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Chapter I

1: Introduction to developmental psychology

Contents
1.1. Definition of developmental psychology and basic concepts in human Development
1.2. Periods and Aspects of human Development
1.3. Scope and rationale for studying of human Development
1.4. Developmental Principles and facts about human development
1.5. Controversial Issues in human Development
1.6. Methods and approaches for studying human development
1.7. Developmental tasks
1.8. Implications

Introduction

This first chapter of the course “Developmental Psychology” devotes itself on the meaning of
basic concepts in human development such as growth, maturation, learning and development. In
doing so, it provides illustrative examples to help you understand and examine the
interrelatedness of these concepts. Before this, it is worthwhile to give place in defining what
developmental psychology is as a field of study of human development. The chapter is also
dealing with the periods and aspects of human development, scope and rationale for studying
human development, the developmental principles and facts about human development,
controversialissues in human development, methods and approaches for studying human
development and developmental tasks expected from individuals in the different stages of
development .

1.1. Definition of Developmental Psychology and Basic Concepts in Human

Development
1) Developmental psychology

Before dealing with the study of Human Development, it seems good to understand the root of
the discipline that studies about human development called “Developmental Psychology”.
Developmental psychology has become one branch of Psychology. Psychology is a field of
study concerned with the study of human and animal behavior, cognitive processes and
emotions. Psychology is the study of overt behavior (activities) and covert behavior (cognitive
processes and emotion /feeling).

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Overt behavior could be observable act of organism that can be recorded, observed and
measured. Examples can be walking, study habit, working on exams, swimming, etc.
Covert behavior as the cognitive processes refers to mental processes such as thinking, learning,
memory, forgetting, sensation, perception, language, etc.
Emotions refer to feelings or affect as part of covert behavior that occur when persons are in a
state or interaction that is important to them. They are characterized by behavior that reflects
(expresses) the pleasantness or unpleasantness of the state a person is in or the transaction being
expressed. Emotions include happiness, sadness, surprise, anger, contempt, etc
Human behavior, thought, and feelings undergo a change on a continuous basis from conception
to death. In appreciation of and in response to this feature, there has come into being a branch of
psychology called Developmental Psychology.

What is Developmental Psychology?

Developmental Psychology as a branch of Psychology is scientifically studies the development
(change) of the human being (both qualitatively and quantitatively) from conception to death.
Developmental psychology is the scientific study of progressive psychological changes that
occur in human beings as they are aging. Originally, concerns have been with infants and
children so that it is often called child development or child psychology. As the study of other
periods of great changes such as adolescence and adults and aging were added, it now
encompasses the entire life span, and is also referred to as Lifespan psychology. This field
examines change across a broad range of topics including: Perceptual motor skills, problem
solving abilities, acquisition of language, moral understanding, and identity formation (Santrock.
1999). Developmental Psychology studies human development or changes from a psychological
perspective. The Qualitative changes (as it was believed in the past) and quantitative changes
such as adding inches to one’s height as a complete process of many structures and functions are
subjects under study.If development represents the continuities and changesof an individual
experiences from “womb to tomb,” the developmental sciences refer to the study of these
phenomena are multidisciplinary enterprises. Although developmental psychology is the largest
of these disciplines, many biologists, sociologists, anthropologists, educators, physicians, and
even historians share an interest in developmental continuity and change and have contributed in
important ways to our understanding of both human and animal development. Because the
science of development is multidisciplinary, we use the term developmentalistto refer to any
scholar—regardless of discipline—who seeks to understand the developmental process.

Developmental psychology studies about the process of pre-and post-natal development of

human life span and behavior. It studies the growth, maturation, and aging process of human
organisms and /or personality as well as the cognitive, physical, social, emotional, moral and
other developmental functions throughout life from conception to death. i.e., it studies all types
of changes in physical, mental, and social functioning that occur throughout life.

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Developmental Psychology is the scientific study of biological, social, and personality

development across the life span and development is progressive changes in behavior and
abilities.Change may be qualitative (different kinds of abilities) or quantitative (different
amounts or levels of an ability).Changes in functioning may be physical (body size & shape;
brain anatomy and physiology, hormones, etc.) or psychological (cognitive or socio-emotional).
Developmental changes are tied to age and are generally permanent. Thus, Developmental
Psychology studies intraindividual changes and interindividual changes within these
intraindividual changes as well as the attitudes, the interests, behaviors and goals of individuals
at the various stages of their development and tries to analyze and explain their differences and
causes. Its task is not only description but also explication of age-related changes in behavior in
terms of antecedent-consequent relationships

Its major emphasis has been on finding out the common and characteristics age-related changes
in appearance, in behavior, in interests and the goals from one development period to another;
when these changes occur; what cause them; and whether they are individual or universal.
Thus, Developmental psychologists are interested in how and why the organism grows and
changes through time, and understand scientifically age-related changes in experience and
behavior. Their task is to discover, describe, and explain how development occurs from its
earliest origins to old age. Some Developmental Psychologists study human development of
some segments /periods of the life span. Others however, study developmental changes covering
the life span from conception to death. The discipline attempts to cover all segments and show
the important developmental changes at different periods in the entire life span period.

In brief, the study of human development is the study of how and why people change over time,
as well as how and why they remain the same. Developmentalists not only want to understand
why human lives unfold as they do, but want to discover how people might live fuller and
happier life, from conception to death, and all kinds of changes from simple growth to radical
transformations in all areas of development. It can also be noted that it gives base for good
adjustments in the later years of life (e.g. adult-hood) depend on how well one has adjusted to the
physical and psychological changes that normally occurred during early age.

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2) Human Development and Related Terms

Psychologists, teachers, and others who deal with children constantly raise the term growth,
maturation, learning and development as way to understand the child's status and to rationalize
practice. So, in the study of developmental psychology, the basic terms /concepts that should be
defined andunderstood are growth, maturation, learning and development. The similarities and
differences among these terms can be explained as follows.

1. Growthrefers all the quantitative changes brought about in the structure and functions of the
human anatomy and physiology. More specifically, it refers to the quantitative changes in size
which include physical changes in height, weight, internal organs, etc. Growth involves changes
in body proportions as well as in overall stature and weight. Thus, the term growth is an
indicative of increase in bodily dimensions of organisms as increase in height, weight, and size.
Growth represents physical (or quantitative) changes such as the toddler’s legs and arms become
longer, the head gets larger, the body increases in weight, the vocabulary gets bigger, etc. But,
the rate of growth differs from one part of the body to the other.
2. Maturation is the unfolding of traits potentially present in the individual considering his/her
hereditaryendowment. It is the sum of the gene effects operating in a self-limited life style. It
doesn’t only refer to change in physical characteristics but also in function, in the capacity to
perform or to behave, which are possible through changes in any part of the organism. It rather
refers to changes that take place in one’s body and behavior because one is getting older, or
because of age .it is genetically programmed, naturally occurring change over time. A one-
month-old baby is incapable of learning to walk because he/she is simply not mature enough, not
old enough to be capable of walking. All humans are biologically programmed to mature at
about the same rate, i.e. it goes through changes at roughly the same time. It represents changes
in behavior that are relatively free from the influence of the environment. These changes are
primarily under the control of heredity and have their own universal timetable as walking,
talking, and sexual maturity at scheduled time for these capabilities..
The phylogenetic functions, i.e., natural capacities common to human races , such as creeping,
sitting, standing, walking, e.t.c. are results of maturation.
3. Learning refers to a relatively permanent change of behavior that occurs in an individual as a
result of experience or practice due to interaction with the environment. The ontogenetic
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functions, i.e., specific skills or capabilities to individual, such as writing, driving, swimming
reading e.t.c. are come out of learning. In order to develop or change, we also need to learn how
to do things. We often talk of learnersare learning the multiplication tables but not developing an
understanding of multiplication. This illustrates that the term learning is often used to refer to
short-term specific gains in knowledge, while development is used to refer to more long-term,
broader changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes and mental states. Learning is the result of
activities or day-to-day experiences of the person her/himself. Maturation and learning
complement one another in the development of an individual.Thus, learningrepresents actual
changes in behavior which are results of practice/experience such as study behavior, listing
behavior, riding a bicycle, etc that result from individual’s environmental experiences or practice
such as teaching.
4. Development indicates a progressive series of changes that occur as a result of growth,
maturation and experience or learning. It refers to the ways people grow, adapt, and change
during their lifetimes. So, developmentincorporates all changes resulted due to growth,
maturation, and learning. It is the total process by which a person adapts to the environment and
involves physical (biological) cognitive, personal, social, moral, etc changes. It is a lifelong
process in growth and capabilities overtime as a function of both maturation and learning (the
organism interaction with the environment). People changes in terms of physical(biological),
personal, social, emotional, cognitive, language, moral and in other aspects of changes as a
whole can be represented by development.It issystematic continuities and changes in the
individual that occur between conception (when the father’s sperm penetrates the mother’s
ovum, creating a new organism) and death. By describing changes as “systematic”, we imply
that they are orderly, patterned, and relatively enduringso that temporary mood swings and other
transitory changes in our appearances, thoughts, and behaviors are therefore excluded. We are
also interested in “continuities” in development, or ways in which we remain the same or
continue to reflect our past.

