Electronics(Analog)

Lecture Notes by: Gokul Chandran PC

Department of Physics
Zamorin’s Guruvayurappan College,Calicut

Crystal Diode as a Rectifier

A crystal diode is a semiconductor device that allows current to flow in one direction but not in
the opposite direction. This unidirectional property makes it an essential component in converting
alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC), a process known as rectification.

1. Circuit Setup

In the circuit described:

• The AC input voltage, which needs to be converted to DC, is connected in series with the
crystal diode and a load resistor RL (Fig 1).

• The DC output is obtained across the load resistor RL .

Figure 1: Circuit diagram of a crystal diode as a rectifier.

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2. Positive Half-Cycle of AC Input

Forward Biasing:

• During the positive half-cycle of the AC input voltage, the arrowhead of the diode sym-
bol (which represents the anode) becomes positive relative to the bar (which represents the
cathode).

• This makes the diode forward biased, meaning it allows current to flow through it.

• As a result, current flows through the circuit, and a voltage appears across the load resistor
RL .

• Therefore, the positive half-cycle of the AC input voltage is transferred to the load resistor,
and the output across RL during this half-cycle is a positive voltage.

3. Negative Half-Cycle of AC Input

Reverse Biasing:

• During the negative half-cycle of the AC input voltage, the arrowhead (anode) becomes neg-
ative relative to the bar (cathode).

• This reverse biases the diode, meaning it blocks the current from flowing through the circuit.

• Since no current flows, no voltage is dropped across the load resistor RL .

• Thus, the output across RL during this half-cycle is zero.

Figure 2: Rectified output.

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4. Output Characteristics

Rectification:

• As a result of this process, the output voltage across RL is not an exact reproduction of the
input AC signal. Instead, it consists only of the positive half-cycles of the AC input while the
negative half-cycles are suppressed.

• This output is a form of DC known as pulsating DC because it still has fluctuations (unlike
a smooth DC signal).

Diode Parameters

1. Forward Current

• Current: Flow of electric charge in a circuit, typically measured in amperes (A).

• Forward Biased Diode: A diode is said to be forward biased when the positive terminal
of the power supply is connected to the anode (positive side of the diode) and the negative
terminal to the cathode (negative side of the diode). In this state, the diode allows current to
flow through it.

• Maximum Forward Current: Every diode can carry a certain amount of current when
forward biased. If the current exceeds a certain limit, the diode may overheat and get damaged.
This limit is called the maximum forward current, and it is specified in the diode’s datasheet.
Manufacturers provide this value to ensure that the diode operates safely within limits.

2. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

• Reverse Biased Diode: A diode is reverse biased when the positive terminal of the power
supply is connected to the cathode, and the negative terminal is connected to the anode. In
this state, the diode does not conduct current (ideally), and it blocks the voltage applied across
it.

• Voltage: The electrical potential difference between two points. Measured in volts (V).

• Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): This is the maximum voltage that a diode can block when it is
reverse biased without breaking down. If the reverse voltage applied to the diode exceeds this

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 value, the diode will conduct in reverse, allowing current to flow, which can cause overheating
and destroy the diode.

• Rectifier: A rectifier is a circuit that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC). Diodes are commonly used in rectifiers to ensure current flows in only one direction.

• AC (Alternating Current): A type of electric current where the direction of flow reverses
periodically.

• Negative Half-Cycle: In an AC signal, the negative half-cycle is the portion of the waveform
where the voltage is negative. During this time, the diode is reverse biased and must block
the reverse voltage.

3. Reverse Current (Leakage Current)

• Minority Carriers: In a semiconductor, minority carriers are the type of charge carriers
(either electrons or holes) that are present in smaller quantities compared to the majority
carriers.

• Reverse Current: When a diode is reverse biased, a small amount of current still flows due
to the movement of these minority carriers. This is called reverse current or leakage current.

• Normal Operating Voltages: This refers to the usual range of voltage a diode experiences
in normal use. Under these voltages, the reverse current is very small.

• Forward Current vs Reverse Current: The forward current is the current that flows when
the diode is forward biased, while the reverse current is the small leakage current that flows
when the diode is reverse biased. For a typical diode, the forward current is much larger (up
to 100 milliamperes, mA) than the reverse current (which is only a few µA), making the ratio
between them in the thousands.

Rectification of AC to DC Using Rectifiers

1. AC Power Supply

• AC (Alternating Current): The type of electricity commonly used in power generation and
transmission. In AC, the direction of current flow alternates periodically.

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 • Sinusoidal Voltage: The voltage in an AC supply varies in a waveform that looks like a sine
wave, rising and falling over time. The frequency of this variation in many countries is 50 Hz
(50 cycles per second).

• Applications of AC: AC is typically used in homes and industries for lighting, heating,
and powering electric motors because it can be easily generated and transmitted over long
distances.

2. Need for DC Power

• DC (Direct Current): Unlike AC, direct current flows in only one direction. Many electronic
devices and circuits require DC for proper operation, such as radios, computers, and other
electronic equipment.

• Rectification: To convert AC to DC, we use a process called rectification, which is performed

using components like crystal diodes. Diodes allow current to pass in only one direction, which
helps convert AC to DC.

3. Rectifier Circuits

Rectifier circuits are used to convert AC to DC. The two common types of rectifiers are:

(i) Half-Wave Rectifier

• A half-wave rectifier uses a single diode to convert AC to DC. It allows only one half of the AC
waveform (either the positive or the negative half) to pass through while blocking the other
half.

• Operation: During the positive half of the AC cycle, the diode is forward biased and allows
current to pass, while during the negative half-cycle, the diode is reverse biased and blocks the
current. This results in a pulsating DC output, where only half of the AC wave is used.

(ii) Full-Wave Rectifier

• A full-wave rectifier uses multiple diodes (typically four in a bridge rectifier configuration) to
utilize both halves of the AC waveform, producing a smoother DC output.

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 • Operation: In a full-wave rectifier, both the positive and negative halves of the AC signal
are converted to DC. During both halves of the AC cycle, current is allowed to pass through
the circuit, and the diodes direct the flow of current in such a way that the output is always
positive. This results in a more efficient and steady DC output compared to the half-wave
rectifier.

Full-Wave Rectification
In a full-wave rectification process, the goal is to convert alternating current (AC), which peri-
odically reverses direction, into direct current (DC), which flows in one consistent direction. Unlike
half-wave rectification, where only one half of the AC cycle is used, full-wave rectification utilizes
both the positive and negative half-cycles of the AC input, allowing for more efficient conversion.

Key Points
• Current Direction: In full-wave rectification, the current through the load always flows in
the same direction, regardless of whether the AC input is in its positive or negative half-cycle.

• Two Diodes: By using two diodes that work alternately, each half of the AC cycle can be
rectified. One diode allows current to pass during the positive half-cycle, while the other
conducts during the negative half-cycle. However, the design ensures that the current through
the load is always in the same direction.

• DC Output: As a result of utilizing both half-cycles of the AC input, full-wave rectifiers

generate a more continuous DC output, which is smoother than what you get from a half-wave
rectifier.

Types of Full-Wave Rectifiers

1. Center-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier

2. Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier

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Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier
The bridge rectifier is a circuit used to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC).
Unlike a center-tap rectifier, the bridge rectifier eliminates the need for a center-tapped transformer
by using four diodes arranged in a bridge configuration. Below is a breakdown of its working:

Figure 3: Circuit diagram of a Full Wave Bridge Rectifier.

Bridge Rectifier Structure

• Four Diodes (D1, D2, D3, D4): These diodes are arranged in a bridge formation. The AC
supply is connected to two diagonally opposite ends of the bridge, while the load resistance
RL is connected across the other two ends.

• Transformer: The AC supply is applied to the bridge rectifier through a transformer, but
this transformer does not require a center tap.

Operation of the Bridge Rectifier

The rectifier operates by directing the current flow through the load resistance RL in the same
direction for both the positive and negative half-cycles of the AC input. This is achieved by the
alternate switching of diodes depending on the polarity of the AC voltage.

Positive Half-Cycle

• During the positive half-cycle of the AC input, the end P of the secondary winding becomes
positive, and the end Q becomes negative.

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 • Diodes D1 and D3 become forward biased, meaning they allow current to pass through,
while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased and do not conduct.

• Current flows through the path created by D1 and D3, passing through the load resistance
RL . The current flows from point A to B through the load.

Figure 4: Positive half cycle.

Negative Half-Cycle

• During the negative half-cycle of the AC input, the polarity of the voltage reverses, making
P negative and Q positive.

• Diodes D2 and D4 become forward biased, and diodes D1 and D3 are reverse
biased.

• Now, current flows through D2 and D4 in series, again passing through the load resistance
RL .

• The direction of current through the load remains the same as it flows from A to B.

Figure 5: Negative half cycle.

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 Regardless of the input AC half-cycle (positive or negative), the current through the load RL
flows in the same direction (from A to B). As a result, the bridge rectifier produces a DC output
across the load resistance RL , utilizing both the positive and negative half-cycles of the AC input.
The bridge rectifier is efficient because it eliminates the need for a center-tapped transformer,
and it fully utilizes both half-cycles of the AC input to provide a smoother DC output.

Peak Inverse Voltage

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) refers to the maximum voltage a diode can withstand in the reverse-
biased condition without breaking down. In rectifier circuits, when a diode is reverse-biased, it must
block a certain amount of voltage. The PIV rating ensures the diode can handle the highest reverse
voltage it will encounter during operation.

Positive Half Cycle of AC Input

In the circuit under discussion, there are four diodes: D1 , D2 , D3 , and D4 . During the positive half
cycle of the input AC signal, the voltage polarity is such that:

• End P of the transformer secondary winding is positive.

• End Q of the transformer secondary winding is negative.

