Charul et al.

European Journal
European Journal of Medical Research (2023) 28:265
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40001-023-01213-4 of Medical Research

REVIEW Open Access

COVID and depression among stratified

population groups: a narrative review
Charul1, Jyotdeep K. Raina3, Sourabh Sharma1, Shash Pal1, Vikas Dogra2, Parvinder Kumar1,4 and
Rakesh K. Panjaliya1*

Abstract
The Covid-19 pandemic has impacted and infiltrated every aspect of our lives. Successive lockdowns, social distancing
measures, and reduction in economic activity have developed a new way of living and, in many cases, tend to lead
to depression. The initial strict lockdown for about 3 months and eventually for a few more months has imposed
greater challenges on children and adolescents in terms of psychological problems and psychiatric disorders.
Regardless of their viral infection status, many people have been affected by the psychosocial changes associated
with the Covid-19 pandemic. In the present review, we have attempted to evaluate the impact of COVID on the men-
tal health of people from different age groups and occupations. The present review has highlighted the need for tak-
ing effective measures by the stakeholder to cope with depression among human population groups worldwide.
Keywords Covid-19, Depression, Mental health

Introduction 14th October 2021, the world has reported 239,905,767

An outburst of pneumonia caused by an unfamiliar virus coronavirus cases and 4,888,696 deaths [4]. The disease
was observed in Wuhan, China, in the later parts of 2019. spreads via the droplet route and the infection ranges
The first appearance of this viral infection was reported from asymptomatic to a proper disease marked by pneu-
on 17 November 2019 [1]. The etiological agent was at monia, breathing difficulties, dry cough, diarrhea, fever,
first named as 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV), but headache, and insomnia. The mortality rate ranges from
afterward, it was called Severe Acute Respiratory Syn- 3–9% of all cases [1].
drome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) [2]. The virus spread As per the International Committee on Taxonomy of
to almost all continents at a rapid pace, and it was in Viruses (ICTV), SARS-CoV-2 belongs to the family Cor-
March 2020 that the World Health Organization (WHO) onaviridae and order Nidovirales. Coronaviridae contains
announced the spread as a pandemic and the disease was two subfamilies, i.e., Coronavirae and Torovirinae. Coro-
called Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) [3]. Till naviridae comprises four genera: (I) alpha coronavirus,
NL63, and 229E; (II) beta coronavirus, SARS-CoV, SARS-
*Correspondence: CoV-2, HCoV-OC43, MERS-CoV; (iii) gamma coronavi-
Rakesh K. Panjaliya rus comprises viruses of birds and whales, and (iv) delta
[email protected] coronaviruses includes viruses of pigs and birds [5].
1
Department of Zoology, University of Jammu, Jammu and
Kashmir 180006, India Coronaviruses were not known to infect humans till
2
Department of Zoology, Govt. College for Women, Parade Ground, the outburst of SARS in 2002–2003 caused by SARS-
Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir 180001, India CoV. A decade later, MERS was identified in Saudi
3
GGM Science College, Cluster University of Jammu, Jammu and
Kashmir 180001, India Arabia, caused by Middle East respiratory syndrome
4
Institute of Human Genetics, University of Jammu, Jammu and coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Based on phylogenetic analy-
Kashmir 180006, India ses, both MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV originated in bats.

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Charul et al. European Journal of Medical Research (2023) 28:265 Page 2 of 13