Development is the pattern of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional changes that begins at
conception and continues through the life span. Change, in whatever form, always involves two
processes:maturation and learning. These two processes (maturation and learning) go hand in
hand in development. Example: To play football, one needs a certain level of physical
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maturation (to be able to run and kick a ball) and to learn the skills by practicing (i.e. one is
influenced by the environment in which he/she live. The skills to play the ball don’t just
happen).So, to change from someone who can’t play football to someone who does, one needs to
have sufficient physical maturity and he/she needs to learn the rules, and practice the skills you
learn.

As an individual develops, old features like baby fat, hair and teeth, etc., disappear and new
features like facial hair etc. are acquired. When maturity comes, the second set of teeth, primary
and secondary sex characteristics, etc., appear. Similar changes occur in all aspects of the
personality. During babyhood (first two years of life) and early childhood (two to six years), the
body steadily becomes larger, taller and heavier. Each individual, with her/his unique heredity
and the way he/she is nurtured, determines the way he/she traverses the broad highway of his/her
life at his/her rate of progress. He/she will attain the size, shape, capacities and developmental
status in a way which is peculiar to her/him at each stage of life. Most of our attributes (qualities
or features) are a combination of all of these processes: maturation, learning, growth and then
development.
In summary, human being is never static. From conception to death he/she undergoes changes
due to growth, maturity, and learning. Human development involves changes. The changesoccur
at various stages of development and the development pattern at each stage has predictable
characteristics. Development is a product of growth, maturity and learning. Maturity is more or
less automatic, unfolding biological potential. It is an irreversible sequence and entails biological
changes. Such changes are relatively independent of environmental factors as long as
environmental factors remain normal. There is a more or less permanent change in human
behavior from the individual's experience in the environment. Learning occurs across the entire
life span. It differs from maturity. However, learning depends on theprocess of maturing i.e.
individual readiness (mental and physical) for certain activities. Generally, growth, maturation,
and learning are changes seen in organism and mutually contribute for development of
individual.

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1.2. Periods and Aspects of Human Development

1) Periods of human Development
For the purpose of organizing and understanding, psychologists commonly describe development
in terms of periods. Each brings new capacities and social expectations that serve as important
transitions. Based on chronological age, the life span of human being is usually sub-divided into
stages/periods. The stages of development are characterized by certain behavioral and/or
developmental characteristics. Each individual goes through a succession of developmental
stages though at different rates and slightly at different ages.

Now a days, the division on the stages basing on chronological age is only a rough index of
biological, psychological, sociological & cultural aging process, it is customary to divided the
life span of human being development in to the following stages & sub-stages.

Name of the Stages Approximate age – range of the stages

A. Prenatal period - - - Extends from conception to birth
Ovum/zygote - - - extends from 0 to 2 week
Embryo --- extends from 2 week to 2 month
Fetus --- extends from 2 months to birth
B. Postnatal period - - - Extends from birth onwards
In fancy extends from birth to 2 week
-Partunate extends from the cutting of cord
-Neonate extends from cutting of card to 2 week
Baby hood extends from 2 week to 2 year
Early childhood extends from 2 year to 6 year
Late childhood extends from 6 year to 12 year
Puberty extends from 12 year to 13/14 year
Adolescence extends from 13/14 year to 18 year
Early adulthood extends from 18 year to 40 year
Middle age extends from 40 year to 60 year
Old age/senescence extends from 60 year to death
Each stage/period is characterized by certain developmental and behavioral patterns or
characteristics. Individuals are not reaching these stages at same time .Each stage has problems
to be solved before the individual’s progress to the next stage. Failure to do so results in
immaturity & poor adjustments. Thus, the periods of human development can be studied
dividing broadly into prenatal and postnatal stages. The prenatal stage ( development before
birth) can further be divided in to three sub-periods(zygote, embryo, and fetal periods) and
postnatal stage of development (development after birth) is further divided into nine
periods(infancy, babyhood, early childhood , late childhood, puberty, adolescence, early
adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood periods).

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2) Aspects of human Development

Human development is not a matter of a single topic, but progresses of different aspects of
changes in the individual. There are different aspects of development. Some of them are
physical, intellectual, personality and social developments that can be seen at each stage of
life.

1. Physical development is concerned with changes in body structure and size and the
functions of the different body parts. The Changes in the body, the brain, sensory capacities,
and motor skills are all part of physical development. They exert a major influence on both
intellectual and personality characteristics. For example, much of an infant’s knowledge of
the world comes from the senses and from motor activity. A child who has a hearing loss is
at a risk of delayed language development. In late childhood, physical changes in the brain
can result in intellectual and personality deterioration.
2. Cognitive /Intellectual development is concerned with the origins and acquisition of
thought and language. It refers to changes in mental abilities and functioning. It includes
such important abilities as learning to read and write. The Changes in mental abilities;
such as learning, memory, reasoning, thinking, and language, are aspects of intellectual
development. These changes are closely related to both motor and emotional development.
A body’s growing memory, for example, is related to separation anxiety, the fear that the
mother will not return once she has gone away. Cognitive/Intellectual development is
change in the capacity to learn, remember, and symbolizeinformation, and to solve
problems, exists at a simple level in young infants, who can perform cognitive tasks such as
discriminating animate and inanimate beings or recognizing small numbers of objects.
During childhood, learning and information-processing increase in speed, memory becomes
increasingly longer, and symbol use and the capacity for abstraction develop until a near-
adult level is reached by adolescence.
3. Psych-social development involves social emotional and personality development:
i) Social development is concerned with changes informing relations with other persons.
Itrefers to the integration of the individual into the social world, and explaining, for
example, how the individual child acquires the values of the family and the wider society.
ii) Emotional development is concerned with changes in emotional reactions/feelings of
individual to ethers persons.
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Additional aspects of development to which developmental psychologists devote special

attention that go with changes in the physical, cognitive, and psycho-social aspects of
development could be personality, moral, gender (sex-role), motor, and language development.

4. Personalitydevelopment refers to changes in the unique way in which each person deals with
the world, express emotions, etc. making a person different from others. Personality development
and social development (relationships with others) with emotional changes affect both the
cognitive and physical aspects of functioning. For example, anxiety about taking a test can
impair performance; and social support from friends helps people cope with the negative effects
of stress on their physical and mental health. In turn, physical and intellectual aspects affect
social development.

5. Moral development is concerned with changes in knowing, differentiating and reasoning

about “rights” and “wrong” things that are accepted as correct or incorrect in a given society
6.Gender, or sex-role, development refers to the process through which children learn that they
belong to one of the two sexes and acquire knowledge of the behaviors and attitudes associated,
in their culture, with being, feminineness or muscular.
7.Motor development refers to changes in abilities for physical movement through life from
the largely reflexive (unlearned, involuntary) movement patterns of the young infant to the
highly skilled voluntary movement characteristic of later childhood and adolescence. (Of course,
older children and adolescents retain some reflex movements in addition to developing voluntary
movement.)

