PRACTICAL OBSERVATION

NOTE BOOK
FOR
PHYSICS
(for internal circulation only)

CLASS: XII
(2023 – 24)

BALA VIDYA MANDIR SR SEC SCHOOL

ADYAR, CHENNAI-20
 BALA VIDYA MANDIR SR SEC SCHOOL
CLASS 12
PHYSICS PRACTICAL 2023- 24
SECTION–A
EXPERIMENT
1. To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference
versus current.
2. To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre bridge.
3. To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge.
4. To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure
of merit.
ACTIVITIES
1. To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
2. To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.
3. To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat,
key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and
correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

SECTION-B
EXPERIMENTS
1. To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the
focal length.
2. To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens.
3. To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between
1/u and 1/v.
4. To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward and reverse bias.
ACTIVITIES
1. To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such
items.
2. To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass
slab.
3. To study the nature and size of the image formed by a (i) convex lens, or (ii) concave
mirror, on a screen by using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from
the lens/mirror).
CBSE Suggested Investigatory Projects:

1. To study various factors on which the internal resistance/EMF of a cell depends.

2. To study the variations in current flowing in a circuit containing an LDR because of a
variation in
a) the power of the incandescent lamp, used to 'illuminate' the LDR (keeping all the
lamps at a fixed distance).
b) the distance of a incandescent lamp (of fixed power) used to 'illuminate' the LDR.
3. To find the refractive indices of (a) water (b) oil (transparent) using a plane mirror, an
equi-convex lens (made from a glass of known refractive index) and an adjustable
object needle.
4. To investigate the relation between the ratio of (i) output and input voltage and (ii)
number of turns in the secondary coil and primary coil of a self-designed transformer.
5. To investigate the dependence of the angle of deviation on the angle of incidence using
a hollow prism filled one by one, with different transparent fluids.
6. To estimate the charge induced on each one of the two identical styrofoam (or pith)
balls suspended in a vertical plane by making use of Coulomb's law.
7. To study the factor on which the self-inductance of a coil depends by observing the
effect of this coil, when put in series with a resistor/(bulb) in a circuit fed up by an A.C.
source of adjustable frequency.
8. To study the earth's magnetic field using a tangent galvanometer.
Other Projects:

1. To Study the Lenz law of Electromagnetic Induction

2. To Study the Phenomenon of Electromagnetic Induction
3. To Study the Mutual Inductance of Two Adjacent Inductive Coil
4. To Study the Eddy Current Effect.
5. To Study the Phenomenon of Diffraction of Light
6. To Study the Single Slit Diffraction and Double Slit Interference
7. Study of the intensity of light through many polarizers at various angles
8. Determining the Type of Particle in an Air Sample by Using Laser Light Scattering
9. To Study, the temperature Affects a Magnet’s Strength
10. To Study and Analyse the Force of Attraction between the bar magnet and Solenoid
11. To Study the different Magnetic materials effect on the dynamics of an Oscillating
Magnet.
12. To study the polarisation of light.
 INDEX
SECTION - A

S. Date of Date of Teacher’s

Topic Remarks
No. experiment submission Signature

E1
E2
E3
E4
A1
A2
A3

SECTION - B

S. Date of Date of Teacher’s

Topic Remarks
No. experiment submission Signature

E1
E2
E3

E4

A1

A2

A3
SECTION - A
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

SAMPLE GRAPH:

Resistance = slope of the graph = ∆𝑉

∆𝐼

1
 OHM’S LAW
EXPT NO.:
DATE:

Aim:
To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph between potential
difference versus current.

Apparatus required:
Battery eliminator, resistance wires, an ammeter and a voltmeter of appropriate
range, a rheostat and connecting wires.

Theory:
Ohm’s law states “the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical
conditions like temperature, dimensions of the conductor remain the same”.

If ‘I’ be the current flowing through the conductor and ‘V’ be the potential
difference across its ends, then according to Ohm’s law,
V α I or
V = RI
where R is the resistance of the conductor.