Bats are thought to be a natural source of coronaviruses COVID in students”, “SARS-COV2”, “Mental illness And
[6]. SARS-CoV-2 has been demonstrated to have 96% COVID”, etc. No time limit was set for the search of arti-
genomic homology with bat coronavirus RaTG13 and cles from the various databases. All the articles were
79.6% genetic resemblance with SARS-CoV [7]. assessed manually to have comprehensive knowledge
After the rapid global spread of COVID-19 disease, about the essence thereof. All the articles were segre-
nationally and globally, there has been a considerable rise gated by age, sex, and professional groups, and a narrative
in mental health issues. Patients and healthcare work- review was performed concerning each group as follows.
ers were the first to report the psychological effects of
the pandemic, mainly those in direct contact with the Depression in the general population due to COVID
affected persons. Due to strict infection control, social The COVID-19 disease may have varying effects on
distancing, nationwide lockdowns, quarantine, etc., the general population’s mental health, depending on
psychosocial distress, and negative emotions have also national health and government policies, as well as public
been reported to occur in the general population. Due to resilience and societal norms [10]. Amid the COVID-19
COVID-19 disease, various mental health problems like epidemic, the global prevalence of mental health-related
anxiety, depression, sleep problems, stress, post-trau- issues among the general population is 28% for depres-
matic stress, and various other psychological problems sion, 26.9% for anxiety, 24.1% for post-traumatic stress,
are of main concern. 36.5% for stress, 50% for psychological distress, and
Fear of infection, the impression of danger, finan- 27.6% for sleep problems [10].
cial issues, and the social cut-off were some of the main Globally, various online cross-sectional studies were
reasons for mental distress among the general popula- conducted in countries like China (n = 1171), Saudi Arab
tion. Indeed, economic shutdowns have wreaked havoc (n = 3032), Bangladesh (n = 13,654), Malaysia (n = 528),
on economies around the world, particularly in nations Iran (n = 8591), Austria (n = 560), Japan (n = 2,708),
where domestic outbreaks are more severe, health ser- Egypt (n = 283), Canada (106) and Brazil (n = 482) dur-
vices are less prepared, and economic vulnerability is ing the COVID-19 pandemic to access the percentage
high. of depression among the general population. Based on
Some of the COVID-19 survivors have been experi- the outcome of the studies, the percentage of depression
encing major post-traumatic stress disorders with varied reported is as follows: 22.6%, 20.9%, 43.5%, 28.2%, 15.1%,
duration and severity of symptoms. The mood distur- 31%, 18.35%, 27.9%, 18%, and 70.3%, respectively [11–20].
bances and depressive symptoms have been found to be A study was conducted in the German general popu-
more common [8]. The pandemic, however, had a wide- lation (n = 2503) to access loneliness and mental health
ranging impact on mental health globally, and many peo- during the COVID-19 pandemic and it was compared
ple have experienced increased levels of stress, anxiety with the same type of study conducted in pre-pandemic
and cognitive impairments as the primary symptoms of time. Anxiety and depression symptoms were seen to
the post-acute COVID-19 syndrome [9]. The cognitive have increased from an average of 0.77 (SD = 1.17) and
issues thus observed, ranged from difficulties with mem- 0.89 (SD = 1.21) in 2018 to 1.05 (SD = 1.31) and 1.14
ory and attention to more severe problems with executive (SD = 1.23) in 2020. Loneliness, depression, and anxiety
functions like decision-making. The direct effect of the were seen to have more effects on women and younger
virus on the central nervous system and the psychologi- participants [21].
cal stressors associated with the pandemic might be the Data from a German (n = 1527) and Norwegian
potential factors that contributed to the mental health (n = 1225) population were analyzed with the help of
and cognitive problems in the COVID-19 survivors. a cross-sectional study. It was found that there is a
Considering the psychological consequences of the strong relationship between general mental distress and
COVID-pandemic spread, we attempted to conduct a COVID-19 stress (r = 0.55 and r = 0.61) for the Ger-
narrative review on the impact of COVID on the men- man-speaking sample and the Norwegian population,
tal health of different human population groups stratified respectively). Locus of Control (LoC) had significant
concerning age, sex, and profession groups. moderating effects in both datasets. It was observed that
We used web resources to collect various articles on people influencing their own lives did bear the COVID-
depression and Covid to assess its impact on people of 19 pandemic in a much better way. An external locus of
different age groups and professions. Searches were made control, on the other hand, is linked to sadness and anxi-
on Pubmed, google scholar, Scopus, and Embase data- ety symptoms [22].
bases by using different keywords like “Depression And Similarly, to access the impact of the COVID-19 pan-
COVID”, “Depression And COVID in females”, Depres- demic on the mental health of the general population,
sion And COVID in adolescents, “Depression And a comparison was made between the populations of

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Charul et al. European Journal of Medical Research (2023) 28:265 Page 3 of 13

