionic
equations.
4. Check your work to ensure:
a. Same number of atoms for each element on both sides.
b. Coefficients are in the simplest whole-number ratio.

Calculations Using Balanced Equations

1. Mole Ratios
a. Use the coefficients from the balanced equation to
calculate the ratio of reactants to products.

Example: For the reaction:

2H2(g)+O2(g)→2H2O(l)\text{2H}_2(g) + \text{O}_2(g) \to \

text{2H}_2\text{O}(l)2H2 (g)+O2 (g)→2H2 O(l)
b. 2 moles of H2\text{H}_2H2 react with 1 mole of O2\
text{O}_2O2 to produce 2 moles of H2O\text{H}_2\
text{O}H2 O.

a. Use the formula: Mass=Moles×Molar Mass\text{Mass}

2. Mass Calculations

= \text{Moles} \times \text{Molar

Mass}Mass=Moles×Molar Mass
Steps:

b. Calculate moles of the given substance.

c. Use mole ratios to find moles of the desired substance.
d. Convert moles back to mass if needed.
3. Volume Calculations (Gases)

occupies 24 dm324 \, \text{dm}^324dm3:

a. At room temperature and pressure (RTP), 1 mole of gas

Volume=Moles×24 dm3\text{Volume} = \text{Moles} \

times 24 \, \text{dm}^3Volume=Moles×24dm3

Example Calculations

a. Reaction: CaCO3(s)→CaO(s)+CO2(g)\
1. Mass of Product from Reactants

text{CaCO}_3(s) \to \text{CaO}(s) + \

text{CO}_2(g)CaCO3 (s)→CaO(s)+CO2 (g)
b. If 10 g10 \, \text{g}10g of CaCO3\text{CaCO}_3CaCO3
is heated, what mass of CaO\text{CaO}CaO is

i. Molar mass of CaCO3=100 g/mol\text{CaCO}_3 =

produced?

100 \, \text{g/mol}CaCO3 =100g/mol.

ii. Moles of CaCO3=10100=0.1 mol\text{CaCO}_3
= \frac{10}{100} = 0.1 \, \text{mol}CaCO3 =10010

iii. Mole ratio: 1:11:11:1 → Moles of CaO=0.1 mol\

=0.1mol.

text{CaO} = 0.1 \, \text{mol}CaO=0.1mol.

iv. Mass of CaO=0.1×56=5.6 g\text{CaO} = 0.1 \
times 56 = 5.6 \, \text{g}CaO=0.1×56=5.6g.

a. Reaction: Zn(s)+2HCl(aq)→ZnCl2(aq)+H2(g)\text{Zn}
2. Volume of Gas Produced

(s) + 2\text{HCl}(aq) \to \text{ZnCl}_2(aq) + \

text{H}_2(g)Zn(s)+2HCl(aq)→ZnCl2 (aq)+H2 (g)
 b. If 0.2 mol0.2 \, \text{mol}0.2mol of Zn\text{Zn}Zn
reacts, what volume of H2\text{H}_2H2 gas is

i. Mole ratio: 1:11:11:1 → Moles of H2=0.2 mol\

produced at RTP?

text{H}_2 = 0.2 \, \text{mol}H2 =0.2mol.

ii. Volume of H2=0.2×24=4.8 dm3\text{H}_2 = 0.2 \
times 24 = 4.8 \, \text{dm}^3H2
=0.2×24=4.8dm3.

Key Terms

Term Definition
Balanced An equation with equal numbers of atoms of each
Equation element on both sides.
The ratio of moles of reactants to products from a
Mole Ratio
balanced equation.

g/mol\text{g/mol}g/mol).
Mass of one mole of a substance (units:
Molar Mass

Room temperature and pressure (25∘C25^\circ \

text{C}25∘C and 1 atm1 \, \text{atm}1atm).
RTP

2.6 Balanced equations, atom economies, and percentage

yields

Key Definitions

 Balanced Equation: A chemical equation where the

number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides,
ensuring conservation of mass.
 Atom Economy: A measure of the efficiency of a reaction in
terms of how much of the reactants end up as useful
products.
  Percentage Yield: The efficiency of a reaction in producing
the desired product, expressed as a percentage of the
theoretical yield.