8. Language Developmentrefers to changes in the usage of different elements of language.

In addition to acquiring a large spoken vocabulary, there are four main areas in which the child
must attain competence, regardless of the language or dialect spoken. These are referred to as
phonology or sounds, semantics or the encoded meanings, syntax or the way in which words are
combined and pragmatics or knowledge of how language is used in different contexts.

In summary, there are various aspects of human development. A person shows development/
changes in the physicalincluding motor, cognitive/intellectual including language , psycho-
social ( social, -emotional, personality), moral , and gender development. Understanding these
all aspects of development in terms of what develops, its pattern, its mechanisms, and the
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inherent individual and population difference in developing these aspects is of paramount

importance in devising effective child support mechanisms in schools at class room level and at
home and other places .

In the subsequent chapters of the course developmental psychology, it will be tried to examine
modern approaches to human development at various developmental stages of individuals
focusing on physical, intellectual social, emotional, moral etc. aspects of development.

1.3. Scope and rationale for studying of human Development

1) Scopes of human developmental psychology

The Scope of developmental psychology implies the range of areas that the subject covers to
study. This shows the objectives that should be achieved by studying developmental psychology.
Nowadays studying about all types of changes (i.e., growth and decline) from conception to
death, developmental psychology has about six major focuses or areas of study (i.e.major
objectives).

The major areas of study for developmental psychology are: 1) Common and characteristic age
changes in appearance, behavior, interests, goals of developmental period etc.2) Time for the
occurrence of the changes.3) causes for the changes,4) ways the changes influence behavior, 5)
predictability of the changes, and 6) Uniqueness or universality nature of changes.

Thus, developmental psychologists have engaged on the study of the common & characteristic
age changes, the time for the occurrence, the causes, the predictability, and uniqueness or
universal nature of the changes.

The scope of human development can be represented by its goals or tasks. So, the goals of
Studying human d Development can be understood by understanding the scope and rationale of
developmental psychology.Ultimately, there are various goals to be achieved by studying human
development. Vasta et al. (1998) indicated the following goals of studying humandevelopment.

To understand the complexities of human nature and the processes and conditions under
which human beings, from prenatal development into adulthood and beyond, learn to

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become mature human beings who fulfill their individual potential, live in service to
their community, and exercise loving stewardship over the environment.
To describe the behavior at each point in the person's development—such as
determining the age that babies begin to walk, the social skills of four year olds, and so
forth.
To identify the causal factors involved in producing changes in behavior—such as the
importance of genetic or biological factors, the role of various experiences, and the
influence of peers, parents, and others.
To describe, explain, predict, and modify development and developmental tasks.
To gain deep knowledge of the complex interaction among developmental domains and
the role of environmental factors.
To better identify, interpret, and respond to individual differences
To respond effectively to the needs, challenges, and capacities of children and their
families, helping them get the best start in life.
To devise effective support mechanisms in schools and classrooms and other places .
3) The Rationales for studying developmental psychology
The rationale for studying development shows the fundamental reason or incentives that initiate
developmental psychologists to study the subject matter of the discipline, i.e., age – related
changes in behavior/experience or developmental changes.There are at least five
reasons/incentives for studying developmental changes.

1. The existence of traditional beliefs about changes. Beliefs / customs or feelings have
acted as spur to researchers to prove or disprove them.
2. The practical problems bright by developmental changes. To solve problems associated
with developmental changes, psychologists motivate to study developmental changes.
3. The desire to prove or disprove theories of developmental changes. Recently, theories
about causes & effects of developmental changes result in the spurt of research in the
area. This is to substantiate or refute the theories with evidence.
4. The attempt to determine the relative importance of nature & nurture influence on
developmental changes. Controversy on nature –nurture influence on development acts

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as incentives to research .this is to find satisfactory solutions as to the role of genetic and
environmental pressure on development.
5. The desire to substantiate material accumulated from research or from practical
experience.

1.4. Developmental Principles and facts about human development

1) Developmental Principles
Child development is characterized by basic principles and basic facts or truth. The basic
guiding principles of human development that gives direction to growth before and after birth
are: the cephalocaudal principle, the Proximodistal principle, and the mass -to-specific principle,
and locomotion. So, development occurs following these guiding principles. As a result, it
follows definite, predictable and consistent pattern.

1. Cephalocaudal sequence (head to tail): This principle of development as one of the

underlying principle in development statesthatdevelopmentof body structure and functions
proceeds from the head (Cephalo) to the tail (caudal) region. It states that the direction of human
development is from top-to-bottom. The Cephalocaudal principle largely explains that
development begins at the head region and proceeds downward to the trunk and feet regions. E.g.
A fetus head is well- developed before his/her legs assume their final form.

2.Proximodistal sequence (Near to far): This principle of development states that development
proceeds outward from the central axis of the body to the extremities. The Proximodistal
principle, as the second underlying principle of human development, states that direction of
development proceeds from trunk to the peripheral body areas. The principles states that organs
near the center of the organism develop faster than those which are found at the peripheral body
areas.E.g. the lungs and heart develop before the hand/fingers; general words are learnt before
specific words, etc.

3. Mass- to- specific principles: This principle of development as third human developmental
principle, indicates that development progresses from Simple to Complex, broad to fine ,
general to specific, Involuntary to voluntary , and Undifferentiated to differentiated aspects
of development . For instance, in the embryo and later on in the new born infant, many of the
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early behaviors are massive in approach.When the neonate cries, the whole body moves together,
but with further growth the movement become specific and fine. It seems that the infants at the
beginning cries with the whole body including the face, the arms and the less, but later on as
thechild grows, this muscular development becomes very specific. So,controlling the fine
muscles follows the controlling of larger muscles in movement development (muscular). Earlier
behaviors are massive but later behavior becomes more and more specific & fine. In all aspects
of development, development has proceeds in an orderly direction following these three
principles.

4. Locomotion: Besides, locomotion develops in a sequence in all infants of different culture of

the world in same pattern. The sequence is creeping, crawling, sitting, standing and walking.
Every infant passes through these stages. So, this can be considered as fourth principle of human
development

2) Significant basic facts about development

In addition to the three general principles and the fourth principle mentioned above, certain
fundamental and predictable characteristics (facts or truths)n must be taken in to consideration in
order to understand the pattern of human development. Each of these facts has important
implications in understanding and explaining behavior. The characteristics have originated from
scientific knowledge gathered through observation. The characteristics have important
implications in helping parents; teachers and other professionals understood development &
explain behavior of children and individuals. Even though different developmental psychologists
state different but interrelated sets of facts for human development, here, we will see some of the
significant facts in human development that help us understand the patterns of development.
They are listed below.
1. Development of early foundations is critical
2. Development is the result of maturation & learning
3. Development follows orderly pattern
4. Development is unique//differential for all individuals
5. Development is a continuous process
6. Development is a sequential process

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7. Development is an inter-related or interpolated process

8. Development is the cumulative effect of growth & experience
9. Development of each phase has associated with certain characteristic traits or behavior
that are marked by periods of equilibrium & disequilibrium.
10. Development of each phase involves hazards
11. Development is aided by stimulation
12. Development is affected by cultural changes – standards & ideals of the society
13. Development of every stage is associated with social expectations, i.e., developmental
tasks.
Now let us explain a few of the facts of development that are listed above.

1. Development of early foundations is critical

What can you understand from a proverb that says “the child is the father of man?”

This proverb clearly indicates that early childhood experiences are important in predicting later
adult personality. For instance, children who do not receive enough emotional care may show
abnormal behavior patterns that limit later social and environmental functioning. Moreover,
attitudes, habits, and patterns of behavior established during the early years determine to a large
extent how successfully individuals will adjust to life, as they grow older. Because early
foundations are likely to be persistent, it is important that they be of the kind that will lead to
good personal and social adjustments, as the individual grows older.