Under these conditions:

• Diodes D1 and D3 become forward biased, meaning they conduct current.

• Diodes D2 and D4 become reverse biased, meaning they block current.

Behavior of Diodes D1 and D3 (Forward Biased)

When D1 and D3 are forward biased, they act like closed switches (or wires, in the ideal case). This
allows current to flow through them, completing the circuit and providing a path for current to reach
the load. Since these diodes are forward biased, the voltage across them is very low, ideally zero.

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 Figure 6: Positive half cycle at P half cycle.

Figure 7: Forward biased diodes are replaced by wires

Behavior of Diodes D2 and D4 (Reverse Biased)

When D2 and D4 are reverse biased, they block current. This means that they are subjected to
the maximum voltage of the transformer secondary winding. In this scenario, the reverse-
biased diodes need to withstand the full secondary voltage because they are essentially isolated by
the conducting diodes D1 and D3 .
The PIV of diodes D2 and D4 is equal to the maximum secondary voltage, since the diodes
must block this voltage while in reverse bias during the positive half-cycle.

What Happens in the Circuit?

• In this positive half cycle, the diodes D1 and D3 can be effectively replaced by wires because
they are conducting (forward biased), and there is very little voltage drop across them.

• The circuit, in this configuration, simplifies as the current flows directly through the conducting
diodes.

• Meanwhile, D2 and D4 are reverse biased and must block the entire secondary voltage from

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 the transformer. The PIV for these diodes is equal to the peak value of this voltage, ensuring
they don’t break down under reverse bias.

Negative Half Cycle

In the negative half cycle:

• The polarity of the AC voltage reverses: End P becomes negative and end Q becomes
positive.

• Diodes D2 and D4 will now be forward biased (conducting), and diodes D1 and D3 will be
reverse biased.

• The reverse-biased diodes, D1 and D3 , will now have to block the secondary voltage, and their
PIV will be equal to the peak value of the transformer’s secondary voltage.

Advantages
1. The need for a centre-tapped transformer is eliminated.

2. The output is twice that of the centre-tap circuit for the same secondary voltage.

3. The Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) is one-half that of the centre-tap circuit (for the same d.c.
output).

Disadvantages
1. It requires four diodes.

2. As during each half-cycle of a.c. input, two diodes that conduct are in series, the voltage drop
due to the internal resistance of the rectifying unit will be twice as great as in the centre-tap
circuit. This is objectionable when the secondary voltage is small.

Efficiency of Full wave rectifier

Let v = Vm sin θ be the input AC voltage, where Vm is the peak value and θ is the phase angle. The
aim of full-wave rectification is to convert this AC voltage into a DC output.

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Components

• rf : Diode forward resistance.

• RL : Load resistance.

In the full-wave rectifier, current flows through the load in the same direction during both half-
cycles of the AC voltage, which results in a pulsating DC output.

Instantaneous Current

The instantaneous current i depends on the input voltage and the total resistance in the circuit.

Pulsating DC Output
The output current is pulsating DC. To calculate the DC power, we first need to compute the average
current. From basic electrical engineering:

2
Idc = Im
π

where Im is the peak current.

DC Power Output
The DC power output is given by:
2
Pdc = Idc × RL

Substituting the value of Idc :

 2 2
2 2Im RL
Pdc = Im × RL = 2
π π

This is the DC power output.

AC Input Power
The AC input power is calculated using the RMS current Irms , where:

Im
Irms = √
2

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The total resistance in the circuit is rf + RL . Therefore, the AC input power is:
2
2 Im
Pac = Irms × (rf + RL ) = × (rf + RL )
2

Efficiency
The efficiency η is the ratio of DC power output to AC input power:
2
2Im RL
Pdc π2
η= = 2
Im
Pac × (rf + RL )
2

Simplifying the expression:

8RL
η=
π 2 (rf + RL )

Maximum Efficiency

The efficiency will be maximum when the diode resistance rf is negligible compared to the load
resistance RL . Therefore, the maximum efficiency is:
8
ηmax = ≈ 0.812 = 81.2%
π2

Nature of Rectifier output

Pulsating DC Output

The output of a rectifier is not a pure DC (constant, unvarying voltage) but a pulsating DC—a
form of direct current where the voltage varies in magnitude but never changes direction (it does
not become negative).

AC and DC Components

Although the rectifier output appears as a pulsating DC waveform, it actually contains both DC
and AC components. The DC component is responsible for the average (steady) value of the
output voltage, while the AC component causes the pulsations or variations around this average
value.
Even if the waveform never goes below zero, its regular variations (pulsations) mean it still has
an AC component. AC (alternating current) refers to any periodic variation, whether or not it
crosses zero.

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Understanding the AC Component in Pulsating DC

Any waveform that varies in a regular manner has an AC component, even if it does not alternate
between positive and negative values. This is why the pulsating DC output of the rectifier contains
an AC component—it has regular peaks and troughs, creating fluctuations similar to an AC wave,
but constrained to the positive side of the graph.

Decomposition of the Waveform

To illustrate this:

• Fig. 6.38(i) shows a pure DC component, which is a flat line at a constant voltage.

• Fig. 6.38(ii) shows the AC component, representing the oscillations or pulsations.

• When these two components are added together, as shown in Fig. 6.38(iii), the result is a
pulsating DC waveform that oscillates above zero, similar to the rectifier output shown in Fig.
6.37.

Figure 8: (a) DC Output (b) AC output (c) Pulsating DC

Key Insights
The rectifier output is essentially a combination of both DC and AC components. The DC
component provides the average level of the voltage, while the AC component causes the ripple

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(fluctuations) in the output. This combination explains why the waveform, though positive, still
exhibits the characteristics of an AC signal.

Ripple Factor
The output of a rectifier consists of both a DC component and an AC component (also known as
ripple). The AC component is undesirable and accounts for the pulsations in the rectifier output.
The effectiveness of a rectifier depends upon the magnitude of the AC component in the output; the
smaller this component, the more effective is the rectifier.

Definition

The ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the RMS value of the AC component to the DC component
in the rectifier output:
Iac
Ripple factor =
Idc
where Iac is the RMS value of the AC component (ripple) and Idc is the DC component.

Importance

A smaller ripple factor indicates a more effective rectifier, as it means there is less AC ripple relative
to the DC output. A higher ripple factor implies a greater AC component, which results in more
pulsations in the output and less smooth DC output.

Mathematical Analysis

Output Current

The output current of a rectifier contains both DC and AC components. The total RMS value of
the load current is given by:
q
Irms = 2 + I2
Idc ac

Rearranging to find the AC component:

q
Iac = 2
Irms 2
− Idc

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Ripple Factor Calculation

Dividing the AC component by the DC component gives the ripple factor:

Iac
Ripple factor =
Idc

Substituting Iac from the above expression:

p
2
Irms 2
− Idc
Ripple factor =
Idc

Simplifying: s
2
Irms
Ripple factor = 2 −1
Idc

Ripple Factor for Different Rectifiers

Half-Wave Rectification

For a half-wave rectifier:

• The RMS value of the output current Irms is Im

2 , where Im is the peak current.

• The DC component Idc is Im

π .

Substituting these values into the ripple factor formula:

s 2
Im /2
Ripple factor = −1
Im /π

Simplifying: r 
π 2
Ripple factor = − 1 ≈ 1.21
2
This indicates that the AC component is significant relative to the DC component, leading to greater
pulsations in the output. Thus, a half-wave rectifier is less effective in converting AC to DC.

Full-Wave Rectification

For a full-wave rectifier:

• The RMS value of the output current Irms is Im

√
2
.

• The DC component Idc is 2Im

π .

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Substituting these values into the ripple factor formula:

u I /√2 2
v !
u
m
Ripple factor = t −1
2Im /π

Simplifying: s 2
π
Ripple factor = √ − 1 ≈ 0.48
2 2
This shows that in a full-wave rectifier, the DC component is larger compared to the AC component,
resulting in fewer pulsations. Therefore, full-wave rectification is more effective for converting AC
to DC.

Summary
• The Ripple Factor quantifies the ripple in the rectifier output. A lower value indicates a
smoother DC output and a more effective rectifier.

• Half-Wave Rectification has a higher ripple factor (around 1.21), leading to significant
pulsations and less effectiveness.

• Full-Wave Rectification has a lower ripple factor (around 0.48), resulting in smoother DC
output and greater effectiveness.

Thus, full-wave rectification is preferred for applications requiring stable DC voltage.

Filter Circuit

1. Rectifier and its Pulsating Output

When AC is passed through a rectifier, the resulting output is not smooth DC. Instead, it’s a
pulsating signal that fluctuates and still contains unwanted AC components. This pulsating nature
is a combination of both AC and DC components. The AC component is undesirable for many
sensitive electronic circuits because it can introduce noise, interference, or cause erratic behavior in
the devices that require a steady DC supply.

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2. Purpose of the Filter Circuit

The goal of the filter circuit is to remove the AC component from the pulsating DC output
of the rectifier and allow only the pure DC to pass through to the load. The load could be any
electronic device or circuit that requires a stable DC supply for proper functioning.

3. Components of a Filter Circuit

A typical filter circuit consists of inductors (denoted as L) and capacitors (denoted as C). These
components work based on basic electrical principles that help in selectively blocking or passing the
AC and DC components of the signal.

Capacitor (C):

A capacitor is designed to pass AC but block DC. This happens because a capacitor’s impedance
to AC decreases as the frequency increases, meaning it allows AC signals to flow through easily.
However, for DC signals (which have a frequency of 0), the capacitor presents high impedance and
blocks the current. Therefore, capacitors can effectively remove the AC component by providing a
low-impedance path to ground for the AC, leaving only DC to pass through the load.

