Mobile Communication System Definition

• Mobile: A handheld radio terminal that is intended to be used while in motion at

high speed at unspecified location
• Portable: A radio terminal that can be handheld and used by users having much
slower speed.
• Subscriber: Those use a Mobile or a Portable device.
• Base Station: A fixed antenna unit which the subscribers will communicate.
Located ideally at the center of the cellular coverage or even at the edge where it
is connected to commercial power source and a backbone network
Passive Radio Communications Infrastructure

SHF: 3 GHz – 30 GHz – Radar Transmission, Point to Point Comm.

UHF: 300 MHz – 3 GHz – Cellular Communication, GPS
VHF – 30 MHz – 300 MHz – TV Transmission, FM Broadcasting
 Mobile Communication System Definition

• Cells: The footprint of the overall coverage area can be sub-divided into many
smaller virtual segments known as cells. Each cell will ideally have a Base
station at the center or edge of a cell with multiple mobile subscribers.
• Control Channels: Virtual logical radio channel used for transmission of call
set-up, call request and other beacon messages
• Forward Channels: Radio channels used for transmission of information from
base station to mobile
• Reverse Channels: Radio channels used for transmission of information from
mobile to base station.
 Mobile Communication System Definition

• Half Duplex: A two way communication using the same radio channel for both
transmission and reception.
• Full Duplex: Simultaneous two way communication where transmission and
reception are both on different channels.
• Handoff: The mechanism to transfer any mobile device from one base station
coverage to another for uninterrupted call service.
• Page: A simultaneous short or brief message that is broadcasted over the entire
service area by many base stations primarily to locate mobile station.
• Mobile Switching Centre (MSC): A switching centre that coordinates all the
activity pertaining to radio system.
Wireless transceiver - a device capable of
transmitting and receiving radio signals
 Full Duplex System

• Allows simultaneous transmission and reception between the transmitter and

receiver using the principle of Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) or Time
Division Duplexing (TDD).
• FDD involves simultaneous transmission and reception of the signals using two
separate transmit and receive antenna.
• To reduce the cost, at subscribers unit, only one single antenna , working both for
transmission and reception is used.
• TDD uses the fact that it is possible to share a single radio channel in time.
Where a portion of time is to be used for uplink and the remaining during
downlink.
• Only possible with digital transmission formats and sensitive to timing offset.
• Suited for indoor application, where the propagation delay are small.
The Cell Shape

Cellular Coverage
 The Cell Shape

Used in LMDS (Local

Poor Approximation to Circle
Multipoint Distribution System
 The Cell Shape

Closest Approximation to
Circle
The Octagonal Cell Shape
 N = i2 + ij + j2

i = 0, 1, 2, …..
j = 0, 1, 2, …..

1. i times along any chain

2. 60o anticlockwise and move j times
 Co-channel Cell Location

For i = 2 and j = 1 For i = 3 and j = 2

Co-channel Cell Location

Which one is suited?

The Geometry of Hexagon
60o

D
 Reuse Distance

Cells

Reuse Distance
D = Sqrt(3N)*R

R = Radius of Cell

Frequency Reuse Factor = The number

of cells in a cluster that repeats Adjacent Cell Distance
N = i2 + ij + j2 d = Sqrt(3)*R
Proof of Distance between adjacent
channel cell

C
B

A
 Proof of Reuse Distance

Let i =2, j = 1

D2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos (α)

B

60o
120o
D2 = (id)2 + (jd)2 – 2.id.jd cos(120o)
= i2d2 +j2d2 – 2.ij.d2(-1/2)
= (i2 + j2 + ij).d2
= N.d2
A
[ d = Sqrt(3)*R ]

D = sqrt(3N).R
 Definitions
• To understand the frequency reuse concept
Consider a cellular system with S duplex channels available for use.
If each cell is allocated a group of k channels (k<S), and
If S channels are divided among N cells into unique and disjoint channel
groups and each have the same number of channels
The Total number of available radio channels can be expressed as
S = kN
• If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, the total number of duplex
channels, C, can be used as a measure of capacity and is given by
C = MkN = MS
Capacity of a cellular system is directly proportional to the number of times a
cluster is replicated in a fixed service area.
 Assignment
• From Reuse distance D, prove N = i2 + j2 + ij
 Handoff Region

