UNIT 2 : Basics of IoT Networking

Basics of IoT Networking

Basics of Networking in IoT

In the context of IoT (Internet of Things), the networking aspect plays a crucial role in enabling
communication between various devices. Here's how the networking works in an IoT system:

Key Components of IoT Networking:

1. Sensor Nodes (IoT Motes):

○ These are the physical objects or devices embedded with sensors that monitor
and measure various physical phenomena (e.g., temperature, humidity, light).
○ These devices can also have actuators, which can trigger actions based on the
data received from the sensors.
○ Each device or object acts as a node in the network. These nodes collect data
and communicate with each other to share information.
2. Communication:
○ These sensor nodes communicate wirelessly with each other, typically using
technologies like:
■ Zigbee: A low-power wireless standard suitable for small-scale,
short-range communication.
■ Bluetooth: Another wireless standard for short-range communication,
commonly used in personal area networks (PAN).
■ Wi-Fi: A wireless network standard that allows devices to connect to the
internet or a local area network (LAN).
3. Local Area Network (LAN):
○ Sensor nodes, also called motes, are typically within a local network, where the
data collected by the devices is first communicated.
○ A gateway manages the local network, assigning unique addresses to each
node within the network and ensuring they can communicate efficiently.
○ This local network allows devices to interact with each other without needing
internet connectivity at this stage.
4. Internet / Wide Area Network (WAN):
○ If the data needs to be sent outside the local network, it is forwarded to the
internet or a wide area network (WAN). This allows the information to reach
remote destinations, possibly located far from the local network.
5. Backend Services and Analytics:
 ○ Once the data reaches a remote server, it is processed through backend
services. These services might involve data analytics engines, which apply
complex algorithms, including machine learning and neural networks, to make
sense of the data.
○ These servers perform high-end processing tasks, often involving large-scale
computations to derive meaningful insights from the data.
6. Actuation and Control:
○ Based on the data analysis, decisions can be made, and commands can be sent
to actuators to perform actions in the physical world (e.g., turning on a pump,
adjusting a thermostat, or activating a light).
○ Actuation decisions are taken based on insights derived from data analytics,
closing the loop between sensors and actuators.

How IoT Networking Works:

1. Sensing and Data Collection:

○ IoT devices like sensors collect real-time data (e.g., temperature, humidity,
motion) from the physical environment.
2. Local Communication:
○ These sensors send their data through wireless communication protocols (like
Zigbee, Bluetooth, or Wi-Fi) to a local network.
3. Gateway Role:
○ A gateway in the local network manages the communication between the sensor
nodes and the broader network, assigning addresses and ensuring the smooth
transfer of data.
○ The gateway can act as a bridge to the internet when data needs to be sent
outside the local network.
4. Data Transmission to the Cloud or Remote Servers:
○ Data is transmitted through the internet or WAN to remote backend services or
cloud platforms. Here, data is aggregated, processed, and analyzed.
5. Data Processing and Analytics:
○ The data undergoes analysis using algorithms, which might include artificial
intelligence (AI) or machine learning (ML), to derive insights or trends.
6. Decision Making and Actuation:
○ Based on the processed data, decisions are made, and commands are sent back
to the actuators to perform actions in the physical world.
IoT System Complexity:

● An IoT system is a complex arrangement involving multiple components:

○ Sensors (for data collection),
○ Actuators (for triggering actions),
○ Networking protocols (for communication),
○ Gateways (for network management),
○ Backend services (for data processing and analytics),
○ Decision engines (to make sense of data and act accordingly).
● All these components work together in a seamless manner to make the system function
effectively as one integrated entity.
Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) in IoT

In IoT (Internet of Things), Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) plays a vital role in organizing
the different components of an IoT system, enabling efficient communication, service delivery,
and integration. SOA is based on the idea of providing and consuming services through
standardized interfaces. The IoT architecture can be divided into four key layers: Sensing
Layer, Network Layer, Service Layer, and Interface Layer. Each of these layers serves a
specific function to ensure smooth data flow and integration of services across the IoT
ecosystem.