Inductor (L):

An inductor behaves oppositely to a capacitor. It resists changes in current, which makes it oppose
the flow of AC but allows DC to pass through easily. When AC flows through an inductor, the
changing current induces a magnetic field that opposes the current flow, effectively filtering out the
AC. However, steady DC passes through the inductor with little opposition because the current is
constant and does not create a changing magnetic field.

4. How the Filter Circuit Works

The filter circuit is installed between the rectifier and the load (which requires DC). As the pulsating
DC (with both AC and DC components) flows from the rectifier to the filter:

• The capacitor will offer a low impedance path for the AC component, effectively shorting it
to ground or another bypass, while blocking the DC component.

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 Figure 9: Filter circuit

• The inductor in the filter opposes the AC component, preventing it from reaching the load,
but allows the DC component to pass through with minimal resistance.

By carefully designing a network of inductors and capacitors, the AC component is filtered out,
and the remaining signal that reaches the load is pure DC, suitable for electronic devices.

5. Positioning of the Filter

The filter circuit is positioned between the rectifier and the load, as shown in the referenced
figure. This placement ensures that the rectified (but still pulsating) output is processed by the filter
before it reaches the load. The load, therefore, receives a much more stable DC voltage without the
residual AC fluctuations that would otherwise affect performance.
There are several commonly used filter circuits designed to smooth out the pulsating DC output
from a rectifier. The most widely used types include:

• Capacitor Filter

• Choke Input Filter (Inductive Filter)

• Capacitor Input Filter (π-Filter)

We shall discuss each of these filter circuits in detail.

Capacitor Filter
A capacitor filter is one of the simplest filter circuits, where a capacitor C is connected across the
output of the rectifier in parallel with the load RL .

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 Figure 10: Capacitor Filter

Working of the Capacitor Filter:

- The rectifier output is applied across the capacitor. When the rectifier output increases, the
capacitor charges up to the peak value Vm . - After reaching the peak value, the rectifier voltage
starts decreasing, and the capacitor discharges slowly through the load RL . - As the capacitor
discharges, the voltage across the load decreases slightly until the next voltage peak recharges the
capacitor. This cycle repeats continuously. - The resulting output voltage waveform has much less
ripple than the original pulsating DC from the rectifier, creating a relatively smooth DC output.
The voltage waveform appears as ABCDEFG, with the voltage remaining close to the peak value of
the rectifier output.

Advantages of Capacitor Filters:

- Capacitor filters are cheap, compact, and lightweight. - They are ideal for small load currents (up
to 50 mA), such as in transistor radios and battery eliminators.

Limitations:

- Capacitor filters are less effective at smoothing output for larger load currents.

Choke Input Filter (Inductive Filter)

The choke input filter, also known as the L-filter, consists of an inductor (choke) L connected in
series with the rectifier output and a capacitor C across the load.

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 Figure 11: Inductor Filter

Working of the Choke Input Filter:

- The pulsating DC output from the rectifier is applied across terminals 1 and 2 of the filter circuit.
- The choke offers high reactance to the AC component but allows the DC component to pass with
negligible resistance. - Most of the AC component is blocked by the choke, while the DC component
passes to the load. - Any remaining AC component that passes through the choke is bypassed by
the filter capacitor C, leaving only the DC component at the output.

Advantages of Choke Input Filters:

- They are more effective at smoothing the output for larger load currents. - Choke filters are widely
used in high-power applications.

Limitations:

- Choke input filters are bulkier and more expensive than capacitor filters. - They introduce a voltage
drop, reducing the overall output voltage available to the load.

Capacitor Input Filter (π Filter)

The capacitor input filter, also known as the π-filter, is named because its layout resembles the
Greek letter π. It consists of two capacitors and a choke arranged in a network to achieve better
filtering.

Working of the Capacitor Input Filter (π-Filter):

- The circuit consists of a capacitor C1 connected across the rectifier output, a choke L in series,
and another capacitor C2 across the load. The filtering process is as follows:

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 Figure 12: π filter

• Capacitor C1 : This capacitor offers low reactance to the AC component and infinite reactance
to the DC component. It bypasses most of the AC, while the DC component continues to the
choke.

• Choke L: The choke offers high reactance to the AC component but negligible opposition to
the DC component. It allows the DC component to flow while blocking the remaining AC.

• Capacitor C2 : This capacitor bypasses any residual AC component that passes through the
choke, allowing only the DC component to reach the load.

Advantages of Capacitor Input Filters:

- They provide excellent filtering with minimal ripple. - π filters are suitable for both low and high
load currents.

Limitations:

- π filters are more complex, bulky, and expensive compared to simpler filters.

Voltage Multiplier Circuits

A voltage multiplier goes beyond basic rectification and provides a DC output that is a multiple of
the peak input AC voltage. These circuits use diodes and capacitors in specific configurations to
achieve this multiplication.

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Common Types of Voltage Multipliers

• Voltage Doubler: This circuit provides a DC output voltage that is approximately double
the peak input AC voltage. For example, if the peak AC voltage is Vpeak , the voltage doubler
will provide an output of approximately 2 × Vpeak .

• Voltage Tripler: This circuit increases the output DC voltage to about three times the peak
input AC voltage, i.e., 3 × Vpeak .

• Voltage Quadrupler: This circuit raises the output DC voltage to four times the peak AC
input voltage, i.e., 4 × Vpeak .

These circuits are built using multiple stages, where each stage consists of diodes and capacitors
that successively increase the output voltage.

Working Principle of Voltage Multipliers

Voltage multipliers function by charging capacitors during different parts of the AC input cycle and
then stacking their voltages. Diodes are used to control the direction of current and ensure that the
capacitors charge and discharge at the correct times. Here’s how this process works:

• Charging the capacitors: During certain parts of the AC input waveform, the diodes allow
the capacitors to charge to the peak voltage of the AC input.

• Voltage stacking: On subsequent cycles, the capacitors combine their stored voltages, effec-
tively multiplying the output voltage.

For example, in a voltage doubler circuit:

• One capacitor charges to the peak voltage during one half of the AC cycle.

• During the next half-cycle, another capacitor adds its voltage to the first, doubling the output
voltage.

Conservation of Energy in Voltage Multipliers

While voltage multipliers can increase the voltage output significantly, they do not amplify power.
This is because of the law of conservation of energy, which states that the total energy (and thus
power) cannot be increased by a circuit without an external energy source.

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 Figure 13: Half Wave voltage doubler

Thus, when a voltage multiplier increases the output voltage by a factor of n, the input current
is reduced by the same factor n. This is because power P is the product of voltage V and current
I, as given by the formula:
P =V ×I

Even though the voltage increases, the current decreases proportionally, keeping the power nearly
the same.

Half Wave Voltage doubler(Fig 13)

• Diodes (D1 and D2): These diodes control the charging paths of two capacitors based on
the polarity of the AC input voltage.

• Capacitors (C1 and C2): These capacitors charge up to specific voltages during each half-
cycle of the AC input.

The goal of this circuit is to achieve a DC output voltage of about 2 × VS(pk) , where VS(pk) is
the peak voltage of the AC input signal.

Working Principle
The working of the half-wave voltage doubler can be understood by analyzing what happens during
the positive and negative half-cycles of the AC input signal.

(i) Negative Half-Cycle of the AC Input Voltage

• Diode D1 becomes forward biased, while Diode D2 becomes reverse biased.

– Forward biased: Current flows easily through the diode, and it acts like a closed switch.

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 Figure 14: Negative half cycle

– Reverse biased: Current does not flow through the diode, and it acts like an open
switch.

• In this configuration:

– Diode D1 conducts and Diode D2 is off. As a result:

∗ Capacitor C1 charges up to the peak value of the AC input voltage, VS(pk) .

∗ Capacitor C2 does not get any charge from the AC source in this half-cycle. How-
ever, C2 is connected to the load RL and will slowly discharge through it, if it was
already charged from a previous cycle.

So, during this half-cycle, C1 charges to VS(pk) .

(ii) Positive Half-Cycle of the AC Input Voltage

As the AC voltage reverses its polarity (positive half-cycle):

• Diode D1 becomes reverse biased, and Diode D2 becomes forward biased.

– Diode D1 is now off, and Diode D2 conducts.

• In this configuration:

– The AC source voltage VS and the voltage of C1 (charged to VS(pk) during the negative
half-cycle) are now in series.

– The total voltage across C1 and the source voltage VS acts as a combined series
voltage, which is 2 × VS(pk) .

– This combined voltage charges capacitor C2 to 2 × VS(pk) via Diode D2.

Since C2 is now charged to 2 × VS(pk) , it will serve as the source of the DC output voltage for the
load RL .

25
 Figure 15: Positive half cycle

(iii) Next Negative Half-Cycle

When the input voltage returns to the negative half-cycle:

• Diode D2 becomes reverse biased again, so it prevents C2 from discharging back to the
AC source.

• The only discharge path available for C2 is through the load resistor RL , which allows the
capacitor to provide a steady DC voltage to the load.

To maintain a stable output voltage:

• Large filter capacitors are often used because they help store charge and prevent the
output voltage from dropping too much between cycles.

The time constant of the RL C2 circuit is designed to be long enough to ensure that C2 doesn’t
discharge significantly between each positive half-cycle. This way, the voltage across C2 remains
close to 2 × VS(pk) .

Output Characteristics
• The DC output voltage, VDC , is approximately 2 × VS(pk) .

• The output waveform resembles that of a filtered half-wave rectifier. This is because C2
discharges slowly between cycles, resulting in a nearly constant output voltage.

Limitations
• Voltage Regulation: Voltage doublers generally have poor regulation. This means that the
output voltage decreases significantly as the load current increases.

26
 • To improve regulation, large capacitors are used to maintain a higher output voltage and
provide a steady supply for the load.