Many child psychologists have said that the preschool years (from 2 to 5 years) are among the
most important of all the stages of development, for it is unquestionably the period during which
the foundation is laid for the complex behavior structures that are built in a child’s lifetime
(Hurlock, 1980). Hurlock goes on further to contend that the foundations laid during the first
two years of life are most critical. According to Hurlock, the origins of human competence are to
be found in a critical period of time between eight and eighteen months. She further explained
that the child’s experiences during this time of lifespan do more to determine further competence
than at any time before or after. Erikson also claims that babyhood is the period when individuals
learn general attitudes of trust and mistrust, depending on how parents gratify their child’s needs

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for food, attention, and love. These attitudes, he maintains, remain more or less persistent
throughout life and color the individual’s perception of people and situations.

Early patterns do tend to persist but that does not necessarily mean that they are unchangeable.
This means early behavioral patterns can be changed under certain conditions. There are three
conditions under which change is likely to occur.

First, change may come about when the individual receives help and guidance in making the
change. Some parents, for example, may succeed in training a child to use the right hand in
preference to the left. This implies stimulation can modify and change early childhood
experience.

Second, change is likely to occur when significant people treat individuals in new and different
ways. Children who have been trained to believe that they should be “seen but not heard” can be
encouraged to express themselves more freely by a teacher who makes them feel that they have
something to contribute to the group.

A third condition that makes change exists when there is a strong motivation on the part of
individuals themselves to make the change. When behavior is rewarded by social approval, there
is little motivation to make a change. When, on the other hand, behavior meets with social
disapproval, there will be a strong motivation to change. Knowing that early foundations tend to
persist enablesto predict with a fair degree of accuracy what a child’s future development is
likely to be. For example, a quiet, introverted child is not likely to develop into a sociable,
extroverted one. Similarly, a child who has little interest in school activities is not likely to
develop in a school or a good school citizen (Hurlock: 1980).

2. Development is the product of maturation/heredity and learning /environment

Development is the result of the interactions between hereditary endowment and social, cultural
and physical forces of the environment.When the environment limits opportunities for learning;
children will be unable to reach their hereditary potentials.
Maturation and learning play an interactive role in development of human being. Maturation
refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and changes. The biological changes
occur in sequential order and give children new abilities. Changes in the brain and nervous
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system account largely for maturation. These changes in the brain and nervous system help
children to improve in thinking (cognitive) and motor (physical) skills. Also, children must
mature to a certain point before they can progress to new skills (readiness). For example, a four-
month-old cannot use language because the infant's brain has not matured enough to allow the
child to talk. By two years, the brain has developed further and with help from others, the child
will have the capacity to say and understand words. Also, a child can't write or draw until she/he
has developed the motor control to hold a pencil or crayon. Maturational patterns are innate, that
is, genetically programmed. The child's environment and the learning that occurs as a result of
the child's experiences largely determine whether the child will reach optimal development. A
stimulating environment and varied experiences allow a child to develop to his or her potential.
What decisive roles do maturation and learning play in behavior?

This truth will look at the role played by maturation and learning in development. As we have
seen, maturation is a change in behavior due to the genetic or the aging process. In phylogenetic
functions – functions which are common to the human race, such as creeping, sitting, and
walking – development comes from maturation.

On the other hand, learning is a development that comes from exercises and efforts on the
individual’s part. In ontogenetic functions (functions that are specific to the individual) such as
writing, driving a car, swimming, learning in the form of training is essential. Without it
development would never take place (Hurlock, 1980).

Some behaviors result from the interrelationship of maturation and learning. Three important
facts emerge from our present knowledge of the interrelationship of maturation and learning as
the cause of development.

First, because human beings are capable of learning, variation is possible. Individual differences
in personality, attitude, interest, and patterns of behavior come not from maturation alone but
from maturation and learning.

Second, maturation sets limits beyond which development cannot progress even with the most
favorable learning and the strongest motivation on the part of the learner. Failure may result from
either genetic or environmental factors that reduce the genetic potential for development.
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Third, there is a definite “time table” for learning. The individual cannot learn until ready.
Developmental readiness”, or “readiness to learn”, determines the moment when learning can
andshould take place (Hurlock, 1982).

3. Development follows orderly (a definite and predictable) pattern:

Development follows an orderly sequence in all human beings and show high degree of
similarity in the order in which various development appear.There are orderly patterns of
physical, motor, speech, and intellectual development. For instance, the pattern of physical and
motor development that is shown in figure-3 follows the laws of developmental direction, which
hold that development proceeds from head to foot and from trunk to extremities.Unless
environmental conditions prevent it, development will follow a pattern similar for all. Babies
creep and crawl; for example, before they walk and interest in the opposite sex appears only
when pubertal changes have taken place (Hurlock, 1980). There is no evidence that individuals
have their own individual patterns of development, though there is evidence that the rate of
development varies from individual to individual.

As to the Sequentiality of development, most psychologists agree that development is sequential

or orderly. Every species, whether animal or human, follows a pattern of development peculiar to
it. This pattern in general is the same for all individuals. In prenatal development there is a
genetic sequence, appearing at fixed intervals with certain characteristics. Social and behavioral
scientists increasingly have come to see development as a relationship between organism and
environment in a transaction or collaboration. Individuals work with and affect their
environment, and in turn the environment works with and affects them.The directional sequence
of development during both prenatal and postnatal stages may either be (i) from head to feet or
(ii) from the central axisto the extremities of the body. All children follow a development pattern
with one stage leading to the next. Infants stand before they walk; draw circles before they make
squares. Even though development is continuous, there is evidence that at different ages certain
characteristics stand out more visibly than others. Since development is continuous, what
happens at one stage influences the following stages.
4. Development is unique/ differential for all individuals.

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All individuals develop in their own way each child has his/her own rate of physical, mental,
emotional and social development. For example if you observe six- year old children’s, you find
great differences in their height, weight, social, emotional and learning readiness. Development
is an individualized process in that the all individuals are different.

So, what accounts for the existence of individual differences?

Every person is indeed biologically and generally different from everyone, even is the case of
identical twins (Hurlock, 1980). Similarly, every individual might have different environmental
experiences. Therefore, people differ in their physical, intellectual and psychological make-up.
And there is evidence that these individual differences increase rather than decrease as children
go from childhood to adolescence and eventually to old age. This implies that individual
differences among people increase with age.

As all individuals are different, no two people can be expected to react in the same manner to the
same environmental stimuli. Timid children react differently than aggressive ones, and those
who are easy-going are not as upset by family moves as are those who are shy and sensitive.
Moreover, one can never predict with accuracy how people will react to a situation, even when
there is ample information about their inherited abilities and even when it is known how the
average person behaves in similar situations. Nor should one expect the same achievement from
people of the same age and intellectual development. Children of the same chronological age, for
example, will not necessarily be ready to read or do other types of school work at the same time.
And finally, individual differences are significant because they are responsible for individuality
in personality makeup. Not only does individuality make people interesting, but it also makes
social progress possible.

The tempo of development is not even. Individuals differ in the rate of growth and development.
Boys and girls have different development rates. Each part of the body has its own particular rate
of growth. Development does not occur at an even pace. There are periods of great intensity and
equilibrium and there are periods of imbalance. Development achieves a plateau and this may
occur at any level or between levels. Developmental changes do not always go forward in a
straight line. While the development of different physical and mental traits is continuous, it is

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never uniform. Since the body has to attain its adult proportions, inequalities in rates occur. The
feet, hands and nose, for example, reach maximum development early in adolescence, while the
lower part of the face and the shoulders develop more slowly. Mental abilities like verbal,
numerical, spatial, etc. develop at different ages. Creative imagination develops rapidly in
childhood and reaches its peak in early adolescence. Reasoning develops slowly. Rote memory
and memory for concrete objects and facts develop more quickly than memory for the abstract.
The point that you should remember here is that all these changes in individuals are not
uniform.These changes occur at different rates.
5. Development is a continuous process

Development is a continuous process starts from conception/fertilization periods to attainment of

potential to perform physical and mental activities in a manner of normal adult.