1. Sensing Layer (Data Acquisition Layer)

● Role: The sensing layer is the foundational layer in IoT. It is responsible for data
acquisition through various sensors and devices. These sensors measure physical
parameters like temperature, humidity, pressure, motion, etc.
● Components:
○ RFID Tags: Used for identifying objects and tracking them.
 ○ Sensors: These collect data from the environment, such as temperature
sensors, humidity sensors, and motion detectors.
○ RFID Readers: These interact with RFID tags to capture data related to the
objects they are attached to.
● Process: The data collected by these sensors is sent to the next layer (network layer)
for transmission and further processing.

2. Network Layer (Data Transmission Layer)

● Role: The network layer serves as the communication backbone for IoT devices. It is
responsible for transmitting the data gathered by sensors to other devices, servers, or
systems, and can connect various IoT networks to a broader network like the internet.
● Components:
○ Sensor Networks: These are groups of sensors that communicate with each
other to share data.
○ Social Networks: IoT devices can also be part of social networks to exchange
data in real-time.
○ WLAN, WSN (Wireless Sensor Networks): These are common network
infrastructures used in IoT for wireless communication.
○ Internet: The IoT devices can send data to the internet for further processing,
storage, or analytics.
● Process: Once the data is transmitted through the network layer, it may be sent to the
service layer for processing and service delivery.

3. Service Layer (Service Delivery Layer)

● Role: The service layer is responsible for service management, which includes
providing services like service division, service integration, and offering business logic.
● Components:
○ Service Repository: A catalogue of services available on the network. This
repository keeps track of services that are offered by various components of the
IoT system. It allows for easy querying of services via a standardized interface.
■ Function: Instead of manually tracking services, IoT devices can interact
with the service repository to find and use available services.
○ Service Bus: A middleware component that allows different operations (such as
messaging) to be grouped together into a single transaction. It enables
communication between different service components.
■ Messaging Entities: These could include queues, topics, and
subscriptions that help in organizing message exchanges.
○ Service Integration and Management (SIAM): This approach focuses on
integrating services from multiple providers (both internal and external) and
 managing them to create a seamless experience. It is essential for ensuring
end-to-end service delivery that meets business needs.
● Process: In this layer, business functions and services are provided, which might include
running logic for actuators, making decisions based on data, or integrating services for
broader applications.

4. Interface Layer (Application Layer)

● Role: The interface layer is responsible for user interaction with the IoT system. This is
where users or applications interact with the IoT system's services.
● Components:
○ Application Frontend: The user interface (UI) or frontend of an IoT application
is the part that the user interacts with. This could be an app, web interface, or any
graphical interface that allows users to view data and interact with IoT devices.
■ User View: For end-users, the application frontend represents the system
they interact with.
■ Developer View: For developers, it includes the interface design and
programming that makes the application functional.
○ Contract Interface: This is a standardized way of ensuring communication
between services and users or devices.
○ Application APIs: These are interfaces that allow different applications to
access IoT services and communicate with each other.
● Process: This layer makes the system user-friendly, allowing users to access services,
view data, and make decisions based on the insights provided by the IoT system.

Summary of SOA Layers in IoT

1. Sensing Layer: Gathers data using sensors and RFID tags.

2. Network Layer: Transmits the data to other devices or servers via different
communication protocols.
3. Service Layer: Provides services such as service integration, business logic, and
service management through components like service repositories and service buses.
4. Interface Layer: Facilitates user interaction and provides access to the IoT system
through application frontends and APIs.

Complexity of IoT Networks

When designing and deploying IoT (Internet of Things) systems, several factors related to the
complexity of networks need to be considered to ensure that these systems are scalable,
efficient, and can function effectively. The following aspects highlight the challenges associated
with network complexity in IoT systems:
1. Scalability and Sustainability

● Scaling the Network: IoT systems often involve a large number of sensor nodes, and
as the number of nodes increases, managing and scaling the system becomes more
challenging. A network needs to be designed so that it can accommodate a growing
number of devices without compromising performance or stability.
○ Challenge: Can the system handle an increased load? Can it scale effectively
without significant degradation in performance?