Zener Diode
In electronic circuits, stable DC voltage is essential for the reliable operation of components and
devices. A rectifier with a filter can provide a good source of DC voltage; however, the output
can vary significantly due to fluctuations in the input voltage or changes in load. These variations
can compromise the performance of sensitive electronics, which need consistent voltage to operate
correctly. To achieve stability in the output voltage despite these changes, a voltage-stabilizing
device called a voltage stabilizer is used. Among various stabilizing methods, the zener diode
is a popular and effective choice.

Understanding the Need for Voltage Stabilization

The output voltage of a rectifier circuit changes due to:

1. Input Voltage Fluctuations: If the AC input voltage to the rectifier changes, the rectified
DC output also varies. This can happen because of changes in the mains supply or load shifts
in the system.

2. Load Variations: When the current drawn by the load increases, the output voltage tends
to decrease. This drop is primarily due to resistance in the rectifying elements, transformer
winding, and filter chokes.

For many applications, especially in electronics, it is crucial that the output voltage remains
constant, regardless of changes in input voltage or load. Voltage stabilizers, such as the zener diode,
help achieve this consistency.

Zener Diode as a Voltage Stabilizer

A zener diode is a specially designed diode that maintains a constant output voltage despite
variations in the input voltage or load conditions. This is achieved through a phenomenon known
as zener breakdown.

27
Breakdown Voltage in Zener Diodes

1. Reverse Bias Characteristics: When a diode is reverse-biased (i.e., the negative side of the
voltage source is connected to the anode), very little current flows until a certain breakdown
voltage is reached. Beyond this critical voltage, known as the zener voltage (VZ ), the
current increases sharply. This sharp rise in reverse current occurs due to zener breakdown
and is utilized for voltage regulation.

2. Doping and Breakdown Voltage: The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is controlled
during manufacturing by adjusting the doping level:

• Heavily Doped Diode: The depletion layer (an area with few free charge carriers)
becomes thin, causing breakdown at a lower voltage.

• Lightly Doped Diode: The depletion layer is thicker, so breakdown occurs at a higher
reverse voltage.

3. Zener Diode Properties:

• Sharp Breakdown Voltage: Unlike regular diodes, zener diodes have a sharply defined
breakdown voltage, enabling them to stabilize voltage in circuits.

• Reverse Connection: Zener diodes are always used in reverse bias to function as sta-
bilizers.

• Controlled Current: A zener diode will not burn out when in breakdown as long as
the current is controlled by an external resistor or other limiting component to keep it
within safe limits.

Working Principle of a Zener Diode in Voltage Stabilization

The zener diode stabilizes voltage by maintaining a steady voltage across itself once it enters the
breakdown region:

• When the reverse voltage across the zener diode reaches the zener voltage VZ , it starts to
conduct, allowing current to flow in the reverse direction.

• The diode maintains the voltage at VZ , preventing further increase in output voltage regardless
of variations in input or load.

28
 • Current Limiting: A resistor is often connected in series with the zener diode to limit the
current. This ensures that even though the diode is conducting, the current stays below a level
that could damage it.

Zener Diode as a Voltage stabilizer

A zener diode is commonly used in circuits to maintain a constant output voltage across a load,
even if the input voltage or load resistance varies. When connected in reverse bias, a zener diode
enters the breakdown region, allowing it to stabilize voltage effectively. This characteristic makes it
a valuable voltage stabilizer in power supply circuits and electronic applications.

Circuit Setup for Voltage Stabilization

In a voltage stabilization circuit, the zener diode with a zener voltage VZ is reverse-biased and
connected across the load resistor RL , where a constant output voltage E0 is desired. A series
resistor R is added between the input supply voltage Ei and the zener diode to:

• absorb fluctuations in the input voltage, and

• limit the current to protect the zener diode from excessive current.

As long as the input voltage Ei remains above the zener voltage VZ , the zener diode will maintain
a constant output voltage E0 = VZ across the load RL . This setup provides a stable output voltage
even if Ei or RL varies significantly.

Working Principle of the Zener Diode as a Voltage Stabilizer

The zener diode maintains constant voltage under two conditions:

1. Increasing Input Voltage ( Ei Increases )

• When Ei increases, the zener diode is already in the breakdown region and can be considered
a constant voltage source of value VZ .

• The excess input voltage Ei − VZ is dropped across the series resistor R.

29
 Figure 16: Voltage stabilizer

• This increase causes a higher current I through R, with any additional current absorbed by
the zener diode while the load current IL remains stable.

• Therefore, the zener adjusts its current (IZ ) to keep the output voltage E0 steady at VZ despite
the increase in Ei .

2. Decreasing Load Resistance ( RL Decreases )

• If RL decreases, the load current IL increases due to IL = VZ

RL .

• The total current I through R is limited by Ei −VZ , so any increase in IL is offset by a decrease
in the zener current IZ .

• This ensures that the zener diode provides the extra load current, maintaining a constant
output voltage E0 = VZ .

Key Equations in the Zener Diode Circuit

1. Voltage Drop Across R:
Voltage across R = Ei − E0

2. Total Current Through R:

I = IZ + IL

3. Ohm’s Law for R:

Ei − E0
R=
I

30
 Figure 17: Transistors

Transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor device that consists of two pn junctions created by sandwiching
either a p-type or n-type semiconductor between two opposite types. This structure allows the
transistor to perform functions such as signal amplification and switching in electronic circuits.
There are two primary types of transistors based on their internal structure:

1. n-p-n Transistor: Composed of two n-type semiconductor regions separated by a thin

section of p-type material.

2. p-n-p Transistor: Composed of two p-type semiconductor regions separated by a thin

section of n-type material.

These two types differ in terms of current flow direction and the biasing required for operation.

Structure of Transistors
1. n-p-n Transistor:

• Consists of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin p-type layer.

• This arrangement forms two pn junctions.

2. p-n-p Transistor:

• Consists of two p-type semiconductors with a thin n-type layer in between.

• Also forms two pn junctions.

In both types of transistors, there are three main terminals:

• Emitter (E)

31
 • Base (B)

• Collector (C)

Key Points About Transistor Structure and Functionality

1. Two pn Junctions: A transistor can be seen as a combination of two diodes connected
back-to-back.

2. Three Terminals: Each terminal is taken from each type of semiconductor (one from the
emitter, one from the base, and one from the collector).

3. Thin Base Layer: The middle section, known as the base, is a very thin layer compared to
the other two sections. This thinness is essential for the transistor’s function, enabling it to
control current flow efficiently and amplify signals.

Origin of the Name ”Transistor”

The name ”transistor” reflects the function and properties of the device. Scientists named it based
on the functionality they observed:

• Signal Transfer Property:

– A transistor has two pn junctions. In operation, one junction is forward-biased,

allowing current to pass easily (low resistance), while the other junction is reverse-
biased, creating a high-resistance path.

– When a weak input signal is applied to the low-resistance side, it can be transferred
through the transistor and appear amplified on the high-resistance side.

• Naming Breakdown:

– The prefix ”trans-” indicates the transfer of signal from low resistance to high resis-
tance, demonstrating its amplification capabilities.

– The suffix ”-istor” classifies it as part of the same family as resistors, indicating it’s
a solid-state component.

32
 Figure 18: Symbol of transistor

Naming the Transistor Terminals

A transistor (either pnp or npn) consists of three sections of doped semiconductors, each
with a specific function. The sections on either side of the middle are called the emitter and
collector, while the middle section is known as the base. These regions are crucial for the
transistor’s operation, as they control the flow of charge carriers (electrons or holes) through the
device, enabling signal amplification and switching. Here’s a detailed look at each section:

1. Emitter
The emitter is the section of the transistor responsible for supplying the majority of charge
carriers (holes in pnp transistors and electrons in npn transistors). It is always forward-biased
with respect to the base to enable a steady flow of these charge carriers into the base.

• In a pnp transistor (Figure 8.2 (i)), the emitter is p-type and, when forward-biased,
supplies holes as the majority carriers to the base.

• In an npn transistor (Figure 8.2 (ii)), the emitter is n-type and supplies electrons to the
base when forward-biased.

This forward biasing allows the emitter to inject a large number of majority carriers into the
base, which is necessary for the transistor’s amplification process.

33
2. Collector
The collector is the section on the opposite side of the emitter. It collects the charge carriers
(electrons or holes) that were injected by the emitter and then flowed through the base. The collector
is always reverse-biased, which plays a critical role in its function.

• In a pnp transistor (Figure 8.2 (i)), the collector is p-type and has a reverse bias with
respect to the base. This reverse bias allows it to collect holes from the base, which then
move into the output circuit.

• In an npn transistor (Figure 8.2 (ii)), the collector is n-type and also has a reverse bias.
This enables it to collect electrons from the base, which then flow into the output circuit.

The reverse bias ensures that the collector can remove charge carriers from the base, helping to
maintain current flow through the transistor.

3. Base
The base is the thin, central section of the transistor that forms two pn-junctions—one with the
emitter and one with the collector. The base’s design and biasing are essential for regulating the
current flow between the emitter and collector.

• The base-emitter junction is forward-biased, allowing a low resistance path for current
to flow from the emitter to the base.

• The base-collector junction is reverse-biased, providing a high resistance path for current
flowing from the base to the collector.

Some Facts
A transistor consists of three regions: Emitter, Base, and Collector.

• Emitter: Heavily doped to inject charge carriers (electrons or holes) into the base, ensuring
sufficient current flow.

• Base: Thin and lightly doped to allow most carriers from the emitter to pass to the collector
with minimal recombination, maximizing efficiency.

34
 • Collector: Moderately doped and wider, designed to collect carriers from the base, completing
the current path.

The doping levels are specific to each region’s function:

• The Emitter injects a high density of charge carriers.

• The Base minimizes recombination, facilitating carrier movement.

• The Collector effectively gathers carriers, maintaining low resistance.