Formula:

(a) Resistance: The resistance of the given wire is given by, R = 𝑉

𝐼
where ‘V’ is the p. d across the ends of the conductor measured in volts,
‘I’ the current flowing through the conductor measured in amperes and
‘R’ is the resistance of the conductor measured in Ohms.

𝜌𝐿
(b) For specific resistance: From resistance formula, 𝑅 =
𝐴
𝑅𝐴
The resistivity of the wire is 𝜌 =
𝐿
where ρ is the specific resistance of the wire in Ω-m,
A is the area of cross section in m2 and
L is the length of the wire in m.
For a wire of radius r, Area, A = πr2 ( r is measured in cm)

2
OBSERVATION:
WIRE – 1
Least count of Ammeter = A
Least count of Voltmeter = V
Length of the wire, 𝑙1 = m

Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading Resistance

S. R= 𝑉
V I
No. 𝐼
(V) (A) (Ω)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

WIRE – 2
Length of the wire, 𝑙2 = m

Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading Resistance

S. R= 𝑉
V I
No. 𝐼
(V) (A) (Ω)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

FOR DIAMETER:
Zero Error = Zero correction =
S.
PSR CHSR T.R =PSR +CHSR
No. HSC CHSC
(mm) (mm) (mm)

WIRE 1
WIRE 2

3
Procedure:

• Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

• Determine the least count of the ammeter and voltmeter.
• Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat and note down the readings of the
ammeter and voltmeter.
• Shift the rheostat contact slightly and record the readings of the ammeter
and voltmeter.
• Repeat the experiment for at least five different positions of the rheostat.
• Repeat the above procedure for one more resistance wire.

For specific resistance:

1. Measure the length of the given wire using a scale.
2. Measure the diameter of the wire using a screw gauge.

Result:
Resistivity of wire 1 = Ω-m
Resistivity of wire 2 = Ω-m

Precautions:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. A low resistance rheostat should be used.
3. Ammeter and voltmeter should be of appropriate range.

Sources of Error:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. Rheostat may have high resistance.

4
Graph: 1
WIRE – 1
Potential difference vs Current

Graph: 2
WIRE – 2
Potential difference VS Current

5
CALCULATION:
WIRE: 1

From graph, slope = ∆𝑉

∆𝐼

𝑅1𝐴 1
Resistivity of wire 1: 𝜌1 =
𝐿1

WIRE: 2

From graph, slope = ∆𝑉

∆𝐼

𝑅2𝐴 2
Resistivity of wire 2: 𝜌2 =
𝐿2

6
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

7
 METER BRIDGE
EXPT NO.:
DATE:

Aim: To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre bridge.

Apparatus:
A meter bridge, battery eliminator, galvanometer, resistance box, jockey,
resistance wire, screw gauge, connecting wires.

Theory:
Meter bridge is a practical form of Wheatstone’s bridge. For a balanced
𝑅
Wheatstone’s bridge, the reading in the galvanometer is zero. So 𝑅1 = 3, where
𝑅2 𝑅4
R1, R2, R3 and R4 are resistances in the four arms of the Wheatstone’s bridge.

Formula used:
𝑙
According to Wheatstone’s principle, 𝑅 =
𝑋 100−𝑙

The unknown resistance can be calculated as:

100−𝑙
X= (
𝑙
)𝑅
where R is the known resistance in Ω,
X is the unknown resistance in Ω,
l and (100- l) are the balancing lengths in cm.

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as per the diagram.

2. Touch the jockey first at the left end and then at the right end of the meter
bridge wire and check for opposite deflection.
3. Take out a suitable resistance R from the resistance box R.
4. Slide the jockey till the galvanometer shows zero deflection nearly in the
middle of the wire and note the balancing length l.