Continuity: Development is a continuous process from conception to death. In the early years of
life, development consists of changes that lead the child to maturity not only of body size and
functioning, but also of behavior.
Even after maturity has been attained, development doesn’t end. Changes continue which lead to
the period of life known as old age. These changes continue until death ends the life cycle.

6. Development is the cumulative effect of growth & experience

The Principle of cumulative development indicates that changes do not come all of a sudden.
Each change is the culmination of the previous growth and experience. Development is
cumulative interaction or correlated, that means various changes are not mutually exclusive or
independent, but are rather interactive. What happen in one aspect of development affects what is
going to happen in another aspect of developments.

7. Development is an inter-related or interpolated process

The Principle of Inter-related development indicates that the various dimensions of development
are interrelated one another. This means that all aspects of development, i.e., mental, physical,
social, emotional, moral & psychological development are interpolated or interrelated. When one
develops physical he/she develops mentally, socially, morally etc, and vice versa.

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8. Development of each phase hasassociated with certain characteristic traits/behaviorthat

is marked by periods of equilibrium and dis equilibrium

The patterns are marked by period of: equilibrium, and disequilibrium. The period of
equilibrium usually occurs when individuals adapt easily to environmental demands, and, as a
result, make good personal and social adjustments. On the contrary, the period of disequilibrium
occurs when individuals experience difficulties in adaptation and, as a result, make poor personal
and social adjustments.

Do these two patterns of behavior exist simultaneously (at the same time)?

While it is unquestionably true that some stages of growing up are marked by more difficult
behavior than others, there is no stage when the characteristics behavior is not “problem
behavior” if it is judged by adult standards. Only when an individual’s behavior is atypical
(abnormal) for a particular age and leads to poor adjustments may it be considered problem
behavior. In most instances, behavior such as that is characteristic of an earlier age level.

Many of these difficult, unsocial, and deviant forms of behavior which appear at different times
during the growing up years will gradually disappear, being replaced by other forms of behavior
that is still as difficult and unsocial as the ones that have been outgrown (Hurlock, 1980).

However, it is never safe to assume that all difficult behaviors will disappear, as the child grows
older. Such behavior may be a warning of possible future trouble and should not be ignored.

Even more important, so-called “problem-behavior” does not automatically disappear when
children reach legal maturity. In fact, at every age during the adult years, there are persons of
equilibrium and disequilibrium, some of which are physical in origin, and some of which are
environmental or are carry-overs of behavior characteristics of earlier stages. For example, the
needless dependency and helplessness of some older people may readily be a carry-over of
dependency developed during the earlier years of life. And the emotional disequilibrium of some
women experience during menopause may be a carry-over of childish ways of reacting to
physical discomforts (Hurlock, 1980).

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9. Development of each phase involves hazards

What are the causes of these hazards?

There is ample evidence that each period in the life span of an individual has associated with it
certain developmental hazards which could be physical, psychological or environmental in
origin. Thedevelopmental hazards inevitably involve adjustment problems at any period in the
life span of an individualeither directly or indirectly.

What are the social, psychological and educational implications of these hazards?

It is essential that persons who are in charge of the training of children be aware of the hazards
commonly associated with each period in the life span. Such awareness may make it possible to
prevent or to at least alleviate these potential hazards. This is true also of the later years,
especially middle and old age. This awareness is important because the way in which people
cope with those hazards has a great effect on their personal and social adjustments.

10. Development is aided by stimulation

What is stimulation? How stimulation does influenced development?

For our purpose, the term stimulation refers to the process of causing somebody to become
more active or to grow faster. While most development will occur as a result of maturation and
environmental experiences, much can be done to aid development so that it will reach its full
potential. This can be done by stimulating development through directly encouraging the
individual to use an ability which is in the process of developing. It has been found that
stimulation is especially effective at the time when an ability is normally is normally developing,
through it is important at all times.

Studies of the elderly have related that stimulation keeps at a distance physical and mental
decline. Those who remain active physically and mentally in old age show far less physical and
mental deterioration than do those who become so inactive that their physical and mental
capacities receive little or no stimulation.

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11. Development is affected by cultural changes

How do changes in culture influence development?

For the fact that an individual’s development is molded to conform to cultural standards and
ideals of the society, changes in these standards affect the developmental pattern. For example,
in the past, standards for patterns of behavior for boys were distinctly different, in most respects,
from those considered appropriate for girls. Parents and teachers know they were expected to
mold children’s behavior to conform to the approved standards. Today, with some adults
favoring the traditional sex-roles and others the egalitarian sex-roles, parents and teachers are
often at a loss to know what cultural pattern to use as a standard.

When adults decide that a relaxed and pleasant life-style is more rewarding than just the
accumulation of money, and when this cultural value wins the stamp of approval of the social
group with which they are identified, this has a marked influence on the pattern of development
of interests and behavior of their children throughout the lives. Furthermore, children brought-up
in a one-parent home learn to conform to the culturally approved standard of behavior for such
homes-standards that differ in many respects from those of two parent homes (Hurlock, 1980).

12. Development of everystage isassociated by social-expectations(developmental tasks)

What is meant by social expectation?

Every cultural group expects its members to master certain essential skills and acquire certain
approved patterns of behavior at various ages during the lifespan. Havighurst has labeled these
social expectations developmental tasks, which will be discussed in detail in the next section of
this unit.

13. The developmentof people at all ages is affected by Traditional beliefs.

What are traditional beliefs?

The traditional beliefs about the physical and psychological characteristics of individuals affect
the judgments of others as well as their self-evaluation. In our culture stereotypes relating to old
age can lead to unfavorable treatment of people in the later years of their lives. Acceptance of

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these stereotypes by those who are going old is responsible for much unhappiness during old age
and also is an important factor in physical and mental decline.

In spite of the growing evidence from scientific studies that contradict many of those stereotypes
and traditional beliefs, the majority of them persist. This is especially true of the traditional
beliefs about sex-differences and the cultural stereotypes of males and females at all ages. So
long as they persist, they have a profound influence on the developmental pattern.

To sum up the above, there are numerous facts about child development. Criticality of early
development , sequentially, differentiality, and continuity , the role played by maturation and
learning are some of them . This signals that teachers needs to understand the implications of this
principles in developing classroom instruction, in adapting textbooks and promoting child
welfare. A school teacher needs to keep in mind these facts in devising effective child support
mechanisms to assist the child to develop physically, cognitively, socio-emotionally,
linguistically and etc.

1.5. Controversial Issues in human Development

There are some major controversies that have been debated since the study of development
began among developmentalists. Developmental psychologists often find themselves on one
side, or another side of the issues. Some of the controversial /debating issues include: Nature
versus Nurture, Continuity versus Discontinuity, Stability versus Plasticity, Passive versus
Active Individual, Endpoint versus No End Point, and so forth. We shall see the three major
controversies in detail below.
1. Nature versus Nurture:
The central dispute in the study of human development is the nature-nurture controversy. It is a
continuing debate over whether the individual’s various characteristic traits are influenced more
by inborn factors or by experience (i.e. environmental factors). It is dealing with the role of
genes(nature) and environment (nurture) in determining development /behavior. It involves
around the question “which factor(nature and nurture)has more impact on development?”
Nature refers to the range of traits, capacities and limitations that each person inherits
genetically from his/her parents at the moment of conception. Traits, capacities, limitations such
as body type, eye color, inherited diseases, athletic ability, memory and so forth can be instances.
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Nurture refers to all environmental influences that come into play after conception, beginning
with the mother’s health during pregnancy and running through all one’s experiences with and
learning in the outside world: the family, school, and the culture at large.
The controversy about nature and nurture has taken on many names, among them are heredity
versus environment or maturation versus learning.
Under whatever name it is represented, however, the basic question remains: How much of a
person’s characteristics behavior and development is determined by his or her genes, and how
much is the result of the myriad experiences and influences that occur after conception. Note that
the question remains “how much?” not “which one?”
All developmentalists agree that both nature and nurture are essential to development and that
the interaction between nature and nurture is the critical influence on any particular individual.
Yet, recent writings show that about 50 percent of human development is a result of genetic or
inheritance, about 20-35 percent is of environmental experience and the remaining 15-30 percent
a result of the interaction of both nature and nurture.
2. Continuity versus Discontinuity:
This controversy asks readers how they would describe human growth. Would you say that
humans develop gradually and continually, the way a seedling becomes a tree? Or do you think
we undergo sudden changes, like caterpillar becoming a butterfly? Further how much stability is
typical of human development, from the beginning of life to end?
Continuity: Many developmental Psychologists emphasize continuity and stability. They
believe that, when change occurs, it is usually quite gradual and often more a matter of form
rather than a substance. Each new event or change builds upon earlier experiences in an orderly
way. Changes that may seem abrupt such as a baby’s first step, or a child’s learning to talk or
read, or an adult’s taking on the role of a parent or grandparent can actually be seen as the
culmination of a long process rather than a sudden shift. This points out the consistencies,
irregularities, real and complexity adding features.
Discontinuity: These developmentalists see change, including age-related periods of rapid and
radical changes as typical of the human life. In the first twenty years of life, many such changes
are biologically based, occurring in identifiable stages, each with distinct characteristics and
challenges. The discontinuity view of development has dominated developmental Psychology in