Transistor Action
• Junction Biasing:

– In a transistor, the emitter-base junction is forward biased, allowing current to flow

easily, while the collector-base junction is reverse biased, which generally prevents
current flow.

– Without the forward bias at the emitter-base junction, no current would flow through
the collector circuit due to the reverse bias at the collector-base junction.

• Current Relationships:

– When the emitter-base junction is forward biased, it allows emitter current (IE ) to
flow.

– This current predominantly flows into the collector circuit, resulting in a collector cur-
rent (IC ) that is nearly equal to the emitter current. If the emitter current is zero, the
collector current is also nearly zero.

– The relationship can be expressed as:

IE = IB + IC

where IB is the base current.

Working of npn Transistor

• Structure: An npn transistor consists of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin
p-type layer.

35
 Figure 19:

• Operation:

– The forward bias at the emitter-base junction causes electrons in the n-type emitter to
flow toward the base, creating the emitter current IE .

– As electrons travel through the p-type base, a small fraction (less than 5%) recombines
with holes, generating the base current IB .

– The majority (more than 95%) of electrons continue into the collector region, forming the
collector current IC .

– Thus, the collector current is predominantly composed of the emitter current, allowing
for effective current amplification.

Working of pnp Transistor

• Structure: A pnp transistor consists of two p-type semiconductors separated by a thin n-type
layer.

• Operation:

– The forward bias causes holes in the p-type emitter to flow toward the base, generating
the emitter current IE .

– As these holes enter the n-type base, a small percentage (less than 5%) recombines with
electrons, contributing to the base current IB .

36
 Figure 20:

– The majority (more than 95%) of the holes cross into the collector region, leading to the
collector current IC .

– Although the current conduction within the pnp transistor is by holes, the external current
flow remains by electrons.

Importance of Transistor Action

• Amplifying Capability:

– The input circuit (emitter-base junction) has low resistance due to the forward bias,
while the output circuit (collector-base junction) exhibits high resistance due to reverse
bias.

– As the emitter current flows predominantly into the collector circuit, the transistor effec-
tively transfers the input signal current from a low-resistance circuit to a high-resistance
circuit.

– This ability to control a larger current with a smaller one is what gives the transistor its
amplifying capability, making it an essential component in various electronic devices.

Transistor Circuit as an Amplifier

The concept of a transistor circuit acting as an amplifier is fundamental in electronics. Here’s a
detailed explanation of how it works:

37
 Figure 21: Transistor as amplifier

Basic Principle of Transistor Amplification

1. Role of the Transistor: A transistor amplifies weak electrical signals, increasing their
strength without changing the signal’s waveform. This amplification is crucial in various
applications, such as audio systems, radios, and communication devices.

2. Transistor Configuration: In a typical transistor amplifier circuit, the transistor is con-

nected in a common emitter configuration. This configuration is popular because it provides
significant voltage gain and good linearity.

3. Circuit Components: The key components in the transistor amplifier circuit include:

• Transistor: The main amplifying device (npn or pnp).

• Load Resistance (RC ): Connected in the collector circuit; it helps convert the collector
current into an output voltage.

• Input Signal: The weak signal applied between the emitter and base terminals.

• DC Bias Voltage (VEE ): A constant voltage added to the input circuit to ensure that
the transistor remains in the active region.

Circuit Operation

1. Biasing the Transistor: To operate effectively as an amplifier, the transistor’s input circuit
(the emitter-base junction) must be forward biased. The DC bias voltage (VEE ) is applied to
maintain this forward bias, ensuring that the transistor is always ready to amplify the incoming

38
 signal. The magnitude of this bias voltage is critical; it must be sufficient to keep the transistor
in the active region regardless of the signal’s polarity (positive or negative fluctuations).

2. Input Signal: A weak input signal is superimposed on the bias voltage. The combined effect
results in small variations in the emitter current (IE ), which occur due to the fluctuations of
the input signal. Because the input circuit has low resistance, even a slight change in the input
voltage (signal) results in a significant change in the emitter current.

3. Transistor Action: The transistor has a characteristic property: a small change in emitter
current leads to a corresponding change in collector current (IC ).

4. Amplification Process: As the emitter current increases due to the input signal, the collector
current increases almost proportionally, leading to a larger current flowing through the load
resistor (RC ). The voltage drop across RC is given by Ohm’s law:

Vout = IC · RC

Because RC is typically a high resistance, the voltage across it becomes substantial, resulting
in a significant output voltage that reflects the amplified version of the weak input signal.

5. Output Signal: The output voltage, taken across the load resistor, appears in an amplified
form, effectively boosting the weak signal’s strength. The amplified output can then be used
to drive speakers, transmit signals, or perform further processing in electronic circuits.

Transistor connection
In a transistor, there are three terminals: the emitter, base, and collector. However, when
connecting a transistor in a circuit, we typically need four terminals: two for the input and two
for the output. To address this, we use a configuration where one of the transistor’s terminals is
common to both the input and output, simplifying the circuit and defining the transistor connection
type. This common terminal serves as a shared reference point for both input and output, allowing
the other two terminals to function as distinct input and output points.
Based on which terminal is chosen as the common reference, there are three main transistor
connection configurations:

39
(i) Common Base (CB) Connection
In this configuration, the base is the terminal common to both the input and output.

• The input signal is applied between the emitter and the base.

• The output is taken between the collector and the base.

(ii) Common Emitter (CE) Connection

Here, the emitter is the terminal common to both the input and output.

• The input signal is applied between the base and the emitter.

• The output is taken between the collector and the emitter.

(iii) Common Collector (CC) Connection

In this setup, the collector is the terminal common to both the input and output.

• The input signal is applied between the base and the collector.

• The output is taken between the emitter and the collector.

Common Biasing Setup

Regardless of the connection type:

• The emitter is always forward-biased with respect to the base, allowing current to flow
from the emitter to the base.

• The collector is reverse-biased with respect to the base, allowing it to draw away charge
carriers from the base region, facilitating amplification.

Common Base Configuration

In a common-base (CB) transistor connection, the input is applied between the emitter and
base, while the output is taken from the collector and base. Here, the base of the transistor is
common to both the input and output circuits, hence the name common base connection.

40
 Figure 22: Common Base

Key Aspects of the Common Base Configuration

1. Current Amplification Factor (α)

The current amplification factor, denoted by α, is the ratio of output current to input
current in this configuration. In a common base connection:

• The input current is the emitter current (IE ).

• The output current is the collector current (IC ).

Mathematically, the current amplification factor is given by:

∆IC
α= at constant VCB
∆IE

where VCB is the collector-base voltage. Since α is the ratio of output to input current, its
value is typically less than unity. To achieve higher values (closer to unity but never exceeding
it), the base region is made thin and lightly doped, reducing the base current, which increases α.
In commercial transistors, typical values of α range from 0.9 to 0.99.

2. Expression for Collector Current (IC )

Not all of the emitter current (IE ) reaches the collector. This is because a small fraction of the
emitter current recombines in the base to create the base current (IB ). Additionally, because

41
the collector-base junction is reverse-biased, there exists a leakage current due to minority
carriers flowing across this junction.
Thus, the total collector current (IC ) consists of:

• The part of emitter current reaching the collector: αIE .

• The leakage current across the collector-base junction, denoted by Ileakage .

So, the total collector current (IC ) is:

IC = αIE + Ileakage

If the emitter circuit is open (i.e., IE = 0), there is still a small leakage current in the collector
circuit, abbreviated as ICBO (Collector-Base current with Emitter Open). Therefore:

IC = αIE + ICBO (Equation 1)

3. Relation Between Collector Current, Emitter Current, and Base Cur-

rent

The emitter current (IE ) is the sum of the collector current and base current:

IE = IC + IB

Substituting into Equation 1:

IC = α(IC + IB ) + ICBO

Rearranging terms, we get:

IC (1 − α) = αIB + ICBO

Solving for IC :
αIB + ICBO
IC = (Equation 2)
1−α
Using these equations, the collector current can be found in terms of either the emitter current
(IE ) or base current (IB ), allowing us to control the collector current through either input current.

4. Leakage Current (ICBO )

In the common base (CB) configuration, a small collector current flows even when the emit-
ter current is zero, known as the leakage current. This leakage current is denoted by ICBO ,
representing the collector current with the emitter open.

42
 Figure 23: Input Characteristics

When the emitter voltage (VEE ) is applied, the various currents behave as per the conditions
explained above, with ICBO providing a small base leakage component that persists even in the
absence of emitter current.
This analysis explains how the collector current in a common-base transistor connection is
influenced by both the emitter current and the leakage current ICBO , as well as the relationship
between collector, base, and emitter currents.

Characteristics of Common Base Connection

In a common base (CB) transistor connection, the behavior of the transistor can be fully understood
by analyzing the relationship between its currents and voltages, which are displayed in characteristic
curves. The two main characteristics we focus on are the input and output characteristics.

1. Input Characteristic

The input characteristic is a graph showing the relationship between the emitter current (IE )
and the emitter-base voltage (VEB ) while keeping the collector-base voltage (VCB ) constant.

• Graph Setup: In the graph, IE (emitter current) is on the y-axis, and VEB (emitter-base
voltage) is on the x-axis.

43
 Figure 24: Output Characteristics

• Key Observations:

– The emitter current (IE ) increases rapidly with even a small increase in the emitter-base
voltage (VEB ). This means the input resistance is very low because only a small voltage
is needed to get a large current.

– The emitter current (IE ) does not change much with variations in VCB (collector-base
voltage). This shows that IE and, consequently, IC (collector current) are almost unaf-
fected by changes in VCB .

Input Resistance (ri ): The input resistance is calculated by the formula:

∆VEB
ri = at constant VCB
∆IE

Since only a small voltage VEB is enough to produce a large emitter current, the input resistance ri
in this setup is usually very low, just a few ohms.