8
OBSERVATION:
FOR UNKNOWN RESISTANCE:

Resistance
Balancing 100−𝑙
X=( )𝑅
included in the
length 𝑙
S. resistance box (100 –l)
l
No. R (cm) (Ω)
(cm)
(Ω)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
Mean:

Calculation:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

𝑋1+𝑋2+𝑋3+𝑋4+𝑋5
Mean = =
5

9
 5. Take at least 5 sets of observations in the same way by changing the value
of R.
6. Record the readings in the tabular column.

Result:
The value of the unknown resistance is ------------- Ω.

Precautions:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.

Sources of Error:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. The wire may not have uniform thickness.

10
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

11
 METER BRIDGE –LAW OF COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES

EXPT. NO.:
DATE:
Aim:
To verify the laws of combination of resistances [series] using a meter bridge.

Apparatus:
A meter bridge, an eliminator, a galvanometer a resistance box, jockey, two
resistance coils and connecting wires.

Formula Used:
100−𝑙
The resistance of the coil is given by, X = (
𝑙
)𝑅

where R is the known resistance in Ω,

X is the unknown resistance in Ω,
l and (100- l) are the balancing lengths in cm.

When the resistances are connected in series, the effective resistance,

Rs = R1 +R2

Procedure:

1 Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Check for opposite deflection in the galvanometer by pressing the jockey at

the extreme ends of the meter bridge wire.

3. Adjust the resistance from the resistance box so that you get the balance point
near the midpoint of the wire. Note down the value of R and the position of
jockey.

4. Change the resistance from the resistance box and note the balance point.

5. Repeat the experiment for three different values of R.

6. Replace the first resistance on the right gap with the second resistance and
repeat the above steps.

7. Now connect the given two resistances in series and perform the experiment.

8. Record your observations.

12
OBSERVATION:

(i) Resistance: R1

Resistance included Balancing

100−𝑙
in the resistance box length 𝑅1 = ( )R
S. (100 –l) 𝑙
R l
No. (cm) (Ω)
(Ω) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
Mean:

(ii) Resistance: R2

Resistance included Balancing

in the resistance box length 100−𝑙
S. (100 –l) 𝑅2 = ( )R
R l 𝑙
No. (cm) (Ω)
(Ω) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
Mean:

(iii) SERIES COMBINATION: (Rs = R1 + R2 )

Resistance included Balancing

in the resistance box length 100−𝑙
S. (100 –l) 𝑅𝑠 = ( )R
R l 𝑙
No. (cm) (Ω)
(Ω) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
Mean:

13
Result:

Within the limits of experimental error, the experimental and theoretical values
of R is the same. Hence the law of resistances in series is verified.

Precautions:

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. The jockey should not be dragged on the wire.

Sources of error:

1. If continuous current flows for some time, then there may be gets change in
the resistance of the bridge wire due to heating of the wire.

2. The wire may not have uniform thickness.

14
CALCULATION:

Mathematical Verification:

Experimental Value, R1 =

Experimental Value, R2 =

Experimental Value, RS =

Reff = R1 + R2

Reff ≈ RS

15
16
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:

EMF of the cell: 2 V

𝑹𝑺 𝑬
S. R θ S θ/2 𝑮= 𝑲=
𝑹−𝑺 (𝑹 + 𝑮)𝜽
No. (Ω) (DIV) (Ω) (Div)
(Ω) (Amp/Div)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean:

17
 GALVANOMETER-RESISTANCE AND FIGURE OF MERIT

EXPT NO.:
DATE:

Aim:
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and
determine its figure of merit.

Apparatus:
A Weston type galvanometer, battery eliminator, two four dial resistance boxes,
one way key and connecting wires.

Theory:

When a coil carrying current, I is placed in a radial magnetic field, the coil
experiences a deflection θ which is related to I as
I=kθ
where k is a constant of proportionality and is termed as figure of merit of the
galvanometer.

Formula used:
i) Resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half deflection method is
𝑅𝑆
𝐺=
𝑅−𝑆
where G is the resistance of the galvanometer (Ω).
R is the value of high resistance (Ω).
S is the value of the shunt resistance (Ω).

ii) Figure of merit

𝐸
𝐾=
(𝑅 + 𝐺)𝜃
where E is the e. m. f of the cell (V).
θ is the deflection produced with resistance R ohm (div).
K is the figure of merit (Amp/div).