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the twentieth century. Prominent psychologists of this view include: S. Freud, J. Piaget, and E.
Erickson.
This course, as depicted from the course outline, seems to reflect a discontinuity position; the
seven distinct periods from infancy to adulthood can substantiate it. This is so for simplicity of
learning. In addition, physical maturation occurs according to a biologically determined time
table; children share age related patterns in the way they think about their world and about
themselves; People’s lives often seem to run according to “age- appropriateness.”

3. Stabilityversus Change/plasticity:
This issue addresses whether human development is best described by stability or change. It
involves the degree to which we become older renditions of our early experience (stability) or
whether we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in
development. Until fairly recently the predominant belief for many years was that nothing
much changes appear in adulthood. The major changes were believed to take place in
childhood, especially during the first five years of life. Today most developmetalists conclude
that some change is possible throughout the human life span, although they disagree about just
how much change can take place, and how much stability there is. An important dimension of
this issue is the extent to which early experiences (especially in infancy) or later experiences
determine a person’s development. That is if infant’s experience negative, stressful
circumstances in their lives, can the effects of those experiences be counteracted by later, more
positive experiences? Or are the early experiences so critical, possibly because they are the
infant’s first prototypical experiences, that they cannot be overridden by an enriched
environment later in development.
4) Passive versus Active in development
The issue is another area of dispute among educators as to human development. It revolves
around the question that says “is development active or passive?” Or “are people active or
passive in their development?”
This controversy goes back to the 18th century when the English philosopher John Locke held
that a young child is tabula rasa–“black slate”– on which society writes something. In contrast to
this, French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau believed that children are born “noble

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savages” who develop according to their own positive natural tendencies unless corrupted by a
repressive society. We know that both views are too simplistic. Children have their own internal
drives and needs, as well as heredity endowments, that influence development; but, they are also
social animals who cannot achieve optimal development in isolation.
Other than the above mentioned four major controversies, there are other issues as End point
versus No end point; Description versus Process; Situational Influence versus Cultural
Relativism; Basic Research versus Application of knowledge.

1.6. Research Methods and approaches for studying human development

To conduct study about developmental events, ithas been necessary to select appropriate research
method and design of research approaches.
1) Basic Methods in studying Human Development

Modern developmental psychology is appropriately labeled a scientific enterprise because

those who study development have adopted the scientific method, which guides their
attempts at understanding. There is nothing mysterious about the scientific method. It
refers to the use of objective and replicable methods to gather data for the purpose of
testing a theory or hypothesis. By objective we mean that everyone who examines the data
will come to the same conclusions, that is, it is not a subjective opinion. By replicable we
mean that every time the method is used, it results in the same data and conclusions. Thus,
the scientific method dictates that, above all, investigators must be objective and must
allow their data to decide the merits of their thinking (Shaffer, &Kipp, 2010, p.9).
Using those scientific methods, developmentalists collect data, test theories/hypothesis,
generate ideas, draw conclusions, and transfer knowledge about development. With this, we
proceed to a discussion of the research methods one by one.

The methods that researchers use to gather information about developing persons taking relevant
aspects and knowledge on human development include strategies as survey of self-report,
systematic observation methods , case studies, experimental methods , correlational
methods, ethnography, and psycho-physiological methods.
Some of the major methods that are used in developmental research include: observation
methods, experimental methods, correctional method, and case-study method.
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I. Survey of the Self-Report Methods.Three common procedures that developmentalists use to

gather information and test hypotheses are interviews, questionnaires (including psychological
tests), and the clinical method (Shaffer, &Kipp, 2010).
Interviews and Questionnaires.Researchers who opt for interview or questionnaire techniques
will ask the child, or the child’s parents, a series of questions pertaining to such aspects of
development as the child’s behavior, feelings, beliefs, or characteristic methods of thinking.
Collecting data via a questionnaire (and most psychological tests) simply involves putting
questions on paper and asking participants to respond to them in writing, whereas interviews
require participants to respond orally to the investigator’s queries. If the procedure is a
structured interview or structured questionnaire, all who participate in the study are asked
the same questions in the same order. The purpose of this standardized or structured format is to
treat each person alike so the responses of different participants can be compared.
The Clinical Method: The clinical method is very similar to the interview technique but come
under case studies. The investigator is usually interested in testing a hypothesis by presenting
the research participant with a task or stimulus of some sort and then inviting a response. After
the participant responds, the investigator typically asks a second question or introduces a new
task to clarify the participant’s original answer. Although participants are often asked the same
questions initially, each participant’s answer determines what he or she is asked next. Thus, the
clinical method is a flexible approach that considers each participant to be unique.

II. Methods of observation include simply diary records, Observation in natural setting, and
Laboratory observation. In observational Methods, researchers often prefer to observe people’s
behavior directly rather than asking them questions about it. One method that many
developmentalists favor is naturalistic observation—observing people in their common,
everyday (i.e., natural) surroundings. To observe children, this usually means going into homes,
schools, or public parks and playgrounds and carefully recording what they do. Rarely will
investigators try to record every event that occurs; they are usually testing a specific hypothesis
about one type of behavior, such as cooperation or aggression, and will focus their attention and
data collection exclusively on acts of this kind. One strength of naturalistic observation is the
ease with which it can be applied to infants and toddlers, who often cannot be studied through

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methods that demand verbal skills. A second strength of naturalistic observation is that it
illustrates how people actually behave in everyday life.

III. Experimental Methods involves the manipulation of smith (the independent variable) and
measurement of the effect of manipulating on some form of behavior/ development (the
dependant variables) keeping constant other conditions to see the relationship between the 2
variables.

iii. Case Studies: As the name itself implies, it studies an individual or specific group in detail.
Any or all of the methods we have discussed—structured interviews, questionnaires, clinical
methods, and behavioral observations—can be used to compile a detailed portrait of a single
individual’s development through the case study method. In preparing an individualized record,
or “case,” the investigator typically seeks many kinds of information about the participant, such
as his or her family background, socioeconomic status, health records, academic or work history,
and performance on psychological tests. Much of the information included in any case history
comes from interviews with and observations of the individual, although the questions asked and
observations made are typically not standardized and may vary considerably from case to case.
Thus, the Case study method involves detailed investigation of one subject in a clinic or as
biography record of the subject in that carefully observing recording, interviewing &
interviewing in the subject.
Case study can be combined to experimental methods in the single subject experimental design
(ABAB) in which the combined application of experimental method and case should focused on
a single individual.
Here, careful measurement is followed by intervention and some manipulate to modify behavior
and then return to the condition of the 1st period, and finally to reintroduction of the
manipulation.

IV. The correlation methodis used to give answer for questions like “variable X & variable Y
go together or very together in some way?” It is used to measures the existence of conditions
under identical situation to see the degree of relationship between 2 sets of data.