Germany and the UK. 25% of the participants from both students and low socioeconomic class were significant
countries reported psychological symptoms while as associated factors [28]. A case-controlled study was
20–25% of the UK and German participants were seen to conducted to access insomnia, depression, and anxiety
have symptoms of depression and anxiety [23]. symptoms between the general population and the popu-
A similar population-based study was conducted in lation in quarantine during the COVID-19 pandemic in
Hong Kong to access the depression, civil unrest, anxi- China. Higher levels of insomnia, depression, and anxi-
ety, and COVID-19 stressors during the acute phase ety symptoms were seen in the population in quarantine
of the COVID-19 pandemic. Unrest-related stress and [28]. Loneliness, history of mental illness, female gen-
COVID-19 were linked to a higher incidence of possible der, younger age, students, people in quarantine, smok-
anxiety and depression; people who experienced both ing, low socioeconomic class, urban residence, health
stressors had a higher prevalence. This pattern remained care workers, etc., have been linked with higher levels
true whether the person had little or sufficient assets, of insomnia, stress, depression, and anxiety [16, 29–31].
although the risk of mental illness was significantly Focusing on gratitude, eating, being older, regular exer-
higher among those with lower assets [24]. cising, sleeping, educational status, awareness of the
A web-based international study comprised the gen- disease, being married, etc., are some of the important
eral population from 13 countries on four continents was factors to prevent depression and various other mental
conducted during the first wave of the COVID-19 pan- health issues [11, 15, 16, 32].
demic from May to August 2020. Out of the total 22,330
participants, 36.7% had symptoms of insomnia while the Depression in adolescents due to COVID‑19
percentage of depression and anxiety symptoms were Covid-19 disease manifestation, its prognosis, and its
23.1% and 25.6%, respectively [25]. 7381 participants spreading mechanisms were poorly understood during
from ten different regions of Cameroon participated the initial days of its outbreak. As a result, the general
in an online study to access the fear of COVID-19 and public had to face the consequent disease-associated psy-
depression during the pandemic. After analysis of the chiatric outcomes in the form of anxiety and depression.
data, it was found that the fear of COVID-19 was 57.4% Since its outbreak in China, a series of studies have been
and only 8.4% of the participants were depressed. As carried out to assess the mental health of people, espe-
compared with other countries, depression was seen to cially adolescents. The first cross-sectional study was
be less prevalent in the Cameroon population [26]. conducted to understand the impact of COVID-19 on the
The impact of mental and psychological symptoms depressive symptoms the adolescents within one month
among the population in quarantine for 2 weeks during after the start of the COVID-19 outbreak in China. This
the COVID-19 pandemic was documented following a study revealed that high CRIES (Children Revised Impact
case-controlled study design conducted at the depart- of Event Scale) scores were associated with major depres-
ment of psychiatry of Shenzhen Longgang Center for sive disorder and avoidance of traumatic memories asso-
Chronic Disease Control in Shenzhen, China mainland ciated with COVID-19 or experience of flashbacks [33].
in June 2020 encompassing 1674 participants (aged 18 These workers proposed long-term monitoring of the
to 65 years) in quarantine for 2 weeks and 1743 age–sex adolescents to study the impact of COVID-19 on ado-
matched controls living in Shenzhen to assess depressive, lescents with major depressive disorders in China. In
anxiety, and insomnia symptoms. Population in quaran- Taizhou, China, depressive symptoms are more prevalent
tine showed significantly higher risks of depression (OR: among adolescents with a poor parent–child relation-
4.55, 95% CI 3.82–5.41), anxiety (OR: 2.92, 95% CI 2.43– ship as revealed by a study on data from 6435 middle and
3.51), and insomnia (OR: 2.40, 95% CI 2.02–2.89) when high school participants [34]. The presence of depres-
compared to the general population [27]. sive symptoms and anxiety in children has been further
To show the comparison of attitude, mental health dis- evident from more studies in Chinese children. Data
orders, knowledge, and socioeconomic burden between on 1825 Chinese adolescents have revealed the occur-
healthcare workers and the general population, a semi- rence of psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) in adolescents
structured online questionnaire-based study was con- [35] and interventions are also suggested for the men-
ducted in Egypt during the COVID-19 pandemic. tal health of adolescents. Depressive symptoms due to
Non-healthcare workers (non-HCWs) had a lower fre- COVID are found to be more prevalent in the low fear-
quency of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) (28%) ful girls who show high neural reactivity to social reward
and anxiety (30%) than healthcare workers (HCWs) (29% while the shy/fearful girls who are less likely to engage
and 32%, respectively). Non-HCWs had higher depres- socially show less depressive symptoms [36]. More
sion (69%) than HCWs (66.4%). Urban residence, smok- depressive symptoms have been observed in female ado-
ing, history of medical illness, young age, female gender, lescents before and during the lockdown period which is