2. Output Characteristic

The output characteristic is a graph showing the relationship between the collector current (IC )
and the collector-base voltage (VCB ) at a constant emitter current (IE ).

• Graph Setup: In this graph, IC (collector current) is on the y-axis, and VCB (collector-base
voltage) is on the x-axis.

44
 • Key Observations:

– At low values of VCB (less than 1V), IC changes as VCB changes. However, transistors
are generally not used in this region.

– Once VCB is above 1-2 volts, IC becomes constant and is no longer affected by VCB . This
indicates that IC depends only on IE in this region.

– Even a large change in VCB only results in a small change in IC , meaning the output
resistance is high in this configuration.

Output Resistance (ro ): The output resistance is given by:

∆VCB
ro = at constant IE
∆IC

Because IC doesn’t change much with VCB , the output resistance ro is high—often tens of kilo-ohms.

Summary

• The input resistance of the common base circuit is low (a few ohms) because it allows a
large current flow with a small voltage.

• The output resistance is high (tens of kilo-ohms), as the collector current does not change
much with collector-base voltage variations in this configuration.

Common Emitter Connection

In this circuit arrangement, the input is applied between the base and emitter, while the output
is taken from the collector and emitter. Here, the emitter of the transistor is common to both
input and output circuits, hence the name common emitter connection. Figure 8.16(i) shows
a common emitter npn transistor circuit, whereas Figure 8.16(ii) shows a common emitter pnp
transistor circuit.

1. Base Current Amplification Factor (β)

In a common emitter connection, the input current is IB (base current) and the output current is IC
(collector current). The base current amplification factor, β, represents the ratio of the change
in collector current (∆IC ) to the change in base current (∆IB ):

45
 Figure 25: Common Emitter Configuration

∆IC
β=
∆IB
In most transistors, less than 5% of the emitter current flows as the base current. Therefore,
the value of β is generally greater than 20, often ranging from 20 to 500. This type of connection is
frequently used, as it provides appreciable current gain as well as voltage gain.

2. Relationship Between β and α

A relationship exists between β (CE gain) and α (CB gain), defined as:

∆IC
α=
∆IE
where IE is the emitter current. Since IE = IB + IC , we can derive the relationship between α
and β:

α
β=
1−α
It is evident that as α approaches 1, β becomes very large. This explains the high current gain
in the common emitter configuration, which makes it popular for most transistor applications.

3. Expression for Collector Current

In a common emitter circuit, IB is the input current, and IC is the output current. We know that:

46
 IE = IB + IC

The collector current IC in terms of α and IB is given by:

IC = αIE + ICBO

where ICBO is the collector-base leakage current (a small current due to minority carriers crossing
the base-collector junction when it is reverse-biased). Substituting IE = IB + IC into the equation,
we get:

α ICBO
IC = IB +
1−α 1−α
This expression allows us to calculate the collector current based on the base current and the
leakage current ICBO .

Concept of ICEO

In a common emitter configuration, there exists a small collector current, denoted ICEO , even when
the base current is zero. This is known as the collector-emitter leakage current with the base open.
It is expressed as:

ICBO
ICEO =
1−α
When the base current IB is non-zero, the collector current IC can be expressed as:

IC = βIB + ICEO

This current ICEO is greater than ICBO due to the additional gain in the common emitter
configuration.

Characteristics of Common Emitter Connection

In a Common Emitter (CE) connection, the main characteristics to examine are the input and
output characteristics, which help determine how the transistor behaves in response to changes
in voltage and current.

47
 Figure 26: Input Characteristics

1. Input Characteristic

The input characteristic is the relationship between the base current (IB ) and base-emitter
voltage (VBE ) at a constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE ). This relationship shows how
much base current flows in response to different base-emitter voltages.

• Setup for Input Characteristics:

– To measure this, a circuit is set up to keep VCE constant (e.g., at 10 V).

– The base-emitter voltage VBE is varied, and the corresponding base current IB is recorded.

– A graph is plotted with IB on the y-axis and VBE on the x-axis, showing the input
characteristic at VCE = 10 V.

• Observations:

– The input characteristic graph resembles that of a forward-biased diode curve. This
similarity is because the base-emitter section of a transistor acts like a diode, which is
forward-biased in a CE connection.

– Compared to the Common Base (CB) arrangement, IB increases less rapidly with
VBE , indicating that a CE circuit has a higher input resistance than a CB circuit.

48
 Figure 27: Output Characteristics

• Input Resistance:
∆VBE
ri = (at constant VCE ) (1)
∆IB
For a CE circuit, the input resistance typically falls within a range of a few hundred ohms,
meaning it can resist incoming current more than the CB configuration.

2. Output Characteristic

The output characteristic is the relationship between the collector current (IC ) and the collector-
emitter voltage (VCE ) at a constant base current (IB ). This characteristic shows how much
collector current flows in response to changes in collector-emitter voltage.

• Setup for Output Characteristics:

– To measure this, the base current IB is set to a fixed value (e.g., 5 µA).

– The collector-emitter voltage VCE is then varied, and the corresponding collector current
IC is recorded.

– A graph is plotted with IC on the y-axis and VCE on the x-axis, showing the output
characteristic for IB = 5 µA.

• Observations:

49
 – Knee Voltage (Vknee ): Initially, the collector current IC changes significantly with
VCE , especially between 0 and 1 V. After this range, IC stabilizes and becomes almost
independent of VCE . The voltage VCE at which IC stops increasing rapidly is called the
knee voltage (Vknee ).

– Constant Region: Above the knee voltage, IC remains nearly constant, although a
slight increase occurs due to the widening of the collector depletion layer, which captures
additional charge carriers.

– Current Gain: For values of VCE above the knee voltage, the collector current IC
approximately equals β×IB , where β is the current gain factor. This relation is essential in
amplifying applications since it shows the proportion of base current to collector current.

• Output Resistance:
∆VCE
ro = (at constant IB ) (2)
∆IC
In the output characteristics of a CE circuit, there is a noticeable slope, unlike the horizontal
characteristics seen in a CB circuit. This slope means the output resistance of a CE circuit is
lower than that of a CB circuit, typically around 50 kΩ.

Common Collector Connection

In a common collector (CC) transistor circuit, the input signal is applied between the base and
collector, while the output is taken between the emitter and collector. The collector is therefore
common to both the input and output circuits, which is why it’s referred to as a ”common collector”
configuration.

1. Current Amplification Factor (γ)

In the common collector circuit, the input current is the base current (IB ), and the output current
is the emitter current (IE ). Current amplification in this configuration is defined by the ratio of
change in emitter current (∆IE ) to the change in base current (∆IB ):
∆IE
γ=
∆IB
Since the change in emitter current is roughly equal to the change in collector current (because the
collector current makes up most of the emitter current), this circuit has about the same current gain
as the common emitter (CE) circuit. However, the voltage gain is always less than 1.

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 Figure 28: Common Collector Configuration

2. Relationship between γ and α

In the CC configuration:
∆IE
γ=
∆IB
We also know that:
∆IC
α=
∆IE
Since the emitter current (IE ) is the sum of the base current (IB ) and the collector current (IC ):

IE = IB + IC

Differentiating, we get:
∆IE = ∆IB + ∆IC

Rewriting for ∆IB :

∆IB = ∆IE − ∆IC

Substituting this into the expression for γ, we get:

∆IE
γ=
∆IE − ∆IC
Dividing both the numerator and denominator by ∆IE :
1
γ=
1−α

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Thus, γ and α are related by:
1
γ=
1−α
Since α is generally close to 1, this expression indicates that γ can be quite large.

3. Expression for Collector Current

Using the relation:

IC = αIE + ICBO

And since:
IE = IB + IC = IB + αIE + ICBO

we can rearrange to find IE :

IE (1 − α) = IB + ICBO

so:
IB + ICBO
IE =
1−α
In this configuration, the current gain can be written as:

IE ≈ (β + 1)IB + (β + 1)ICBO

where β is the current gain factor in the common emitter arrangement.

4. Applications

The common collector circuit has a high input resistance (around 750 kΩ) and a low output
resistance (around 25 Ω). This setup results in a voltage gain less than 1, making it less suitable
for amplification. However, due to its high input resistance and low output resistance, this circuit
is ideal for impedance matching—for instance, when driving a low impedance load (e.g., a
speaker) from a high impedance source (e.g., a microphone).

Transistor Load Line Analysis

Load line analysis is a straightforward method used in transistor circuits to find the collector current
IC for various values of the collector-emitter voltage VCE . Instead of plotting the output character-
istics for each transistor setting, we can use the load line method to solve such problems more easily
and quickly. This method is widely applied in analyzing transistor applications.

52
 Figure 29: DC Load Line

1. DC Load Line

The DC load line represents the relationship between the collector current IC and the collector-
emitter voltage VCE for a transistor circuit in a common-emitter configuration when there is no
input signal applied. This analysis assumes that DC conditions prevail in the circuit, and we
consider only the steady-state DC operating point (also called the Q-point or Quiescent point).
Consider a common-emitter NPN transistor circuit where a DC voltage supply VCC is connected
with a resistor RC in the collector branch. According to Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the voltage across
the collector-emitter VCE can be expressed as:

VCE = VCC − IC · RC

Since VCC and RC are fixed, this equation forms a straight line on the output characteristics graph,
representing a linear relationship between VCE and IC . This line is the DC load line and determines
the range of possible values for VCE and IC depending on the load resistance RC .

Finding the Endpoints of the Load Line

To draw the load line on the output characteristics graph, we need two points where the line intersects
the VCE and IC axes.

• Point B (Maximum VCE ):

– When IC = 0 (no current flows through RC ), the voltage across the collector-emitter is
at its maximum:
VCE = VCC (when IC = 0)

– This gives the endpoint on the VCE -axis (point B in the graph).