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V. Ethnography: Ethnography - form of participant observation often used in the field of

anthropology—is becoming increasingly popular among researchers who hope to understand the
effects of culture on developing children and adolescents. To collect their data, ethnographers
often live within the cultural or subcultural community they are studying for periods of months,
or even years. The data they collect is typically diverse and extensive, consisting largely of
naturalistic observations, notes made from conversations with members of the culture, and
interpretations of these events. These data are eventually used to compile a detailed portrait of
the cultural community and draw conclusions about how the community’s unique values and
traditions influence aspects of the development of its children and adolescents.
VI. Psycho-physiological Methods: Using this method, developmentalists measure the
relationship between physiological responses and behavior—to explore the biological
underpinnings of children’s perceptual, cognitive, and emotional responses. Psychophysiological
methods are particularly useful for interpreting the mental and emotional experiences of infants
and toddlers who are unable to report such events.
Each of these methods has its own strengths and weakness, but the experiential method, if used
appropriately is the preferred method of scientists that allows conclusions to be drawn regarding
the cause – effect relationship of variables.

What do you think these strategies are, and when are they relevant? It is the knowledge and
proper use of these (scientific) methods that makes developmental psychology a science. The
following extract shows how the scientific methods it employs made developmental psychology
a science.
2) Approaches to developmental research

Regardless of the method used, most developmental & studies take either a cross – sectional or
longitudinal approaches/design or a combination of these 2 approaches/designs.

I. Cross-sectional research approach

In this approach, Persons of different ages are studied at one time to see if they are different on a
particular dimension. There is only one observation for each individual to identify changes. This
enables to see long turn detail relations among different age persons or people at different
cultures.
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In the Cross-Cultural Design, scientists are often hesitant to publish a new finding or
conclusion until they have studied enough people to determine that their “discovery” is reliable.
However, their conclusions are frequently based on participants living at one point in time within
one particular culture or subculture, and it is difficult to know whether these conclusions apply to
future generations or even to children currently growing up in other societies or subcultures
(Lerner, 1991). Today, the generalizability of findings across samples and settings has become
an important issue, for many theorists have implied that there are “universals” in human
development—events and outcomes that all children share as they progress from infancy to
adulthood.
Cross-cultural studies are those in which participants from different cultural or sub-cultural
backgrounds are observed, tested, and compared on one or more aspects of development. Studies
of this kind serve many purposes. For example, they allow the investigator to determine whether
conclusions drawn about the development of children from one social context (such as middle-
class, white children in the United States) also characterize children growing up in other societies
or those from different ethnic or socioeconomic backgrounds within the same society (for
example, American children of Hispanic ancestry or those from economically disadvantaged
homes). So the cross-cultural comparison guards against the overgeneralization of research
findings and is the only way to determine whether there are truly “universals” in human
development.
II. The Longitudinal Design:
In the Longitudinal research approach, the same individuals/subjects are studied across time
and at several times to determine whether they change on a particular dimension. This uses to
trace changes in the same subjects over a specific period of time. The approach has the problems
of repeated testing and potential lass of subjects.
In a longitudinal design, the same participants are observed repeatedly over a period of time.
The time period may be relatively brief—6 months to a year—or it may be very long, spanning a
lifetime. Researchers may be studying one particular aspect of development, such as intelligence,
or many. By repeatedly testing the same participants, investigators can assess the stability (or
continuity) of various attributes for each person in the sample. They can also identify normative
developmental trends and processes by looking for commonalities, such as the point(s) at which

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most children undergo various changes and the experiences, if any, those children seem to share
prior to reaching these milestones. Finally, the tracking of several participants over time will help
investigators to understand individual differences in development, particularly if they are able to
establish that different kinds of earlier experiences lead to different outcomes.
Because of the present of weaknesses in each approach, developmental psychologists have
sought to formulate a research design that combines the advantages of the 2 designs & minimizes
their disadvantages.

III. The longitudinal-Sequential Design:

The Longitudinal–Sequential design is an approach that combines the 2 approaches. It
involves studying several samples of people of different ages over a period of years. The
Sequential designs combine the best features of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies by
selecting participants of different ages and following each of these cohorts over time. At least,
two important factors should be considered in conducting research. They are selecting the
appropriate research method and research ethics. Because all research methods may not fit the all
issues to be studied, the researcher needs to note the strengths and weaknesses of each method
and thereby select and employ the relevant one. Equally important, the researcher cannot
conduct research on humans without prior knowledge and permission of the research
participants, for instance.
1.7. Developmental Tasks
This topic introduces the concept of developmental tasks, and demonstrates the developmental
changes, which happen over time.
Developmental task is a term used to refer to age-related customs that replicate social outlook for
normal development. They can also be defined as skills that a person has to achieve during a
particular age. This serves as abridge content of texts under stages of development, subsequent
units.
For the purpose of organizing and understanding, psychologists commonly describe development
in terms of periods. Each brings new capacities and social expectations that serve as important
transitions. Developmentalists (e.g., Havighurst) tried to divide the human life span into six
periods(early and middle childhood , adolescent age , early, middle and late adulthood and
broke down development into important tasks that must be accomplished at each age level. He
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believed that human development is essentially a process in which individuals attempt to learn
the tasks required of them by the society in which they live. Developmental tasks define healthy,
typical development of people. If one achieves success in learning the tasks of one stage then this
leads to greater chances of success in learning the tasks of the next stage. On the other hand,
failure to learn the tasks of one stage, leads to greater difficulty in learning the tasks of later
stages. Havighurst related these tasks to education. He stated, “Living in modern society is a long
series of tasks to learn” (in Newman & Newman, 1997).
Havighurst considered the many different aspects of a person’s life that influence that person’s
development: the biological development and physical structures of the individual; the society
in which the person lives; and the resultant cultural influences; as well as the individual’s
personal characteristics, values and goals. This view of development takes into account the role
of physical maturation and the role that society plays in determining the skills that need to be
learned at a certain age. According to Havighurst, there are sensitive periods which he called
teachable moments, when an individual is mature enough to learn developmental tasks. These
tasks may be physical like walking, cognitive like learning to read, or social where the person
develops significant relationships. Once the critical period of development is over, learning may
still occur. Language skills for example, continue to develop as one learns more complex ways
of using language. The following lists contain important developmental tasks of the different
stages from infancy to adulthood.
Early childhood (Pre-school) tasks (birth – 6 years): This period brings dramatic changes in
the body and brain that support the emergence of a wide array of motor, perceptual, and
intellectual capacities; the beginnings of language; and first intimate ties to others. The body
becomes longer and leaner, motor skills are refined, and children become more self-controlled
and self-sufficient. Thought and language expand at an astounding pace, a sense of morality
becomes evident, and children establish ties with peers.
Developmental Tasks of Per-school children include the following.
 Learning to walk, take solid foods, control body wastes, and developing physiological
stability depends on physical maturation.
 Learning to talk depends upon cognitive maturation, but hearing language from others
will play an important role.