2. Interference Among Devices

● Wireless Communication: Most IoT networks rely on wireless communication

technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, etc. When a large number of devices
are deployed in a dense environment, interference between their wireless signals can
occur, leading to signal degradation or loss.
○ Challenge: Managing radio interference between devices is crucial for ensuring
that communication between nodes is not disrupted.
○ Solution: Effective network management strategies that include computation
management, communication management, service management, and
infrastructure management are required to minimize interference and optimize
performance.

3. Addressing Issues

● High Number of Nodes: IoT systems often involve a massive number of devices or
nodes. Each device needs a unique address to be identified and communicate over the
network.
○ Challenge: IPv4 (the current version of the internet protocol) is limited in terms of
the number of available addresses and has already reached its limit due to the
growing number of connected devices.
○ Solution: IPv6, which uses 128-bit addresses, provides a virtually unlimited
number of unique addresses, making it suitable for large-scale IoT networks. In
the context of 6LoWPAN (IPv6 over Low Power Wireless Personal Area
Networks), IPv6 can be used to address low-power wireless nodes, ensuring
that even the smallest IoT devices can have unique identifiers.

4. Heterogeneity in IoT Networks

 ● Diverse Devices and Protocols: IoT networks are composed of devices that come from
different vendors, use different communication protocols, and have different
standards for functionality and operation. This diversity introduces a significant level of
heterogeneity into the network.
○ Challenge: Ensuring that devices from different manufacturers can interoperate
and communicate with each other without compatibility issues is a major concern.
○ Solution: Standardization of protocols and interfaces is essential to mitigate the
impact of heterogeneity. Protocols like MQTT, CoAP, and 6LoWPAN help ensure
that devices can communicate across different networks and platforms. In
addition, IoT middleware platforms can help bridge the gap between various
devices and enable smooth interoperability.

5. Network Management

● Complex Management Requirements: Managing a large-scale IoT network requires

comprehensive strategies for:
○ Computation Management: Ensuring that the computing resources (such as
cloud services or edge devices) are optimized and can handle the processing
requirements of the IoT network.
○ Communication Management: Efficiently managing the data flow between
devices and over the network to avoid congestion, delay, and loss of critical data.
○ Service Management: Handling the delivery of IoT services, which could include
device updates, service discovery, and load balancing to ensure high availability
and reliability.
○ Infrastructure Management: Ensuring that the physical infrastructure, including
gateways, servers, and networking equipment, can support the growing network
and its requirements.

Summary of Network Complexity in IoT

● Scalability: As IoT networks grow, ensuring they can scale without losing performance
is critical.
● Interference: Wireless communication can be disrupted by interference between
devices, requiring careful management.
● Addressing: With a large number of IoT devices, an effective addressing system (like
IPv6) is essential.
● Heterogeneity: Devices from different vendors use different standards and protocols,
requiring the development of standardized frameworks for interoperability.
● Management: Comprehensive network management is needed to ensure efficient
computation, communication, service delivery, and infrastructure support.
IoT Protocols/Communication Protocols

IoT systems rely on various communication protocols across different layers of the network
stack to ensure efficient data transmission and interoperability between devices. These
protocols are grouped based on the layer they operate in: Link Layer, Network/Internet Layer,
Transport Layer, and Application Layer. Below are key protocols in each layer:

A) Link Layer

The Link Layer is responsible for determining how data is physically transmitted over the
medium (e.g., cables, wireless). It governs how devices in a local network communicate and
exchange data packets.