• Point A (Maximum IC ):

53
 Figure 30:

– When VCE = 0, all the supply voltage VCC appears across RC , giving the maximum
current through the collector:

VCC
IC = (when VCE = 0)
RC

– This gives the endpoint on the IC -axis (point A in the graph).

By connecting these two points (A and B), we obtain the DC load line on the output characteristic
graph.

2. Importance of the Load Line

The load line represents all possible operating points (combinations of IC and VCE ) for a given load
resistance and supply voltage. Each point on this line reflects a different operating condition for the
transistor.

• When IC is at its maximum (IC = VCC

RC ), VCE = 0.

• When IC = 0, VCE = VCC .

• For any other point on the load line, the values of IC and VCE can be directly read from the
graph.

54
 Figure 31: Q-point

Operating Point (Q-point) in a Transistor Circuit

The Operating Point (or Q-point) in a transistor circuit refers to the steady-state values of the
collector current (IC ) and the collector-emitter voltage (VCE ) when no input signal is applied. Here’s
a breakdown of the key points:

1. Definition of the Operating Point:

• The operating point represents the ”zero-signal” or ”silent” conditions in a transistor

circuit, meaning it’s the state where no external input (signal) is applied.

• It’s also called the quiescent point (Q-point) since it’s the point on the IC − VCE
characteristics where the transistor is at rest, without any signal applied.

2. Importance of the Operating Point:

• When a signal is applied to the transistor, the current (IC ) and voltage (VCE ) fluctuate
around this operating point.

• Having a stable Q-point is crucial, as it allows the transistor to amplify signals properly
without distortion.

3. Determining the Q-Point:

55
 • For instance, if the base current (IB ) is set at 5 µA in the absence of a signal, the operating
conditions (i.e., values of IC and VCE ) are given by a point on the output characteristic
corresponding to IB = 5 µA.

• However, these values must also align with the DC load line, a line representing the
relationship between IC and VCE given by the circuit’s resistance and supply voltage.

• The Q-point is precisely where the load line intersects the curve for IB = 5 µA.

4. Illustration :

• In Fig. 31, the Q-point is shown as point Q, where:

– VCE = OC volts (zero-signal collector-emitter voltage)

– IC = OD mA (zero-signal collector current)

Thus, the Q-point is found at the intersection of the load line and the chosen base current curve.
This point defines the transistor’s current and voltage in zero-signal conditions, setting a stable
foundation for when an input signal is later applied.

Performance of Transistor Amplifier

The performance of a transistor amplifier is determined by several key parameters, including input
resistance, output resistance, effective collector load, current gain, voltage gain, and power gain.
Since the common emitter (CE) configuration is widely used for amplification, we’ll focus on these
parameters in the context of a CE amplifier.

1. Input Resistance (Ri )

• Definition: Input resistance (Ri ) is defined as the ratio of a small change in the base-emitter
voltage (∆VBE ) to the resulting change in base current (∆IB ), while keeping the collector-
emitter voltage constant.
∆VBE
Ri =
∆IB

• Explanation: In a CE amplifier, the input circuit (base-emitter junction) is forward-biased,

so the input resistance is relatively low. It typically ranges from about 500 Ω for low-power
transistors to as low as 5 Ω for high-power transistors.

56
 • Example: If an amplifier has an input resistance of 500 Ω and the signal voltage (VBE ) at a
certain instant is 1 V, the base current IB can be calculated as follows:
1V
ib = = 2 mA
500 Ω

2. Output Resistance (RO )

• Definition: Output resistance (RO ) is the ratio of the change in collector-emitter voltage
(∆VCE ) to the resulting change in collector current (∆IC ) at constant base current.
∆VCE
RO =
∆IC
• Explanation: The output characteristics of the transistor show that collector current (IC )
changes very slightly with variations in collector-emitter voltage (VCE ), which leads to a high
output resistance, typically in the range of hundreds of kilo-ohms. This is due to the reverse
biasing of the collector-base junction, which opposes changes in current flow.

3. Effective Collector Load (RAC )

• Definition: Effective collector load (RAC ) is the total load experienced by the AC component
of the collector current. In a single-stage amplifier, it’s the parallel combination of the collector
resistor (RC ) and output resistance (RO ).
RC RO
RAC = RC ∥ RO =
RC + RO
• Single-Stage Amplifiers: In a single-stage amplifier, RAC ≈ RC , as RO is very high com-
pared to RC .

• Multistage Amplifiers: For multistage amplifiers (more than one amplification stage), the
input resistance of the next stage (Ri ) also affects the effective load. In this case:
RC Ri
RAC = RC ∥ RO ∥ Ri =
RC + Ri
Since Ri is typically small (about 25 Ω to 500 Ω), the effective collector load is often reduced.

4. Current Gain (β)

• Definition: Current gain (β) is the ratio of the change in collector current (∆IC ) to the
change in base current (∆IB ).
∆IC
β=
∆IB

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 • Explanation: The current gain (β) of a CE amplifier shows that the base current is amplified
in the collector circuit. Its value typically ranges from 20 to 500, meaning that the base current
is amplified by this factor in the collector circuit.

5. Voltage Gain (Av )

• Definition: Voltage gain (Av ) is the ratio of the change in output voltage (∆VCE ) to the
change in input voltage (∆VBE ).
∆VCE
Av =
∆VBE

• Formula Derivation: Voltage gain can be expressed as the product of the effective collector
load (RAC ) and input resistance (Ri ), along with the current gain (β).

RAC
Av = β ×
Ri

• Single-Stage vs. Multistage: In a single-stage amplifier, RAC ≈ RC . However, in a

RC Ri
multistage amplifier, RAC = RC +Ri , as Ri represents the input resistance of the next stage.

6. Power Gain (Ap )

• Definition: Power gain (Ap ) is the ratio of the output signal power to the input signal power.

(∆IC )2 · RAC
Ap = = Current Gain × Voltage Gain = β × Av
(∆IB )2 · Ri

• Explanation: The power gain (Ap ) depends on both the current gain and the voltage gain.
For a given signal, this indicates how much the power in the output is amplified compared to
the power in the input.

Cutoff and Saturation Points in a Transistor

In a transistor circuit, particularly in a common emitter (CE) configuration, understanding the
cutoff point, saturation point, and active region is crucial. These points represent different
states of operation for the transistor. Let’s break down these concepts:

58
 Figure 32: Cut off and Saturtion Points

1. Cutoff Point

• Definition: The cutoff point is where the load line intersects the IB = 0 curve on the output
characteristics graph. This is the condition when there is no base current (IB = 0), which in
turn causes minimal collector current, aside from a small leakage current called ICEO .

• Conditions at Cutoff :

– Base Current (IB ) = 0

– Collector Current (IC ) = ICEO (leakage current, usually very small)

• Effect on the Transistor:

– At cutoff, the base-emitter junction is not forward-biased anymore, meaning the transistor
cannot conduct in the usual way. In this state, it essentially behaves like an open switch.

– Collector-Emitter Voltage (VCE ) ≈ VCC , the supply voltage. This occurs because, in
cutoff, almost no current flows through the collector resistor (RC ), leading to minimal
voltage drop across it.

• Formula:
VCE(cutoff) = VCC

2. Saturation Point

• Definition: The saturation point is where the load line intersects the IB = IB(sat) curve
on the graph. IB(sat) is the base current required to drive the transistor into saturation. At

59
 saturation, the transistor is fully “on,” meaning it conducts maximum current.

• Conditions at Saturation:

– Base Current (IB ) = IB(sat) , the maximum base current

– Collector Current (IC ) ≈ IC(sat) , the maximum collector current

• Effect on the Transistor:

– At saturation, the collector-base junction is no longer reverse-biased, which is necessary

for normal transistor action. Thus, the transistor can no longer operate as an amplifier
but behaves as a closed switch, allowing current to pass freely from collector to emitter.

– Collector-Emitter Voltage (VCE ) becomes very low, often close to zero, but a small voltage
called VCE(sat) , or ”saturation voltage,” remains.

• Formula:
VCC − VCE(sat)
VCE(sat) ≈ 0 and IC =
RC
where VCE(sat) is very low, typically a few tenths of a volt.

• Note: If IB exceeds IB(sat) , IC won’t increase further since the transistor is already saturated.
The excess base current has no further effect on the collector current.

3. Active Region

• Definition: The active region lies between the cutoff and saturation points on the output
characteristics graph. This is the normal operating region for a transistor used as an amplifier.

• Conditions in the Active Region:

– The collector-base junction remains reverse-biased, while the base-emitter junction re-
mains forward-biased.

• Operation in the Active Region:

– In the active region, small changes in the base current (IB ) produce proportional changes
in the collector current (IC ), allowing the transistor to function as a linear amplifier.

– Output voltage (VCE ) and current (IC ) vary linearly, making the active region ideal for
amplification purposes.

60
 Figure 33: Proper Zero Signal Collector Current

Transistor Biasing

Faithful Amplification
The process of raising the strength of a weak signal without any change in its general shape is known
as faithful amplification. To achieve faithful amplification in a transistor, certain conditions must
be met to ensure that the transistor operates in the active region of its characteristics at all times.
These conditions are:

1. Proper zero-signal collector current

2. Minimum proper base-emitter voltage (VBE ) at any instant

3. Minimum proper collector-emitter voltage (VCE ) at any instant

The following sections explain these conditions in detail.

1. Proper Zero-Signal Collector Current

For faithful amplification, the transistor’s input circuit (i.e., base-emitter junction) must remain
forward-biased, and its output circuit (i.e., collector-base junction) must remain reverse-biased. To
ensure this, a suitable zero-signal collector current IC must flow when no input signal is applied.
During the positive half-cycle of the input signal, the base-emitter junction is forward-biased,
causing base current IB and a larger amplified collector current IC to flow. In contrast, during the
negative half-cycle, the base-emitter junction can become reverse-biased if no zero-signal collector
current is set, resulting in unfaithful amplification with a distorted output signal.