18
CALCULATION:
I. Resistance of the given galvanometer:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean:

II. Figure of merit:

19
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Include a suitable high resistance R (without inserting the key) so that the
galvanometer shows maximum deflection θ.
3. Record the values of R and θ.
4. Now insert the key K and adjust the resistance in the shunt so that the
galvanometer shows a deflection of θ/2.
5. Record the values S and θ/2.
6. Repeat the above steps for at least five different values of R.

Result:
1. Resistance of the given galvanometer by half deflection method is found to
be Ω
2. Figure of merit is found to be ------------- Amp/ div.

Sources of Error:
1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.
2. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.

Precautions:
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Initially high resistance R from the resistance box should be included to
prevent the excessive flow of current through the galvanometer thereby
damaging it.

20
 ACTIVITIES
SECTION - A

DIAGRAM:

21
 ACTIVITY – 1

DATE:

AIM:

To assemble the components of the given electrical circuit.

APPARATUS:

Battery eliminator, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, resistor, one way key,

connecting wires.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the given components as per the circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the battery eliminator and adjust the rheostat so that ammeter
and voltmeter show some deflections.

RESULT:

The given components were assembled to form Ohm’s law circuit.

22
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

SAMPLE GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:

Voltmeter
Length of wire 𝑽
S. Reading
l 𝑲=
No. V 𝒍
(cm)
(Volt) (V/cm)
1. 50
2. 150
3. 250
4. 350
5. 450
6. 550
7. 650
8. 750
9. 850
10. 950
Mean:

23
 ACTIVITY- 2

DATE:

AIM:
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current
using a potentiometer

APPARATUS:
Potentiometer, battery eliminator, rheostat, voltmeter and connecting wires.

THEORY:
When a steady current flow through a potentiometer wire of uniform cross
section and uniform composition, then the fall of potential ‘V’ along the wire is
directly proportional to the length ‘l’ of the wire i.e.,
Vαl
Or V = kl
k=𝑽
𝒍
k is a constant known as the potential gradient which is fall of potential per unit
length. S.I unit of k is V/m.

PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. For the purpose of length measurement, the end A of the potentiometer
wire will be treated as origin (zero).
3. Press the jockey at the zero cm mark of the potentiometer wire and note
the voltmeter reading.
4. Slide the jockey along the wire away from end A and record
the voltmeter reading after every 50 cm.
5. Find the ratio for each observation.
6. Plot a graph of V vs l taking l along the X axis and V along the Y axis.

RESULT:
Within the experimental error, the ratio 𝑽 is found to be a constant. So, the fall
𝒍
of potential V is proportional to the length of the wire.

24
Graph:

Potential drop vs length

_____________________________________________________________________
Slope Calculation:

25
Graph:

Potential drop vs length

_____________________________________________________________________

Slope Calculation:

26
INCORRECT DIAGRAM:

CORRECTED DIAGRAM:

27
 ACTIVITY- 3

DATE:
AIM:

To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery,

resistance/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. To mark the components that
are not connected in proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit
diagram.

APPARATUS:

Battery eliminator, ammeter, voltmeter, resistor, rheostat, one way key

and connecting wires.

PROCEDURE:

The given circuit suffers from the following drawbacks:

1. The ammeter is connected in parallel, whereas it should have been

connected in series.
2. The voltmeter is connected in series, whereas it should have been
connected in parallel.
3. The positive terminal of the battery is connected to the negative terminal
of the ammeter and voltmeter whereas it should have been connected to
the positive terminal of the ammeter and voltmeter.
4. Redraw the circuit diagram by interchanging the positions of voltmeter
and ammeter.
5. Change the polarities also such that the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to the positive terminal of the voltmeter and ammeter.