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Charul et al. European Journal of Medical Research (2023) 28:265 Page 4 of 13

likely to be the result of diminished connection or sup- in infected healthcare workers in comparison to non-
port or the decreased activity in the lockdown including infected during the pandemic [57]. A positive correla-
a decrease in exercise and resulting weight gain, which tion was found between poor sleep quality or insomnia,
can contribute to the feelings of depression [37]. There is burnout, and depression. [52, 58]. The relatively serious
a high prevalence of depression among children of rural psychological problems in health care workers were seen
China especially in left behind adolescents than the non- especially in the 20–30 years age group, women, and
left behind adolescents [38] and show elevated levels of nurses with low educational backgrounds and low pro-
anxiety and depression due to coronavirus fears, negative fessional titles during the pandemic [51, 59]. According
effect, intolerance of uncertainty, acceptance/tolerance, to a comparative study done by Gundogmus and associ-
rumination and suppression [39]. Depressive symptoms ates (2021) in Turkey to study the comparison of levels
have increased among healthy adolescents during the of depression between the first and second COVID-19
COVID-19 pandemic, while adolescents with early life peaks, the depression levels were found to be increased
stress have high but stable depression symptoms with in the second peak. Among the medical staff, the sever-
time [40]. Spain has also reported higher levels of depres- ity of symptoms was found in nurses, especially the wid-
sion among children during the COVID-19 confinement owed and poor health, with disrupted social life owing
although with lower effect sizes [39]. A higher association to the stigma of exposure to COVID-19, lower optimism
of anxiety in adolescents with a history of COVID-19 of psychology, no constant visiting friends, and those
infection was also found in a study involving the adoles- receiving more than 50% of negative and false informa-
cents of Kashmir valley [42]. tion every day [45, 60]. 8.7% of the nurses in hospitals in
Character strength has been a powerful factor in con- Indonesia showed a prevalence of depression during the
trolling depression as it is a protective factor that can pandemic, while the prevalence rate was significantly
buffer the effect of stress and it has a negative correlation high up to 10.5% among those facing financial hard-
with depression symptoms due to COVID-19 as revealed ship during the pandemic [48]. Some healthcare profes-
by a study on 617 adolescents [43]. Parents’ involvement sionals even had regrets about their profession because
has also been found to be a protective factor and lower of the pandemic and the associated experiences. It was
levels of parent–child communication have been found suggested that the satisfaction of money compensation,
associated with higher levels of depression among ado- promotion of healthy behavior like the use of personal
lescents [44]. protective equipment, provision of sufficient information
on the disease, psychological support along with appro-
Depression in health workers due to COVID‑19 priate psychological interventions in the field are the cop-
There is a considerable effect of the COVID-19 pandemic ing factors for better mental health of health workers.
on the mental health of healthcare workers because of
their close contact with infected patients. During the Depression in adults due to COVID‑19
early period of the COVID-19 outbreak, when the infec- The social distancing measure adopted during the
tion cases were more in different Chinese provinces, COVID-19 pandemic has prevented the spread of the
depressive symptoms were reported in 27.65% of the sur- virus but at the same time, home confinement has
veyed medical staff [45]. The various reasons for depres- resulted in considerable mental health concerns in peo-
sion in health workers have been analyzed. Insufficient ple. The adult group of the population is one of the most
personal protective equipment, prolonged work hours effective groups. An increase in the rate of severe depres-
with a heavy workload, fear of infection and spreading it sive symptoms from 6.1 to 8.2% in young adults was
among family members, poor self-confidence, poor occu- found from the pre-pandemic to the pandemic period
pational safety, reduction in the time devoted to medita- [61]. Even adults with depressive symptoms before the
tion, infrequent physical exercising, social stigma, and pandemic have shown worse mental health. According to
rejection are some of the significant factors responsible. the studies, two-in-five studied persons showed depres-
However, working in isolation hospitals was not found to sive symptoms during the pandemic and the causes
be contributing factor to others [46–50]. Various stud- which were found to be associated with the depression
ies revealed the rate of depression prevalence in differ- were poor socioeconomic status, low family income, low
ent countries and the symptoms were seen from mild to education level, loss of employment, dependency on the
severe. In Italy, 62%, Australia 57.3%, Sri Lanka 53.3%, family for living, chronic comorbidity and even more
Iran 44.8%, China 39.7%, Bangladesh 39.5%, Tehran 36%, exposure to the COVID-related news are some of the sig-
Indonesia 22.8%, Korea 15.1%, the studied respondents nificant factors [62–65]. Older adults also show depres-
with experience of frontline work at COVID-19 showed sive symptoms. The older adults living in long-term
depressive symptoms [49–56]. Depression was more seen day care centers show moderate-to-severe depression