Key Protocols:

1. 802.3-Ethernet:
○ A set of wired Ethernet standards for local area networks (LANs).
○ Example: Ethernet over coaxial cable (802.3), twisted pair (802.3i), and fiber
optic (802.3ae).
2. 802.11-WiFi:
○ A collection of wireless LAN standards that defines communication over wireless
networks.
○ Variants include:
■ 802.11a (5 GHz),
■ 802.11b and 802.11g (2.4 GHz),
■ 802.11n (2.4/5 GHz),
■ 802.11ac (5 GHz),
■ 802.11ad (60 GHz).
3. 802.16-WiMAX:
○ Wireless broadband standards for high-speed internet over long distances.
○ Supports data rates ranging from 1.5 Mb/s to 1 Gb/s.
4. 802.15.4-LR-WPAN:
○ Standard for low-rate wireless personal area networks (LR-WPAN), used in IoT
systems like ZigBee.
○ Provides data rates from 40 kb/s to 250 kb/s and is particularly useful in
noise-prone environments.
5. 2G/3G/4G-Mobile Communication:
○ Cellular communication standards used in IoT devices for mobile networking.
○ Data rates range from 9.6 kb/s (2G) to 100 Mb/s (4G).

B) Network/Internet Layer
The Network Layer handles the routing of data packets from the source to the destination
across different networks. It also manages IP addressing and packet routing.

Key Protocols:

1. IPv4:
○ The most widely used IP version, with a 32-bit address space providing 2^32
unique addresses.
2. IPv6:
○ A newer version of IP with a 128-bit address scheme, providing 2^128 unique
addresses.
○ Necessary for IoT devices as IPv4 addresses are limited.
3. 6LoWPAN (IPv6 over Low Power Wireless Personal Area Network):
○ Allows IPv6 communication over low-power wireless networks, typically operating
in the 2.4 GHz range.
○ Suitable for small IoT devices with limited processing and energy resources.

C) Transport Layer

The Transport Layer ensures end-to-end communication, offering reliable data transfer and
error handling. It handles message segmentation, flow control, and error correction.

Key Protocols:

1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

○ A connection-oriented, reliable protocol that ensures data is delivered in the
correct order.
○ Commonly used in applications like web browsing (HTTP/HTTPS) and email
(SMTP, FTP).
2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol):
○ A connectionless, lightweight protocol suitable for time-sensitive applications
where speed is crucial, but data loss is acceptable (e.g., video streaming or voice
calls).

D) Application Layer

The Application Layer defines how applications interact with the network and lower-layer
protocols to send and receive data. It supports communication between processes running on
different devices.

Key Protocols:
 1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):
○ The foundation of the World Wide Web, HTTP follows a request-response model
and is stateless. It is used for web browsing and web services.
2. CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol):
○ Designed for M2M (Machine-to-Machine) communication, especially in
constrained environments where devices have limited resources (e.g., power,
memory).
○ Uses a client-server architecture and is similar to HTTP but optimized for
constrained networks.
3. WebSocket:
○ Provides full-duplex communication over a single, long-lived connection.
○ Suitable for real-time communication, often used in IoT systems for continuous
data exchange between devices and servers.
4. MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport):
○ A lightweight, publish-subscribe messaging protocol.
○ Ideal for constrained environments where low power and bandwidth are critical.
MQTT relies on a message broker to distribute data to clients who have
subscribed to particular topics.
5. XMPP (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol):
○ A messaging protocol for real-time communication using XML.
○ Supports both client-server and server-server communication, and is
decentralized, meaning anyone can run an XMPP server.
6. DDS (Data Distribution Service):
○ A data-centric middleware for scalable, real-time M2M communication.
○ It uses a publish-subscribe model to allow direct communication between
devices, providing high-quality services in embedded systems.
7. AMQP (Advanced Message Queuing Protocol):
○ An open standard for business messaging, supporting both point-to-point and
publish-subscribe communication models.
○ It is used for connecting systems and processes within businesses for efficient
data exchange.