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 Forming simple concepts of social and physical reality relates to cognitive development
and the development of thinking.
 Learning sex differences and sexual modesty is the beginning of sex role identification.
 Learning to relate oneself emotionally to parents, siblings, and other people is
accomplished largely by modeling the behaviors of others. Thus, parents see and hear
their children reflecting their behaviors.
 Learning to distinguish right and wrong and developing a conscience is the beginning of
social development and responsibility.
Middle childhood (elementary school, 6 – 12 years) tasks
Children learn about the wider world and master new responsibilities that increasingly resemble
those they will perform as adults. Improved athletic abilities, participation in organized games
with rules, more logical thought processes, mastery of basic literacy skills, and advances in self-
understanding, morality, and friendship are hallmarks of this period.
Developmental Tasks of Middle Childhood include the following.
 Building wholesome attitudes toward self is extremely important in all aspects of learning.
The teacher must do what is possible to enhance a learner’s self-image.
 Learning physical skills enables the child to develop muscular control and play games.
 Learning to get along with peers marks the continuation of social development. Relationships
with others need to be enhanced.
 Developing fundamental skills, such as reading, writing, and calculating form the basis of
major cognitive skills and are viewed as the basic goal of school and of primary education.
 Developing attitudes towards social groups are influenced by interacting with others at
school and in the community.
 Learning an appropriate masculine and feminine role is accomplished largely by modeling
the behavior of important individuals in the child’s life.
 Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values.
 Achieving personal independence involves allowing the child to make decisions, within
reason, independently.
Adolescence tasks (12 – 18 years): This period initiates the transition to adulthood. Puberty
leads to an adult-size body and sexual maturity. Thought becomes abstract and idealistic, and

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schooling becomes increasingly directed toward preparation for higher education and the world
of work. Young people begin to establish autonomy from the family and define personal values
and goals. They intensify their exploration of options in love, career, and personal values prior
to making enduring commitments.
Developmental Tasks of adolescence include the following.
 Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively – it is helpful for learners to be
educated about the bodily changes they experience, and ways to care for themselves in a
healthy way.
 Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes represents the
continuation of development of social behavior. The educator can enhance this by
encouraging learners to work together.
 Achieving a masculine or feminine social role will be influenced by physical development,
by observing peers, and the way in which others affirm or criticize the individual’s behavior.
 Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults is a difficult transition for
both parents and adolescents. Educators and parents must provide learners with opportunities
to make their own decisions.
 Selecting and preparing for an occupation requires providing guidance in career decision
making in high school.
 Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence (participation in
society) is one of the basic goals of schooling.
 Preparing for marriage and family life.
 Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior is the goal of many schools that have
begun to provide specific instruction in the areas of morals and responsibility to help learners
achieve this task.
 Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior.
Early Adulthood (18-40 years): This is the developmental period beginning in the late teens or
early twenties and lasting through the thirties. It is the time of establishing personal and
economic independence, career development, and for many, selecting a mate, learning to live
with someone in an intimate way, starting a family, and rearing children.
Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood include the following.

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 Getting started in an occupation

 Selecting a mate
 Learning to live with a marriage partner
 Starting a family
 Rearing children
 Managing a home
 Taking on civic responsibility
 Finding a congenial social group
Middle Age (40-60 years): This is the developmental period beginning at approximately 35-45
years of age and extending to the sixties. It is the time of extending personal and social
involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation to becoming competent, mature
individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in careers.
Developmental Tasks of Middle Adulthood include the following.
 Achieving adult, civic, and social responsibility
 Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
 Developing adult leisure time activities
 Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
 Accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age
 Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one’s occupational career
 Adjusting to aging parents
Old Age (60 and more years): This is the developmental period beginning in the sixties or
seventies and lasting until death. It is the time of adjustment to decreasing strength and health,
life review, retirement, and adjustment to new social roles.
Developmental Tasks of Old Age include the following.
 Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health
 Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
 Adjusting to death of spouse
 Establishing an explicit affiliation with members of one’s age group
 Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements
 Adapting to social roles in a flexible way.

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In summary, every person is expected to achieve developmental tasks that define their stages of
development from infancy through adulthood. If one achieves success in learning the tasks of
one stage then this leads to greater chances of success in learning the tasks of the next stage. On
the other hand, failure to learn the tasks of one stage, leads to greater difficulty in learning the
tasks of later stages. Human development goes through different developmental periods. Each
period involves different biological, cognitive and socio-emotional processes. Besides, in each
developmental period, new capacities and social expectations that serve as important transitions
are expected to be demonstrated. Studying about child development has various goals. We all
know that children learn differently, have a range of developmental stages that differ greatly
from one grade to another. Additionally, teachers should take time to study and understand the
traditional culture of their students as this also impacts the development of the child. Teachers
are essentially trained in human/child psychology as well as subject matter in today’s educational
settings. Knowledge of child development has greater implications to guide practices related to
schooling children and providing support needed at different stages of human development.

1.8. Implications for Teachers

 All professionals in education as teachers are required to study about human

development. The reason for this is that parents and teachers need to understand the ways in
which children's attitudes and abilities develop so that we may have a better chance of
understanding the children and how to teach them.
 By understanding human especially child development, we are better able to teach and
manage our students and children .
 Knowledge of human development and then applying the knowledge to classrooms and other
areas gives us a better understanding of the individuals we work with.
 To train and teach effectively, understanding development is a necessity, not an optional
extra. Of course, whilst every person does develop at their own pace, there are general
guidelines and stages that we can use to inform our knowledge, that come in great use in
terms of trainers knowing what learners are ready for and also to provide basis which can be
used to measure the progress of learners.
 Children do not all develop at the same rate, but they do tend to follow stages. A one needs
to understand what a child at a certain age should developmentally be able to do.
 A big mistake of trainers or teachers is to try to teach learners something they are not
developmentally ready for. knowing the readiness of learners mean a lot in training

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 The knowledge or the study of child development is a key for the effectiveness of the
teachers. This knowledge helps a teacher to appropriately plan and develop content and
complexity of the lessons and curriculum he/she is going to bring to a classroom.

 There are many scenarios that will come up in the classroom where it will certainly be
beneficial for a teacher to have a basic understanding of child development. The disciplinary
approach that a teacher takes for kindergartners should differ from that of 5th graders.

Summary
1. Developmental psychology is the study of how organisms change qualitatively and
quantitatively over time, from conception to death.
2. There are two general categories of changes. Quantitative changes involve an increase or
decrease in some characteristics, such a height, weight, and vocabulary (growth).
Qualitative changes involve some changes in kind, structure, organization, process or
function, such as in the nature of intelligence due to inheritance (maturation) and
behavioral changes due to experiences (learning). So, development is the result of
growth, maturation and learning.
3. Most developmental psychologists focus on describing, explaining, predicting, and
modifying the various aspects of human development.
4. Development goes through two basic stages and sub stages from conception to death and
it involves various aspects as physical, cognitive, social, emotional, moral personality,
language , etc..
5. In studying human development there are six focal areas that represent scope of the field
or goals that are going to be achieved by studying developmental psychology
6. There are three fundamental principles of human development, which give direction to
growth. The cephalocaudal principle maintains that development proceeds from the head
region towards the feet region. The proximodistal principle dictates that development
spreads over the body from the central axis to the extremities. The mass-to-specific
principle explains that muscular development proceeds from general to fine muscles.
7. There are more than ten significant facts about human development: early foundations are
critical; maturation and learning are responsible for development; development follows a
definite and predictable pattern; all individuals are different; each phase of development
has characteristic behavior and hazards; development is aided by stimulation;
development is affected by cultural changes; there are special expectations for every
stage of development; and there are traditional beliefs about individuals at all ages.
8. There are major controversies that result in debate among developmentalists in the
study of development . some of the controversiesinclude: Nature versus Nurture,
Continuity versus Discontinuity, Stability versus Plasticity, Passive versus Active
Individual, Endpoint versus No End Point, and so forth.
9. Developmental tasks serve three useful purposes: they are guidelines to enable
individuals to know that society expects of them; they motivate individuals to do what
society expects; and they show individuals what lies ahead and what will be expected of
them later.

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10. The three common potential hazards relating to developmental tasks are: inappropriate
expectations, the bypassing of a stage of development due to failure to master the
developmental tasks for that stage; and the crisis individuals experience as they pass from
one stage of development to another.
Glossary
 Developmental psychology – the study of how organisms change overtime.
 Quantitative change – changes considered solely in terms of increase or decrease,
such as height or weight.
 Maturation – a term used to describe changes that are due to the unfolding of an
individual’s genetic plan.
 Learning – any relatively permanent change in behavior due to interaction with the
environment.
 Plasticity – the extent to which an individual can be molded by environmental
influence.
 Critical period-the period during which an event has its greatest impact.
 Development – is a progressive series of changes that occur as a result of maturation
and experience.
 Growth – any change in physical or motor activities.
 Developmental task – is a task which arises at or about a certain period in the life of
an individual l, successful achievement of which leads to happiness and to success
with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness and difficulty with later tasks.
 Principle of development – direction that guide developmental patterns.

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