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Charul et al. European Journal of Medical Research (2023) 28:265 Page 5 of 13

while the older adults attributed who are caregivers have status. In postpartum women, past neurosis, history of
shown increased and persistent depressive symptoms anxiety disorders, inadequate level of assistance from
during the pandemic mainly to financial issues [66, 67]. healthcare professionals, lactation problems, and post-
Multi-country studies were also conducted to analyze the partum pain are the reasons for depressive symptoms
mental health of adults in general. According to a study [79]. While in pregnant women, the association of
on young adults in Egypt, Ghana, India, Pakistan, and increased depression rate during the pandemic has been
the Philippines significant variations were seen in mental related to unemployment, poor self-rated health, comor-
health. The highest depression was found in the Philip- bidities and lack of insurance, emotional stress, partial
pines, followed by Egypt, Pakistan, and India, while the social support, poor education, low income, and dura-
least was found in Adults of Ghana. The prevalence of tion of marriage [72, 80–84]. Excessive internet use, the
mental depressive symptoms in the adults of Ghana was spread of unauthentic news during the lockdown policy,
found to be 12.3% during the COVID-19 pandemic [62, and irregularities in exercise routines have reportedly
68]. It is clear from various studies that there is a poten- further worsened maternal depressive symptoms [85,
tial negative impact on the mental health of individuals 86]. The regulations of the above factors and profes-
due to the disruption of psychological routines. With the sional mental health support are necessary to lessen the
passage of time and the implementation of broad social effect of depression in one of this vulnerable group of the
policies related to epidemic control, a ray of hope is seen population.
when in a study it was found that the rate of individuals
showing depressive symptoms during the initial period of Depression among students due to COVID‑19
COVID-19 is 30% which has decreased to 20% over the Besides causing major physical health concerns, the per-
period of four months [69]. Specific interventions toward sisting COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in strict isola-
the working status of the family carers are recommended tion measures and delays in opening schools, colleges,
[70]. and universities that have indirectly influenced the men-
tal health of students. The difficulties associated with dis-
Paternal depression during COVID‑19 tanced learning, social isolation, financial distress, racial
The prevalence and burden of depression symptoms were or ethnic discrimination, and concern about COVID-19
also analyzed among parents during the COVID-19 pan- infection were found to be the main reasons for depres-
demic. The level was high among parents having infants sion among students [31, 87]. In addition to these, life-
between 0 and 6 months old, children with abnormalities style variables, health-related issues, and reduced
like autism spectrum disorder, children with psychologi- physical activity due to homestay also showed a posi-
cal symptoms, pregnant women and their spouses as well tive correlation with depression [88, 89]. Various studies
as in postpartum women [71–75]. The rate of paternal provide data about the significant increase in depres-
depression in mothers was 14.5%, in fathers 6.4% and sion among students studying in different disciplines. In
the relation to partner’s delivery was found to be 13.82% China, the epicenter of COVID-19, depressive symptoms
during the COVID-19 pandemic [74, 76]. Pregnancy is a were seen in 26% of the students, 51.82% of the students
significant transition period in the life of a woman as it in Egypt or Germany, and in university students of Bang-
is associated with many psychological and immunologi- ladesh, Jordan, and Italy the prevalence was found to be
cal changes. Psychiatric morbidities during pregnancy 15%, 78.7%, and 72.93%, respectively. 59.8% of the col-
can adversely affect the health of the fetus. Studies have lege students closer to graduating showed depression in
shown that the pandemic has significantly increased the the US. An increase in depressive symptoms from 21.5 to
rate of mild and moderate-to-severe depression from the 31.7% was found in first-year college students in North
pre-pandemic to the pandemic period among pregnant California [87–94]. Considerable differences in the sever-
mothers from 19.94% and 0.55% to 25.8% and 10.36%, ity of depression were also seen among students. Among
respectively [77]. Further, depressive symptoms also vary the students of an Italian university, mild depressive
among pregnant women in various age groups. Women symptoms were shown by 19.7%, moderate by 27.1%, and
below 30 years of age have reported a burden of depres- severe depressive symptoms by 23.6% of the respondents.
sion than their older counterparts as with advanced age, 21.1% of the school students in China showed sever-
the resilience power increases [78]. The depression symp- ity in depressive symptoms, a large proportion of which
toms were not seen among the women only during preg- was represented by senior high school students [95, 96].
nancy, but the rate of postpartum depression has been Studies also provide evidence that the rate of depres-
reported to be 34% among women [73]. Various reasons sion was higher in female students than male students in
are associated with paternal depression-like unemploy- general while the low social support getting males also
ment, poor family functions, and average socioeconomic have shown a higher level of depression symptoms [93,