Key Concepts

1. Balanced Equations:
a. Balancing ensures mass and charge are conserved.
b. Use stoichiometric coefficients to adjust the number of
atoms/molecules.

a. Formula: Atom Economy (%)=Molecular mass of

2. Atom Economy:

desired productTotal molecular mass of all

products×100\text{Atom Economy (\%)} = \frac{\
text{Molecular mass of desired product}}{\text{Total
molecular mass of all products}} \times 100Atom
Economy (%)=Total molecular mass of all
productsMolecular mass of desired product ×100
b. Higher atom economy indicates a greener and more
sustainable reaction.

a. Formula: Percentage Yield (%)=Actual yieldTheoretical

3. Percentage Yield:

yield×100\text{Percentage Yield (\%)} = \frac{\

text{Actual yield}}{\text{Theoretical yield}} \times
100Percentage Yield (%)=Theoretical yieldActual yield
×100
b. Theoretical yield: Calculated from stoichiometry based
on the limiting reactant.
c. Actual yield: Measured experimentally.
4. Limiting Reactant:
a. The reactant that is completely consumed, determining
the maximum amount of product formed.
Equations

1. Atom Economy:

Atom Economy (%)=Mass of useful product(s)Mass of

reactants×100\text{Atom Economy (\%)} = \frac{\text{Mass of
useful product(s)}}{\text{Mass of reactants}} \times 100Atom
Economy (%)=Mass of reactantsMass of useful product(s) ×100

2. Percentage Yield:

Percentage Yield (%)=Actual massTheoretical mass×100\

text{Percentage Yield (\%)} = \frac{\text{Actual mass}}{\
text{Theoretical mass}} \times 100Percentage Yield
(%)=Theoretical massActual mass ×100

Examples

1. Balancing Equations:

Unbalanced: C3H8+O2→CO2+H2O\text{Unbalanced: } \
text{C}_3\text{H}_8 + \text{O}_2 \rightarrow \text{CO}_2 + \
text{H}_2\text{O}Unbalanced: C3 H8 +O2 →CO2 +H2 O
Balanced: C3H8+5O2→3CO2+4H2O.\text{Balanced: } \
text{C}_3\text{H}_8 + 5\text{O}_2 \rightarrow 3\text{CO}_2 + 4\
text{H}_2\text{O}.Balanced: C3 H8 +5O2 →3CO2 +4H2 O.

2. Atom Economy Calculation:

Reaction: CH4+Cl2→CH3Cl+HCl.\text{Reaction: } \text{CH}_4 +

\text{Cl}_2 \rightarrow \text{CH}_3\text{Cl} + \
text{HCl}.Reaction: CH4 +Cl2 →CH3 Cl+HCl.
a. Desired product: CH3Cl (Mr=50.5)\text{CH}_3\text{Cl}
\, (M_r = 50.5)CH3 Cl(Mr =50.5).
 b. Total products: CH3Cl+HCl (Mr=50.5+36.5=87.0)\
text{CH}_3\text{Cl} + \text{HCl} \, (M_r = 50.5 + 36.5
= 87.0)CH3 Cl+HCl(Mr =50.5+36.5=87.0).
Atom Economy=50.587.0×100=58.05%.\text{Atom Economy} = \
frac{50.5}{87.0} \times 100 = 58.05\%.Atom Economy=87.050.5
×100=58.05%.

3. Percentage Yield Calculation:

Given: Theoretical yield=10.0 g,Actual yield=7.5 g.\text{Given:

Theoretical yield} = 10.0 \, \text{g}, \text{Actual yield} = 7.5 \, \
text{g}.Given: Theoretical yield=10.0g,Actual yield=7.5g.
Percentage Yield=7.510.0×100=75.0%.\text{Percentage Yield} =
\frac{7.5}{10.0} \times 100 = 75.0\%.Percentage Yield=10.07.5
×100=75.0%.

Applications

 Balanced Equations: Predict product amounts, identify

limiting reactants.
 Atom Economies: Evaluate sustainability and waste
minimization.
 Percentage Yields: Assess reaction efficiency in industrial
and lab settings.

Summary Points

 Balanced equations ensure mass conservation and

accurate stoichiometry.
 Atom economy assesses how effectively reactants convert
to desired products, important for green chemistry.
 Percentage yield compares experimental efficiency to
theoretical expectations.