Summary

The IoT communication stack is built upon various protocols across multiple layers to ensure
reliable, scalable, and efficient data transfer:

● Link Layer: Deals with physical transmission of data (Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ZigBee).
● Network Layer: Handles addressing and routing (IPv4, IPv6, 6LoWPAN).
● Transport Layer: Manages reliable data transfer (TCP, UDP).
● Application Layer: Provides application-specific communication (HTTP, MQTT, CoAP,
WebSocket, XMPP).
Sensor networks
A sensor network is a crucial component for building the Internet of Things (IoT). It connects
multiple sensor nodes that work together to gather and share data, enabling real-time, remote
monitoring over larger areas. Here's a breakdown of the key concepts:

Sensor Network Components

1. Sensor Nodes: These are individual devices embedded with sensors, processing units,
communication units, and power sources. Each node can sense specific physical
phenomena, such as:
○ Temperature sensors detect temperature variations.
○ Humidity sensors monitor humidity levels.
○ Camera sensors capture images.
○ Vibration sensors measure vibrations.
○ Light sensors detect illumination levels.
2. Topologies: Sensor nodes communicate with each other in various topologies:
○ Star Topology: Nodes communicate directly with a central node.
○ Mesh Topology: Nodes communicate with each other, forming a network that
allows data to travel through multiple routes.
3. Communication: Sensors communicate using radio signals to share data with each
other, creating a multi-hop communication network where data is passed from one
node to another until it reaches the destination.
4. Stationary vs Mobile Sensor Networks:
○ Stationary Sensor Networks: The sensor nodes stay in fixed positions after
deployment and monitor a designated area continuously.
○ Mobile Sensor Networks: These sensors are attached to moving objects, like
vehicles (cars, airplanes, trucks), enabling monitoring of dynamic environments.

Sensor Node Units

Each sensor node typically consists of several units:

1. Sensing Unit: Detects the physical phenomenon.

2. Processing Unit: Processes the sensed data.
3. Communication Unit: Enables data transmission between nodes via transceivers (radio
communication).
4. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): Converts analog signals from the sensor into
digital data for processing.
5. Power Unit: Includes a battery or other power sources to keep the nodes operational.
 6. Optional Units: For example, GPS for location tracking, which can be helpful for mobile
sensor networks.

Advantages of Sensor Networks

● Real-time Monitoring: Multiple sensors can continuously monitor an area, providing

real-time data without human intervention.
● Remote Monitoring: Sensor networks allow monitoring over large or hard-to-reach
areas.
● Increased Coverage: By connecting multiple sensor nodes, you can expand the
coverage area and get a more comprehensive view of environmental changes.

Types of Sensor Networks:

● Static Sensor Networks: Nodes are fixed in place and monitor a designated area.
● Mobile Sensor Networks: Nodes are attached to moving objects (like vehicles),
enabling monitoring of dynamic or mobile environments.

Sensor Node Structure and Function

A sensor node consists of several key components that work together to sense, process, and
transmit data. Here's a breakdown of the main parts:
 1. Sensing Unit: This unit includes the actual sensor (like a temperature, humidity, or light
sensor) that detects the physical phenomenon.
2. Processing Unit: A microprocessor or microcontroller that processes the data collected
by the sensing unit.
3. Communication Unit: This unit, typically a transceiver, enables the sensor node to
communicate with other nodes or the base station. This can use technologies like
Zigbee, which is common for low-power, short-range communications.
4. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): Converts the analog signals from the sensors into
digital data for processing.
5. Power Unit: Supplies energy to the node. In many cases, especially in remote or
outdoor environments, sensor nodes use solar panels to generate power, making them
self-sustainable.
6. Optional Units: Some sensor nodes may have additional features like GPS for location
tracking.

Types of Sensor Nodes and Their Applications

● Multifunctional Nodes: These sensor nodes can be reconfigured with different types of
sensors depending on the application, like monitoring temperature, humidity, light, or soil
moisture in agriculture.
● Agriculture Use: In agricultural applications, solar-powered sensor nodes are often
deployed to monitor factors like soil moisture, temperature, and crop health, providing
real-time data to farmers.