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Charul et al. European Journal of Medical Research (2023) 28:265 Page 6 of 13

96–99]. The prevalence of mental morbidity among med- family function, the spread of unauthentic news during
ical students has been described for decades, still, signifi- the lockdown policy, comorbidities and lack of insurance,
cant changes have been found among them during the emotional stress, as well as irregularities in exercise rou-
pandemic [100]. According to studies, 75.2% of the medi- tines [72, 80–83]. The frontline health workers showed
cal students in Egypt and 56.4% of the nursing students the most elevated depressive symptoms among all due
in China showed a prevalence of depression [101, 102]. to insufficient personal protective equipment, prolonged
Insomnia and perceived stress were found to be the main working hours with more workload, fear of infection and
reasons for depression in medical students. The presence spreading it to their families, poor occupational safety,
of symptoms of depression among the students was not and poor self-confidence [46–50]. After analyzing the
only reported to be coexistent with the COVID-19 pan- severity of depression among the various subgroups
demic but they seemed to be persisting in 55.1% of the of the population, it was found very necessary to adopt
students even after one year of the pandemic [99]. The strategies to lessen its effect among the people. Vari-
measures which were found protective against depres- ous strategies have been suggested by various workers
sion in students include more social support, contact that we help to lessen the effect and can provide insight
with family and friends, improvement in sleep quality, to work upon so that the challenges like COVID-19 can
and regular physical activity [44, 97, 99]. be dealt with greater efficiency and will not impact the
mental health of the individuals. Regulation of the causa-
Discussion tive factors, providing mental health support, more social
This work is a narrative review of the prevalence of support, awareness of the disease, and regular exercise
depression following COVID-19 pandemic, its causes, are some of the ways to tackle and lessen depression
and the ways to manage it among different groups of the among individuals in addition to these, the satisfaction of
population. This study is a narrative review of the global money compensation and promotion of healthy behav-
prevalence of depression among various groups of popu- ior like the use of personal protective equipment’s for the
lations. The study has followed the appropriate methods frontline healthcare workers are required. Government
of secondary data analysis for examining nearly 90 related and health officials also need to intervene from time to
research works. According to our analysis, the prevalence time to refute rumors to reduce the impact of misinfor-
of depression as a result of the pandemic in the general mation on the general public’s emotional state and to
population varies from 6.1 to 70.3% and among the vari- ensure the adequate supply of personal protective equip-
ous subgroups of the population varies as well. In ado- ment’s and the required infrastructure. These collabora-
lescents, 16–77.6%; health workers, 27.65–66.4%; adults, tive approaches from both ends will very in tackle the
7–61.4%; parents, 6.4–86.7% with the highest among the present condition and also provide insights for the future.
pregnant mothers; students, 9.6–78.7 having higher rates A summary of the characteristics of included studies is
among medical students. The emergence of COVID-19, depicted in Table 1 and Fig. 1.
its rapid spread have adverse effects on a person’s mental Notwithstanding the intervention of governments in
health which can lead to symptoms of depression. There- mitigating the challenges posed by Covid, populations
fore, it is necessary to examine and recognize the mental across the globe have suffered mental health issues in
state of people belonging to different groups of the pop- direct or indirect forms. Depression has been reported
ulation during the period. The studies provide us with to be the most serious aftereffect of the pandemic. Be
evidence of the prevalence of depression among people it school and college-going children or working adults,
and its severity in different subgroups of the population the suffering has been palpable and ominous. In the
due to this rapidly transmissible and fatal virus [46, 62, research paper under reference here, we have tried to
80, 89]. The studies show different reasons for depres- highlight the silent menace of depression that accom-
sion symptoms among different groups of population. panied covid pandemic and is still persisting post
In general, low socioeconomic status, history of mental pandemic. Our effort is to put the qualitative and quan-
illness, and loneliness are the main factors that show a titative proportions regarding the depression caused
positive correlation with depression, and female indi- as a fall-out of COVID in public domain so that this
viduals, healthcare workers as well as young age people issue is taken up more seriously by all the stakeholders
are more sufferers than others [16, 30, 31]. Students and thereby sensitizing the government agencies to encour-
adolescents face depression symptoms because of dif- age counselling. The far-reaching scientific electronic
ficulties associated with distanced learning, social iso- and print media can be the biggest savior with regard
lation, reduced physical activity due to homestay, and to depression in these testing times and this comple-
coronavirus fear (92,95–98). Parents show depressive ments the essence of our present research communica-
symptoms due to the reasons like unemployment, poor tion well.