61
 Figure 34: Proper Minimum BE Voltage

The condition for faithful amplification is:

Zero-signal collector current ≥ Max. collector current due to signal alone

2. Proper Minimum Base-Emitter Voltage VBE

For faithful amplification, the base-emitter voltage VBE should not fall below a certain threshold at
any point in the signal cycle. This threshold is known as the potential barrier and depends on the
transistor type:

• VBE ≥ 0.5 V for germanium transistors

• VBE ≥ 0.7 V for silicon transistors

If VBE falls below these values, the base current IB drops, reducing the collector current IC and
causing unfaithful amplification.

3. Proper Minimum Collector-Emitter Voltage VCE

For faithful amplification, the collector-emitter voltage VCE should not fall below a knee voltage
Vknee , which is:

• VCE ≥ 0.5 V for germanium transistors

• VCE ≥ 1.0 V for silicon transistors

If VCE drops below Vknee , the collector-base junction is not properly reverse-biased, reducing
current gain β and leading to partial signal amplification, resulting in unfaithful amplification.

62
 Figure 35: Proper minimum CE Voltage

Summary
To achieve faithful amplification:

• The zero-signal collector current should be sufficient to cover the maximum peak of the input
signal.

• The base-emitter voltage VBE should remain above 0.5 V for germanium or 0.7 V for silicon
transistors.

• The collector-emitter voltage VCE should stay above the knee voltage (0.5 V for Ge, 1 V for
Si).

By meeting these conditions, the transistor will amplify the entire input signal waveform faith-
fully, preserving the shape and integrity of the original signal.

Transistor Biasing
In transistor circuits, biasing ensures that the transistor operates properly as an amplifier by setting
the right voltages and currents. Without proper biasing, the transistor may not amplify the signal
faithfully, leading to signal distortion.
For faithful amplification, a transistor amplifier must fulfill three main conditions:

1. Proper Zero-Signal Collector Current: A certain minimum current should flow through
the collector when no input signal is applied. This ”zero-signal” current helps maintain a
stable operating point, which prevents the transistor from turning off during the negative half
of the signal cycle.

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 2. Proper Base-Emitter Voltage at Any Instant: The base-emitter junction should remain
forward-biased to allow base current IB to flow. When this junction is forward-biased, the
transistor’s amplification remains linear and consistent.

3. Proper Collector-Emitter Voltage at Any Instant: The collector-base junction should

be reverse-biased, which allows the collector to ”collect” the electrons from the emitter without
interference, thus enabling a steady and amplified output.

These conditions are collectively known as transistor biasing.

Purpose of Transistor Biasing

The main goal of transistor biasing is to ensure that the transistor works in its active region
throughout the signal cycle. In the active region:

• The base-emitter junction is forward biased.

• The collector-base junction is reverse biased.

This balance allows for consistent, high-quality amplification. If these conditions aren’t met, the
transistor may enter cutoff (no amplification) or saturation (over-amplification), which distorts the
signal.

Methods for Transistor Biasing

To achieve proper biasing, you can either:

• Use a bias battery in the circuit to maintain the required voltages across the transistor
terminals.

• Set up a biasing circuit using resistors and other components to create a steady voltage and
current environment around the transistor. This method is preferred because it’s cost-effective,
reliable, and efficient.

Biasing Circuits

A biasing circuit provides transistor biasing by arranging components like resistors, capacitors, and
sometimes inductors. These components create a stable environment that maintains the required

64
conditions for faithful amplification. Proper biasing ensures that a transistor circuit will amplify
signals without distortion, making it essential in applications where signal fidelity is important.

Inherent Variation of transistor parameters

• In practical applications, transistor parameters like current gain (β) and base-emitter volt-
age (VBE ) often vary, even among transistors of the same model.

• Example: For a BC147 silicon NPN transistor, β may range from 100 to 600. This means
two BC147 transistors could have significantly different values of β, even though they share
the same model.

• Reason for Variability:

– Transistor manufacturing is a relatively new technology, and production techniques are

still evolving.

– Small differences in physical construction, such as base width variations, can result in
noticeable changes in parameters like β and VBE .

• Impact of Parameter Variation:

– These inherent differences in transistor parameters can shift the operating point, which
may cause unfaithful (distorted) amplification.

– If the operating point is not stable, the amplified output may not accurately reflect the
input signal, leading to distortion.

• Solution:

– A well-designed biasing network can stabilize the operating point by accommodating

transistors of the same type, despite variations in β and VBE .

– This approach ensures that the operating point remains stable and independent
of individual transistor parameter variations, enabling consistent, faithful amplification
across different transistors.

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Stabilization in Transistor Circuits
Stabilization in transistor circuits is the process of maintaining a consistent operating point for
the transistor, regardless of temperature changes or transistor replacement. This is crucial because
transistors are sensitive to both temperature fluctuations and inherent variations in parameters,
which can affect the amplification quality and potentially lead to circuit failure.

Why Stabilization is Important

1. Temperature Effects: Transistor parameters like collector current (IC ) and base-emitter
voltage (VBE ) can be significantly impacted by temperature. For instance, the collector leakage
current (ICBO ) increases with temperature, doubling for every 10°C rise. If not stabilized, this
increase can shift the operating point and affect amplification.

2. Transistor Parameter Variations: Even transistors of the same type (e.g., BC147) have
variations in key parameters, such as current gain (β) and VBE , due to manufacturing dif-
ferences. Without stabilization, changing the transistor in a circuit could lead to a shifted
operating point, affecting performance and leading to unfaithful (distorted) amplification.

3. Thermal Runaway: Thermal runaway is a dangerous situation that can occur in an unsta-
bilized transistor circuit. Here’s how it unfolds:

• The flow of collector current generates heat in the transistor.

• Rising temperature causes an increase in ICBO (collector leakage current).

• From the equation IC = βIB + (β + 1)ICBO , any increase in ICBO will also increase IC ,
producing even more heat.

• This loop continues, with the increased IC further raising the temperature, leading to a
cumulative effect. Ultimately, this can result in the transistor burning out.

Stabilization Mechanisms

• Biasing Circuit: A properly designed biasing circuit helps ensure that IC (collector current)
remains stable. This can be achieved by causing the base current (IB ) to decrease as the
temperature rises, compensating for any increase in ICBO .

66
 • Keeping IC Constant: By making IB decrease with a temperature increase, the term βIB
(which largely influences IC ) can balance the increase in (β + 1)ICBO . This approach keeps
IC nearly constant despite fluctuations in temperature or transistor replacement.

Summary of Stabilization Needs

1. To Ensure Temperature Independence: Stabilization is essential because ICBO , and thus

IC , varies significantly with temperature.

2. To Compensate for Parameter Variations: The variations in β and VBE among transis-
tors can impact the operating point; stabilization compensates for these differences.

3. To Prevent Thermal Runaway: Stabilization prevents the self-destructive feedback loop

caused by rising IC and ICBO , which could otherwise lead to transistor failure.

Stability Factor
The stability factor (S) is an important parameter in transistor circuits, especially in a Common
Emitter (C.E.) configuration, as it determines the circuit’s sensitivity to variations in collector
leakage current (ICO ). This sensitivity impacts the thermal stability of the circuit, affecting its
performance under temperature changes.

1. Purpose of Stability Factor:

• The stability factor helps quantify how stable the collector current IC remains when there are
changes in the collector leakage current ICO .

• Ideally, IC should remain constant, regardless of variations in ICO , to ensure that the circuit
operates consistently, especially with temperature fluctuations that might alter ICO .

• A low stability factor means that changes in ICO have little effect on IC , resulting in better
thermal stability.

2. Definition of Stability Factor:

• The stability factor S is defined as the rate of change of the collector current IC with respect to
the collector leakage current ICO , holding the current gain β and the base current IB constant.

67
 • Mathematically, S is represented as:
dIC
S= at constant β and IB
dICO

• A stability factor S = 50 would mean that a change in ICO causes IC to change 50 times as
much, indicating high sensitivity to ICO . For better thermal stability, a lower S is desired,
with the ideal value being S = 1.

3. Collector Current Expression in a C.E. Configuration:

• In a Common Emitter (C.E.) configuration, the collector current IC can be expressed as:

IC = βIB + (β + 1)ICO

where:

– β is the current gain (ratio of collector current to base current),

– IB is the base current,

– ICO is the collector leakage current.

4. Differentiating to Find Stability Factor S:

• To determine the stability factor, we differentiate IC with respect to ICO , keeping IB and β
constant:
dIC
=β+1
dICO
• Thus, we can write:
dIC
S= =β+1
dICO
• This result indicates that the stability factor S is directly proportional to β + 1. Therefore,
a high current gain β increases the stability factor S, making IC more sensitive to changes in
ICO .

5. Deriving an Alternate Expression for S:

• We can use an alternate approach to express S in terms of the derivative of the base current
with respect to the collector current. Starting from:

IC = βIB + (β + 1)ICO

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 Differentiate both sides with respect to IC :

dIC dIB dICO

=β + (β + 1)
dIC dIC dIC

• Solving this, we get:

β+1
S=
1 − β dIB
dIC

6. Interpretation of the Stability Factor S:

• The stability factor S gives a measure of the thermal stability of the circuit.

• For lower values of S, changes in ICO have minimal impact on IC , meaning the circuit can
maintain consistent operation even if leakage currents vary due to temperature changes.

• However, it’s challenging to achieve S = 1 in practical circuits, and values above 25 typically
indicate unsatisfactory performance due to excessive sensitivity to changes in ICO .

In summary, the stability factor S in a C.E. transistor circuit quantifies how changes in ICO
impact IC . The lower the S, the better the thermal stability, which is crucial for reliable circuit
operation across varying temperatures.

69