Scenario 1: HO may be needed at the cell boundary based on the threshold level of the
received signal. (Typically -100 dBm in noise-limited environment and -95 dBm in
interference limited systems.)
Scenario 2: HO may be needed at the cell boundary, based on the carrier-to-interference
ratio (C/I). Typically 18 dB in order to have telephone voice quality signal.
Scenario 3: HO may be needed at the cell boundary, based on the MS reaching the signal
strength holes (weak spots / signal gaps / coverage holes) within the coverage area.
 Handoff Strategies
• This margin is given by
=∆ Pr handoff − Pr minimum stable
• Δ cannot be too large or too small
• If Δ is too large, unnecessary handoff may occur which burden the MSC
• If Δ is too small, there may be insufficient time to complete a handoff before a
call is lost due to weak signal conditions.
• Therefore, Δ is chosen carefully to meet these above conflicting requirements.
 Types of Handoff
1. Intercell Handoff: Hard and soft Handoff
Mobile calls in progress is redirected from its present serving cell to a new
target cell using a different channel.

Hard Handoff: The old connection is terminated before making a new

connection (Break Before Making)
Disadvantage: If a handoff fails, the call may be temporarily interrupted or
even terminated
Soft Handoff: (Make Before Break)
2. Intracell Handoff: Interfered or affected by fading
 Handoff Control Algorithms
• Mobile Controlled Handoff (MCHO)
• Network Controlled Handoff (NCHO)
• Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO)
 Mobile Controlled Handoff (MCHO)
• The MS unit controls and makes complete decisions on handoff.
• A MS keeps on measuring signal strength from all the neighboring cell sites. If
MS finds that there is a new cell site with a stronger strength than that of an old
serving cell site, it may consider to HO from old cell to the new cell, after
reaching a defined signal threshold.
• MCHO is the highest degree of HO decentralization, hence very fast HO speed.
Typically, 0.1 seconds only.
• MS and cell site both make the necessary measurements and cell sites sends the
measurement data to the MS.
• Disadvantage: Drainage of battery
 Network Controlled Handoff (NCHO)
• Used in 1G and AMPS
• The BS monitors signals from the MSs. If criteria is mate, the network asks all
surrounding BS to monitor the signal from mobile and report the measurement
back to the network.
• The network selects a new BS for handoff and informs both the mobile and the
new BS about the HO.
• The HO usually takes 100-200 ms with noticeable interruption in the conversion
with a delay of about 5-10 seconds.
• Disadvantage: The network will be busy all throughout the handover process.
 Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO)
• Used in 2G and beyond
• The network provides the mobile with a list of BS frequency (nearby BS). The
network asks the mobile to measure the signal strength and signal quality (RSSI)
from the surrounding BS as well as the serving BS.
• The MS is capable of monitoring the signal strength of the control channels of
the neighboring cell during call.
• MS will report to the serving BS so that the network can decide whether a
handoff is necessary and to which BS.
• Decentralised handoff protocol and distributes the handoff decision process.
• More sophisticated and complex.
Implementation of Umbrella Cell
 Cell Dragging
• Cell dragging results from pedestrian users that provide a very strong signal to
base station.
• In urban areas when there is line of sight radio path between the subscribers and
the base station as the user travel away from the base station at very slow speed,
the average signal strength does not decay rapidly.
• Even when the user has travelled well beyond the designed range of the cell, the
received signal at the station is above the handoff threshold, thus handoff is not
made. But this creates a potential interference and traffic management problem,
since the user has travelled deep within a neighboring cell. This problem is called
cell dragging.
• This problem can be solved by adjusting handoff threshold and radio coverage
parameters carefully.
 Dwell time
• The time over which a call is maintained within a cell without handoff is called
as dwell time.
• The dwell time of a particular user is governed by a number of factors like
propagation, interference, distance between the subscriber and the base station
and the other time varying factors.
• For stationary mobile user, motion in the vicinity of base station and mobile
produce fading, hence even stationary subscriber has finite and random dwell
time.
• Dwell time vary depending on speed of user and type of radio coverage.
• This time determines when should be handoff. There can be cases where due to
momentary fading the signal drops. But as BS monitors within Dwell time to be
absolutely sure before initiating a handoff.
 Prioritizing Handoff
1. Guard Channel Concept:
• A fraction of total available channels are exclusively reserved for handoff
• It is disadvantageous as it reduces the total carried traffic channel.