RESULT:

The diagram of the given open circuit was drawn, components that are not
connected in order identified, the circuit was corrected and the correct circuit
diagram was drawn.

28
29
SECTION - B

30
RAY DIAGRAM:

31
 CONCAVE MIRROR

EXPT.NO. :

DATE :

Aim:

To find the values of ‘v’ for different values of ‘u’ in case of a

concave mirror and to find its focal length.

Apparatus:

Lamp box with bulb, concave mirror, metre scale, mirror holder and screen.

Theory and formula:

Mirror formula is given as: 1 = 1 + 1

𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
𝑢𝑣
From the above equation, we get the focal length as: 𝑓 =
𝑢+𝑣

where,

‘f’ is the focal length of a concave mirror. (cm)

‘u’ is the distance of object from the pole of the mirror. (cm)

‘v’ is the distance of image from the pole of the mirror. (cm)

The value of f will be negative. This is according to the sign-convention, ‘u’ and
‘v’ have negative values.

Procedure:

Distant object method:

1. Mount the mirror in the holder and direct it towards a distant object.
2. Keep the screen in front of the mirror and adjust its position till a clear
and well-defined image is formed on the screen.
3. Measure the distance between the mirror and the screen. This gives the
rough focal length of the mirror.

32
OBSERVATION:

(i) Distant object method:

Focal length of the concave mirror is cm.

(ii) u- v method:

Focal length
Object distance Image distance 𝒖𝒗
S. 𝒇=
‘u’ ‘v’ 𝒖+𝒗
No.
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1

Mean:

33
u- v method:

1. Mount the mirror in the zero mark of the metre scale.

2. Keep the mirror holder with the mirror at a distance nearly 1.5 time the
obtained rough focal length of the mirror.
3. Keep the screen in front of the mirror and adjust its position till a clear
and well-defined image is formed on the screen.
4. Now measure the distance between the mirror and the screen.
This gives the image distance ‘v’.
5. Repeat the experiment for different values of ‘u’ and measure the
corresponding values of ‘v’ and tabulate the values.
6. Plot graphs of ‘u’ vs ‘v’ and 1/u vs 1/v.

Result:

The values of ‘v’ for different values of ‘u’ were measured in the case of a
concave mirror a and its focal length is found to be by

(i) Distant object method: f = cm.

(ii) u- v method: f= cm.

Precautions:

1. The mirror, screen and the object should be in the same straight line.
2. Tips of the object and image should lie at the same height as that of the
mirror.

Sources of error:

1. The mirror, screen and the object may not be in the same straight line.
2. Parallax error may be there.

34
CALCULATION:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

MEAN:

35
36
RAY DIAGRAM:

u v

SAMPLE GRAPH:

37
 CONVEX LENS
EXPT. NO:
DATE :

Aim:
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between ‘u’
and ‘v’ or between ‘1/u’ and ‘1/v’.

Apparatus:
Lamp box with bulb, convex lens, metre scale, mirror holder and screen.

Theory and formula:

For an object placed at a distance u from the optical centre of a thin
convex lens of focal length f, a real and inverted image is formed on
the other side of the lens at a distance v from the optical centre.

The relation between these distances is: 1 = 1 − 1

𝑓 𝑣 𝑢

According to the new cartesian sign convention, u is negative but v is positive

Therefore the above equation takes the following form for magnitudes of u and
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢

𝑢𝑣
𝑓= --- (1)
𝑢+𝑣

where ‘u’ is the object distance (cm)

‘v’ is the image distance (cm)
‘f’ is the focal length of the lens (cm)

Graph of u versus v is a hyperbola. When u = v, then each equals 2f. Eq. (1)
shows that values of u and v are interchangeable.

38
OBSERVATION:
1. Distant object method:

Focal length of the lens is cm.