Communication and Networking

● Short Communication Range: Many sensor nodes have a limited communication

range, typically a few meters, depending on the technology used. Zigbee, for example,
supports a range of 10-100 meters, but it may vary based on environmental conditions.
 ● Multi-hop Communication: Since the range of a single sensor node is limited, multiple
nodes are used to relay data. In a multi-hop network, data travels through multiple
nodes before reaching its destination (e.g., a central sink node). This process allows
sensor networks to cover larger areas by passing data from one node to the next until it
reaches the sink.
● Sink Node: This is the central node that collects data from other nodes in the network. It
may have a long-range communication capability (like Wi-Fi or cellular networks) to send
the data to a remote server or cloud platform for further analysis.

Example Scenario:

In an agricultural field, you might deploy sensor nodes across a large farm:

● Each node might monitor soil moisture, temperature, and other environmental factors.
● The sensor nodes communicate with each other using Zigbee or another low-power
communication protocol.
● If one node detects low soil moisture, it sends the data to the next node, which relays it
further until it reaches the sink node.
● The sink node sends the data to a remote server, where it is analyzed, and the farmer
can take appropriate actions (e.g., irrigating the crops).

Constraints on Sensor Networks:

1. Small Size (Sub-cubic cm):

○ Sensor nodes are typically small, often less than a cubic centimeter, to allow
easy deployment in various environments without occupying much space.
2. Low Power Consumption:
○ Sensor networks must operate with minimal energy consumption. This is
especially important for nodes that are battery-powered or solar-powered, as they
need to operate for extended periods without frequent maintenance or
recharging.
3. Operate in Unattended, Dense Areas:
○ Sensor networks are designed to function in environments where human
intervention is minimal. They are often deployed in dense areas like forests,
industrial sites, or agricultural fields, and must be capable of operating
autonomously without requiring human monitoring.
4. Low Production Cost & Disposability:
○ The cost of manufacturing sensor nodes should be low so that large-scale
deployments are feasible. Additionally, sensor nodes may need to be disposable
or have a low operational cost, especially when used in temporary or low-budget
applications.
5. Autonomy:
 ○ Sensor nodes must be capable of operating independently, meaning they need to
collect data, process it, and communicate results without relying on continuous
human intervention.
6. Adaptability to the Environment:
○ Sensor networks need to adapt to changing environmental conditions, whether in
terms of temperature, humidity, or interference. This adaptability allows the
system to continue working effectively under different conditions.

Applications of Sensor Networks:

1. Temperature Measurement:
○ Used to monitor temperature variations in a given environment. This is crucial in
applications like weather monitoring, HVAC systems, and agricultural irrigation
systems.
2. Humidity Measurement:
○ Humidity sensors detect the moisture level in the air. This is valuable for
applications like climate control in buildings, monitoring food storage conditions,
or managing irrigation systems.
3. Lighting Conditions:
○ Light sensors measure the intensity of light in a particular environment, which can
be used for controlling smart lighting systems, energy-saving solutions, or
environmental monitoring in agricultural applications.
4. Soil Makeup:
○ Soil sensors detect the composition of the soil, including moisture, pH, and
nutrient levels. This is especially useful in precision agriculture for efficient water
usage and optimizing crop health.
5. Air Pressure:
○ Air pressure sensors are used to measure atmospheric pressure. These sensors
are used in meteorological applications, weather stations, and even in aviation for
altitude measurements.
6. Noise Level:
○ Noise sensors are used to monitor environmental noise levels. Applications
include urban planning, monitoring industrial noise pollution, and ensuring
compliance with environmental regulations.
7. Vibration:
○ Vibration sensors measure oscillations or movements in structures or machinery.
They are commonly used in industrial maintenance (to detect equipment faults),
structural health monitoring (in buildings and bridges), and seismic monitoring.

Summary:
Sensor networks are essential in a wide range of applications, from monitoring environmental
conditions like temperature and humidity to industrial uses such as vibration and noise level
monitoring. The design of sensor networks is constrained by factors like size, power
consumption, and cost, but they provide valuable real-time data for decision-making in diverse
sectors, including agriculture, healthcare, environmental monitoring, and industrial systems.