2. Queuing of handoff:
• Due to lack of available channels, HO request will wait until a free channel
is allocated.
• Decrease in probability of forced call termination
• The size of the queue is determined on the basis of traffic load.
 Channel Assignment Strategies
1. For efficient utilization of the radio spectrum,
• A frequency reuse scheme that is consistent with the objectives of
increasing capacity and minimizing interference is required.
2. To achieve these objectives, Channel assignment strategies can be classified as
• Fixed channel assignment strategy
• Dynamic channel assignment strategy
3. The choice of channel assignment strategy impacts the performance of the
system
• How call are managed when a mobile user is handed off from one cell to
another.
Channel Assignment Strategies
 Fixed Channel Assignment Strategy
1. Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channels.
2. Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the unused channels in
that particular cell.
3. If all the channels in that cell are occupied
• The call is blocked and the subscriber does not receive service.
 Fixed Channel Assignment Strategy
• Simple Borrowing Strategy
• If all permanent channels of a cell are busy, a channel can be borrowed from
a neighbouring cell, provided that this channel does not interfere with the
existing calls.
• The MSC supervises the borrowing procedures, following an algorithm that
favors channels of cells with the most unoccupied channels to be borrowed.
• The algorithm ‘locks’ the borrowed channels towards the cells that are one
or two cell unit away from the borrower cells. The MSC keeps record of
free, serving and borrowed (therefore locked) channels and informs all the
BSs about locked channels.
• Advantages: A lower call blocking probability upto a certain traffic level.
• Disadvantages: Increased storage requirement at the MSC and more database
lookups required. Under heavy traffic, since borrowed channels are locked for at
least five additional cells, channel efficiency is degraded.
 Fixed Channel Assignment Strategy
• Hybrid Channel Assignment Strategy
• Permanent channels of a cell are divided into two groups
1. First group for local use only
2. Second group can be borrowed.
• The ratio of the numbers of channels in the two group is determined a priori,
depending on the estimation of the traffic conditions.
• As for MSC, in addition to its duties in the simple borrowing strategy, now
it has to label all channels with respect to the group they belong.
• Disadvantages: the traffic condition is unlikely to deviate significantly from the
predicted figures. But when deviation does occur, channel efficiency could
degrade.
 Fixed Channel Assignment Strategy
• Borrowing with Ordering Strategy
• Hybrid assignment by dynamically varying the local-to-borrowable channel
ratio according to the changing traffic conditions.
• Each channel has a different adjustable probability of being borrowed and is
ranked with respect to this probability.
• Channels toward the bottom of the list are more likely to be borrowed, and
vice-versa.
• Each time a call is attempted, an algorithm at either MSC or BS is run to
choose the most ‘appropriate’ channel among all free channels, looking at
their associated probabilities.
• The MSC determines and updates each channel’s probability of being
borrowed based on the traffic conditions, by using an adaptive algorithm.
Dynamic Channel Assignment Strategy
• Voice channels are not allocated to different cells permanently.
• Each time a call request is made, the serving base station requests a channel from
the MSC.
• MSC allocates a channel to the requested cell following an algorithm
considering, likelihood of future blocking within the cell, the frequency of use of
the candidate channel, the reuse distance of the channel and other cost functions
• MSC allocates a given frequency if that frequency is not presently in use in the
cell or any other cell which falls within the minimum restricted distance of
frequency reuse to avoid co-channel interference.
Dynamic Channel Assignment Strategy
• Dynamic channel assignment reduce the likelihood of blocking, all the available
channels are accessible to all the cells.
• Increases the trunking capacity of the system.
• Dynamic channel assignment strategies require MSC, to collect real-time data on