2.u-v method:

Object distance Image distance Focal length

𝒖𝒗
S.No. ‘u’ ‘v’ 𝒇=
𝒖+𝒗
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.
Mean:

39
Procedure:
Distant object method:
1. Mount the convex lens in the holder and direct it towards a distant object.
2. Keep the screen behind the lens and adjust its position till a clear and well
defined image is formed on the screen.
3. Measure the distance between the lens and the screen. This gives the rough
focal length of the lens.

u- v method:
1. Mount the lens in the zero mark of the metre scale.
2. Keep the lens holder with the lens at a distance nearly 1.5 time the obtained
rough focal length of the lens.
3. Keep the screen in front of the lens and adjust its position till a clear and
well defined image is formed on the screen.
4. Now measure the distance between the lens and the screen. This gives the
image distance ‘v’.
5. Repeat the experiment for different values of ‘u’ [three values of u less than
2f, one value at 2f and three values greater than 2f] and measure the
corresponding values of ‘v’ and tabulate the values.
Plot a graph of ‘u’ vs ‘v’.

Result:
Focal length of the given convex lens is found by plotting a graph between u
and v and the value is found to be by
i) Distant object method:
ii) u- v method:
iii) u- v graph:

Sources of error:
1. The lens, screen and the object may not be in the same straight line.
2. Parallax error may be there.

Precautions:
1. The lens, screen and the object should be in the same straight line.
2. Tips of the object and image should lie at the same height as that of the
mirror.

40
CALCULATION:
(i) u-v method:
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

MEAN:

41
(ii) u-v graph:

Graph: Image distance (v) vs Object distance (u)

42
Ray Diagram:

Tabular column:
Distance Distance
Distance
between the between the
between the
lens and the mirror and the Focal length
S. mirror and the
screen lens f = R/2
No. screen, R = X-Y
X Y (cm)
(cm)
(cm) (cm)

Mean:

CALCULATION:
MEAN:

43
 CONVEX MIRROR
EXPT.NO.:
DATE :

Aim:
To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.

Apparatus:

A lamp box with a bulb, convex mirror, convex lens, lens and mirror holders,
screen and a metre scale.

Theory and formula used:

Any normal ray (perpendicular) to a spherical surface has to be along the

radius of that sphere so that point C must be the centre of curvature of the convex
mirror. Therefore, the distance P C is the radius of curvature R and half of it
would be the focal length of the convex mirror.
Focal length of a convex mirror f = R/2, where R is the radius of curvature,
both R and f measured in cm.

Procedure:

1. Place the convex lens in front of the lamp source at a suitable distance.
2. Keep the screen behind the lens and adjust its position till a clear, well defined
and a diminished image is formed.
3. Now keep the convex mirror in between the lens and the screen.
4. The image formed serves as the virtual object for the mirror.
5. Adjust the position of the mirror till the final image is formed by the side of
the object. (i.e., the wire gauze in the lamp box).
6. Measure the distance between the mirror and the screen and record the value.

Result:
Focal length of the convex mirror is found to be cm.
Precautions:
1. The mirror, lens, screen and the object should be in the same straight line.
2. Avoid parallax error.
Sources of error:
1. The mirror, lens, screen and the object may not be in the same straight
line.
2. Parallax error may be there.

44
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
a) Forward Bias b) Reverse Bias

SAMPLE GRAPH:

45
 PN JUNCTION DIODE
EXPT. NO.
DATE:

Aim: To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a pn junction diode in the forward
and reverse bias.

Apparatus:
An arrangement containing a pn junction diode, an ammeter a voltmeter and
connecting wires

Theory:
1. Forward bias:
When an external voltage is applied to a p-n junction diode in such a way that the
p-side is at a higher potential with respect to the n-side, it is said to be forward
biased.

2. Threshold voltage or “Cut-in” voltage:

When the p-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the
voltage is increased, initially a negligible current flows till the applied voltage
crosses a certain value. After, a characteristic voltage, the diode current increases
significantly (exponentially), even for a very small increase in the diode bias
voltage. This voltage is called the threshold voltage or cut-in-voltage of the diode.