channel occupancy, traffic distribution, and radio signal strength indications
(RSSI) of all channels on a continuous basis.
• Increases the storage and computational load on the system
• Increased channel utilization
• Decrease the probability of a blocked call.
 Flexible Channel Assignment
Strategies
• Flexible channel assignment strategies combine aspects of both the fixed and
dynamic strategies because it has two types channels mentioned below:
• Scheduled manner: Assumption is made that future changes in traffic
distribution can be accurately pin-pointed in time and space. The change in
assignment of flexible channels is then made at the predetermined peaks of
traffic change.
• Predictive manner: the traffic intensity or equivalently the blocking
probability is constantly measured at every cell site so that the relocation of
the flexible channels can be carried out by the MSC at any point of time.
 Problems
1. Consider a single high power tx that can support 40 voice channels over an
area of 140 km2 with the available spectrum. If this area is equally divided into
seven smaller areas (cells), each supported by lower power transmitters so that
each cell supports 30% of the channels. Then determine
a) Cover area of each cell
b) Total number of voice channels available in cellular system
c) Comment on the results
2. Calculate the number of times the cluster of size 4 have to be replicated in
order to approximately cover the entire service area of 1765 km2 with the
adequate number of uniform sized cells of 7 km2 each.
3. Assume a cellular system of 32 cells with a cell radius of 1.6 km, a total
spectrum allocation that supports 336 traffic channels and a reuse pattern of 7.
Calculate the total service area covered with this configuration, the number of
channels per cell and a total system capacity. Let the cell size be reduced to the
extent that the same area as covered with 128 cells. Find the radius of the new
cell and new system capacity.
 Problems
4. A mobile communication system is allocated RF spectrum of 25 MHz and uses
RF channel bandwidth of 25 KHz so that a total number of 1000 voice channels
can be supported in the system.
a) If the service area is divide into 20 cells with a frequency reuse factor of 4,
compute the system capacity.
b) The cell size is reduced to the extent that the service area is now covered
with 100 cells. Compute the system capacity while keeping the frequency
reuse factor 4.
c) Let the cell size be reduced to the extent that the same area as covered with
128 cells. Find the radius of the new cell and new system capacity.
 Interference and System Capacity
• The frequency reuse method is useful for increasing the efficiency of spectrum
usage but results in co-channel interference because the same frequency is used
repeatedly in different co-channel cells in a service area.
• As co-channel interfering signals are amplified, processed and detected in the
same manner as the desired signal, the Rx is particularly vulnerable to these
emissions. Hence masking of the original signal takes place.
• The co-channel interference can be measured by selecting any one channel.
• Typically cellular system, there are always six co-channel interfering cells.
Interference and System Capacity
 Interference and System Capacity
• Let S, I and N denote respectively the power of the desired signal, the power of
the co-channel interference and the power of the noise at the output of the
receiver demodulator.
• A channel scanning MS records the three received signals while moving in any
one co-channel cell under the following conditions:
• When only the serving cell transmits (signal recorded is termed as S)
• Cell sites (BS) of all six co-channel cells only transmit (signal recorded is
termed as I)
• No transmission by any BS (Signal recorded is termed as N)
• Observations
• If the S/I > 18 dB and S/N > 18 dB: The system is said to be properly
designed.
• If the S/I < 18 dB and S/N > 18 dB: Co-channel interference problem
• If the S/I < 18 dB, S/N < 18 dB and S/I = S/N: Radio coverage problem
• If the S/I < 18 dB, S/N < 18 dB and S/I < S/N: Interference and radio
coverage problem
 Interference and System Capacity
• Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells, then the S S
signal-to-interference ratio for a mobile receiver which monitors a = i0
I
forward channel is ∑ (I )
i =1
i

−n
• Average received signal strength at any point, decays as a power d 
law of the distance of separation between transmitter and receiver, Pr = P0  
 d0 
• Where P0 is the power received at a close-in reference point at a
small distance d0 from the transmitting antenna, n is path loss
exponent ranging between 2 and 4

• If Di is the distance of ith interferer from the mobile, the received S R−n
power will be proportional to (Di)-n. When the transmit power of = i0
I
each BS is equal and the path loss exponent is same throughout ∑ (D ) i
−n

coverage then S/I can be approximated as i =1

 Interference and System Capacity
S 1 1
= = −n i0
I i0
D
 i
∑ (Q )
−n
∑  
i =1  R  i =1
i

• The Qi is the co-channel interference reduction factor with ith co-channel

interfering cell.
• Considering only the first layer of interfering cells, which are equidistance D
from the desired BS

( ) ( )
n n
−n D 3N
S R R
= = =
I i0 D − n i0 i0

co-channel interference reduction factor= Q= ( D R=) 3N

 Problems
1. If a S/I = 15 dB is required for channel performance of cellular system, what is
the frequency reuse factor and cluster size that should be used for maximum
capacity if the path loss exponent (a) n = 4 (b) n = 3? Assume 6 co-channel
cells are there in the first tier
a) Determine the minimum cluster size of a cellular system designed with an
acceptable value of S/I = 18 dB. Assume n = 4 and there are six
equidistant co-channel cells.
b) If the acceptable S/I enhanced to 20 dB, will the cluster size determined
in (a) to be adequate? If not then what should be the cluster size?
Worst Case Analysis
• For a hexagonal cluster of cells
n
S 1 D 1
( )
n
= =   3N
I 6 R  6
• S/I is independent of R

S R−n
=
I 2 ( D − R )− n + 2 ( D + R )− n + 2 D − n
S 1
=
I 2 ( Q − 1)− n + 2 ( Q + 1)− n + 2Q − n
 Interference and System Capacity
1. A cellular system that requires an S/I ratio of 18dB.
a) If cluster size is 7, what is the worst case S/I
b) Is a frequency reuse factor of 7 acceptable in terms of co-channel
interference? If not, what would be a better choice of frequency reuse
ratio?
• Conclusion: the frequency reuse = 7 does not give the requisite SNR. So the
closest possible N near to 7 is 9.
 Interference and System Capacity
1. Determine the S/I ratio at the mobile receiver located at boundary of its
omnidirectional cell under the influence of interfering signal from six co-
channel cells for N = 7, N = 9 and N = 12. Given n = 4 and permissible S/I
threshold is 19 dB.
 Adjacent Channel Interference
• Interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in frequency to the desired
signal is called Adjacent Channel Interference.
• From imperfect receiver filters (which allow nearby frequencies) to leak into
the pass-band
• Near Far Effect:
• Adjacent channel user is transmitting in very close range to a subscriber’s
receiver, while the receiver attempts to receive a base station on the desired
channel.
• Near far effect also occurs, when a mobile close to a base station transmits
on a channel close to one being used by a weak mobile.
• Base station may have difficulty in discriminating the desired mobile user
from the “bleed-over” caused by the close adjacent channel mobile.
 Adjacent Channel Interference

Near-Far Effect: Case 1

The Mobile receiver is captured by the unintended, unknown transmitter, instead

of the desired base station
 Adjacent Channel Interference

Near-Far Effect: Case 1

The Base Station faces difficulty in recognizing the actual mobile user, when the
adjacent channel bleed over is too high.
 Avoidance of Adjacent Channel
Interference
• Adjacent Channel Interference can be avoided by:
• Suitable channel allocation scheme:
• A cell should not be assigned channels which are adjacent in frequency,
rather keeping frequency separation as large as possible.
• Careful filtering:
• Design of a carefully built bandpass filter at the receiver end, by using
proper modulation schemes, that have low out band radiation.
• Separate multiplexing:
• Uplink and downlink channels might use different multiplexing technique in
order to avoid interference.
 In a Nut Shell
• The ratio D/R is very important
• Channel / Cell increases or decreases
• Traffic capacity increases (Almost 4 times, if radius is reduced by half of the
original cell)
• Repetition of cluster is either more or less
• Co-channel interference increases or decreases
• Transmission quality improves or degrades
Cell Splitting
Cell Splitting