3. Reverse bias:
When the n-region of a p-n junction diode is at a higher potential with respect to
the p-region, it is said to be reverse biased. In reverse bias, the p-side of the p-n
junction diode is connected to the negative of the battery.

4. Reverse saturation current:

As the applied voltage is increased in the reverse biased condition, starting from
zero value, the current increases, but soon becomes constant. This current is very
small (a few microamperes). It is called the reverse saturation current.

46
OBSERVATION:

FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS:

Least count of Voltmeter = Least count of Voltmeter =
Least count of ammeter = Least count of ammeter =

Forward-Bias Forward Reverse - Reverse

S. S.
Voltage Current Bias Voltage Current
No. No.
(V) (mA) (V) (µA)
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
6. 6.
7. 7.
8. 8.
9. 9.
10. 10.
11. 11.
12. 12.
13. 13.
14. 14.
15. 15.

47
Procedure:
1.Make the connections as per the circuit diagram in the forward bias mode.
2.Increase the forward bias voltage and note the volt meter and milli ammeter
readings.
3. Now make the connections in the reverse bias mode.
4. Increase the reverse bias voltage and note the voltmeter and micro ammeter
readings.
5. Stop increasing the reverse bias voltage when there is an abrupt increase in the
current.
6. Plot a graph with Voltmeter reading on the X-axis and ammeter
reading on the Y-axis for both forward and reverse bias.
7. Calculate the static and dynamic resistances from the forward characteristic
curve and note the avalanche break down voltage from the reverse characteristic
curve.

Result:
V-I characteristic curve for a junction diode in forward and reverse bias is drawn.

Precautions:
1 All connections should be tight and neat.
2. The pointer of meters should either be adjusted to zero when no current is
passing through them or zero error of the instruments should be taken into
account.

Sources of error:
1. The connections may not be tight
2. Zero error is not accurately estimated.

48
(i) V-I Characteristics of PN Junction diode for Forward Bias:

Graph: Applied Voltage (V) vs Current (I)

49
(ii) V-I Characteristics of PN Junction diode for Reverse Bias:

Graph: Applied Voltage (V) vs Current (I)

50
 ACTIVITIES
SECTION-B

Diagram:

51
 ACTIVITY- 1
DATE:

AIM:
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely
on a glass slab

Apparatus:
Glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing pins, office pins,
protractor.

Theory
When a ray of light (PQ) incident on the face AB of glass slab, then it bends
towards the normal since refraction takes place from rarer to denser medium.
The refracted ray (QR) travel along straight line and incident on face DC of slab
and bends away from the normal since refraction takes place from denser to
rarer medium. The ray (RS) out through face DC is called emergent ray.
From the following diagram

1. The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray i.e. i = e.

2. The emergent ray is laterally deviated from its original path (incident ray)
by a distance d = t sec r sin (i – r).

Procedure:

1. Fix a white paper sheet by drawing pins on a drawing board.

2. Take a glass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the paper and
mark its boundary ABCD.
3. Draw a normal at point Q on face AB and draw a line PQ making an angle
i with the normal. PQ will represent an incident ray.
4. Fix two pins at points 1 and 2 on the line PQ at distances 1 cm or more
between themselves.
5. See images of these pins through face DC and fix two more pins at points
3 and 4 (1 cm or more apart) such that these two pins cover the images of
first two pins, all being along a straight line.
6. Remove the glass slab. Draw straight line RS through points 3 and 4 to
represent emergent ray. Join QR to represent refracted ray.

52
OBSERVATION:

S.
No Angle of Angle of emergence Lateral
incidence ∠𝒆 Difference Displacement
∠𝒊 (𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒔) ‘d’
(∠𝒊 − ∠𝒆) (cm)
(𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆)
1
.
2
.
3
.

53
7. Draw normal at point R on face DC and measure angle e. It comes to be
equal to angle i. Produce PQ forward to cut DC at T. Draw TU
perpendicular to RS. TU measures lateral displacement d.
8. Now take another set for different angle of incident and measure the
lateral displacement.