• This method is addition of new cells to

meet additional need for coverage
• It is very effective although costly.
• Requires additional installation of
towers and antenna. Low power, low
height as coverage is small.
• Cell splitting indicates D/R to be
constant.
• Number of channel/area to increase.
Higher system capacity.
• More handoff / user
• Lower spectral efficiency
 Cell Splitting
• For congested and heavy traffic the cell
radius can be reduced to almost R/4.
• If the cell radius decreases to R/2 then
the number of small cells within the
same area of coverage will be
[R/(R/2)]2 x the number of original
large cells with radius R.
• The received signal strength at the
mobile, situated at the cell of old and
new boundaries must be same.
• Pr (at old boundary) ∝ Pt1 (R)-n
• Pr (at new boundary) ∝ Pt2 (R/2)-n
• For n = 4, Pt2 = Pt1/16 = 12 dB
reduction
New capacity = (R0/R1)2 x Old capacity
 Example: Cell Splitting
• Suppose the congested service area is originally covered by 5 cells, each cell
with 80 channels
• Capacity = 5 x 80 = 400
• Suppose the congested service area is now covered by smaller cells for which the
radius is half of the original cell, 20 cells (4 x nos of original cell), each cell with
80 channels
• Capacity = 20 x 80 = 1600
 Problems
• Let the radius of split cells be 50% of the radius of the original cell (before
splitting). Show that the coverage area of a split cells is one fourth the coverage
area of the original cell.
• Prove that the cell transmitter power of a split cell is 12 dB less than the original
larger cell, when original radius of R0 is reduced to R0/2. Assume path loss
exponent to be 4.
Cell Sectoring
Cell Sectoring
• D/R ratio is reduced keeping R
constant.
• Decreasing D/R results into increasing
in interference.
• Naturally, cell per cluster should
reduce.
• This will increase the capacity.
• The set of omni-directional antennas in
a cell is replaced by directional
antennas with 60o, 90o and even 120o
aperture.
• Hence the cell is sectored.
Cell Sectoring
• Sector 0 gets interference from sectors
4, 5 and 6 only. Hence for a typical
hexagonal geometry the co-channel
interference reduces from 6 cells to 3.
• Since the number of interferer is
reduced, a much better S/I ratio is
guaranteed.
• Disadvantages:
• Multiple directional antennas
• Multiple Hand-off
• Less no of channels per sector
 Problem
1. Compare the number of traffic channels per sector in the following different
cellular systems employing 312 traffic channels for use:
a. System A: N = 7 pattern, 3 sectors
b. System B: N = 4 pattern, 6 sectors
 S/I ratio for 3 and 6 Sectored Cellular
Coverage

S R−n S R−n
( 3-sector ) ≈ − n ( 6-sector ) ≈
D + ( D + 0.7 R ) ( D + 0.7 R )
−n −n
I I
1 1
≈ ≈
Q − n + ( Q + 0.7 ) ( Q + 0.7 )
−n −n
 S/I ratio for 3 and 6 Sectored Cellular
Coverage
S R−n 1 S R−n 1
( 3-sector ) ≈ − n ≈ −n ( 6-sector ) ≈ ≈
D + ( D + 0.7 R ) Q + ( Q + 0.7 ) ( D + 0.7 R ) ( Q + 0.7 )
−n −n −n −n
I I

S R−n 1
( omni ) ≈ ≈
2 ( D − R ) + 2 ( D + R ) + 2 D − n 2 ( Q − 1) + 2 ( Q + 1) + 2Q − n
−n −n − n −n
I

• A cellular system is designed with a 3 sectored directional antenna cellular

configuration. A cluster pattern of size 7 is deployed. Let the mobile receiver
located at the boundary of its operating cell and be under the influence of
interfering signals from 2 co-channel interfering cells in the first tier. Compute
the worst case S/I at the mobile receiver. If the S/I value for a practical system
requires 6 dB higher than the theoretical value of S/I = 18 dB then comment on
the results obtained. Assume n as 4 in a mobile radio environment.
• Can you get any different observation for N = 4?
• What happens when the coverage is 6 sectored when N = 7?
Micro-Cell Zone Concept

• The problems of sectoring can be

addressed by Micro-cell Zone
Concept
• A cell is conceptually divided into
microcells or zones
• Each microcell (zone) is connected
to the same base station (fiber /
microwave link.
• Doing something in middle of cell
splitting and sectoring by extracting
good points of both.
Micro-Cell Zone Concept

• Each zone uses a directional

antenna.
• Each zone radiates power into the
cell.
• MS is served by strongest zone.
• As mobile travels from one zone to
another, it retains the same channel.
i.e. no handoff
• The BS simply switches the channel
to the next zone site.