Conclusions

1. Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of emergence (e).

2. The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the thickness of
the slab.
3. The lateral displacement increases with the angle of incidence (i).

54
 IDENTIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS:

OBSERVATION:

55
 ACTIVITY – 2

DATE:

AIM:

To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor

from a mixed collection of such items.

APPARATUS:

A mixed collection of a diode, a Led, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a

capacitor.

THEORY:

Diode, LED, resistor and capacitor have two legs each. A transistor has three
legs. An IC and the transistor can be easily identified by counting their legs.
For the identification of a diode, an Led, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a
capacitor, we can take the help of current. When d.c is supplied to a resistor, it
shows constant current. When d.c is supplied to a capacitor, initially it shows
a current which falls to zero very quickly. Diode conducts electricity when
forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. When the diode
emits light, it is LED.

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the component with maximum number of legs. Count its legs.
If these are eight or more, then the component is IC (Integrated circuit).
IC has a flat face and metallic sharp tip legs.
2. Identify the component with three legs. It is a transistor.
3. All the remaining components will be two terminal devices. These
components can be distinguished from each other by using a multimeter
as an ohmmeter.
4. Touch the probes of the multimeter to the two ends of each component
after initial adjustments. Observe the deflection on the resistance scale.
Now interchange the two probes and again observe the deflection.

56
57
 i) Same constant deflection in the two cases confirms that the
component under observation is a resistor.
ii) A large deflection which gradually or quickly decreases to zero
confirms that the component under observation is a capacitor.
iii) Unequal deflections in the two cases confirms that the component
under observation is a junction diode.
iv) Unequal deflections in the two cases along with emission of light
in the case when deflection is large confirms that the component
under observation is an LED.

RESULT:

From a mixed collection of various components, a diode, a Led, a

transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor were identified.

58
Case 1: When object beyond 2F:

In this case image will form between F and 2F, image will be real, inverted,
smaller than the object.

Case 2: When object is placed at 2F

In this case image will form at 2F, also image will be real, inverted, the same as
the size of the object.

Case 3: When object is placed between F and 2F

In this case image will form beyond the 2F, also image will be real, inverted,
larger than the object.

59
 ACTIVITY – 3

DATE:

Aim
To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a screen
by using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the
lens).

Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens with holder, a burning
candle, a card-board screen.

Theory

As the object (burning candle) is moved from infinity towards the convex lens,
its image (position of screen) moves from lens focus towards infinity.
For candle distance less than focal length, image becomes virtual and does not
come on screen.

Procedure
1. Find rough focal length of the convex lens by usual method.
2. Mount the convex lens in holder in central upright and keep it in the middle
of the optical bench.
3. Mount the card-board screen on another upright and keep it at distance equal
to rough focal length of the lens, from the central upright.
4. Mount the burning candle in third upright and keep it on the other side of the
central upright and near the end of the optical bench.

60
Case 4: When object is placed at F:

In this case no image will formed because the refracted rays are parallel and
never meet.

Case 5: When object is placed between F and optical center

In this case image will form behind the object, also image will be virtual, erect,
larger than the object.

61
5. Adjust heights so that the inverted image of erect flame of burning candle is
formed on screen. Move the screen to make the image sharp. The screen will
be nearly at the focus of the convex lens.
6. The image will be real inverted and much more diminished.
7. As the burning candle is moved towards the lens on one side, the screen has
to be moved away from the lens on other side, for getting sharp flame image.
The inverted image size increases.
8. When the position of the candle is at distance 2f from the lens, the screen is
also at same distance on the other side. The image size will be equal to the
actual flame size.
9. Move the candle further nearer to the lens. The screen has to be moved away
for getting an enlarged inverted real image on screen.
10.As the candle reaches the focus of the lens, the screen may not be able to get
its image which will be at infinity i.e. beyond the ends of the optical bench.

RESULT:
This change in position, nature and size of the image is according to theoretical
predictions.

62
63