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Charul et al. European Journal of Medical Research (2023) 28:265 Page 7 of 13

Table 1 Summary of characteristics of included studies

S. no. Author Year Region Group Sample size Depression (%) Type of study Mode of study
(reference)

1. Abu-Elenin 2021 Egypt Healthcare work- 237 43.8 Cross-sectional Online

ers
2. Adu et al. 2021 Ghana Adult population 1068 12.3 Cross-sectional Online
3. Ahmed et al. 2021 Egypt General popula- 524 69, 66.4 Cross-sectional Online
tion, Health care
workers
4. AlHadi et al. 2021 Saudi Arabia General popula- 3032 20.9 Cross-sectional Online
tion
5. Ames-Guerrero 2021 Peru General popula- 434 Cross-sectional Online
tion
6. Antiporta et al. 2021 Peru Adult residents 57446 61.4 Cross-sectional Online
7. Azizi et al. 2021 Iran Healthcare work- 7626 44.8 Cross-sectional Online
ers
8. . Bai et al. 2022 China Parents 746 Cross-sectional Online
9. Baran et al. 2021 Mothers 130 Cross-sectional Online
10. Basutkar et al. 2021 Ooty Pregnant women 60 86.7 Observational Direct interaction
study
11. Betini et al. 2021 Canada Adults 3127 > 30 Longitudinal study Online
12. Beutel et al. 2021 Germany General popula- 2503 > 11.6 Longitudinal study Face-to-face survey
tion
13. Chiu et al. 2022 Hong Kong Older adults 236 56 Cross-sectional Online, hardcopy
questionnaire, Tel-
ephonic interview
14. Colak et al. 2021 Turkey Pregnant women 149 Cross-sectional Direct interaction
15. Couughenor et al. 2021 U.S College students 194 Longitudinal study Electronic news-
paper
16. Czysz et al. 2021 Adults 308 Longitudinal study REDCap electronic
data capture system
17. Fang et al. 2021 China Healthcare work- 511 Cross-sectional Direct interaction
ers
18. Fodjo et al. 2021 Cameroon General popula- 7381 8.4 Cross-sectional Online
tion
19. Fruehwirth et al. 2021 University in North First year college 419 31.7 Longitudinal study
Carolina students
20. Fu et al. 2021 China Medical staff 7413 27.65 Cross-sectional Online
21. Fukase et al. 2021 Japan General popula- 2708 18.35 Cross-sectional Online
tion
22. Ghio et al 2021 Italy Health workers 731 62 Cross-sectional Online
23. Gildner et al. 2020 United States Pregnant women 1856 Cross-sectional Online
24. Giusti et al. 2021 Italian University Students 203 Upto 23.6 Cross-sectional Online
25. Grumi et al. 2021 Northan Italy Pregnant mothers 281 26 Cross-sectional Online
26. Gundogmus et al. 2021 Turkey Healthcare work- 2460 Cross-sectional Online
ers
27. Guo et al. 2021 Shaanxi province Undergraduate 1278 Upto 9.6 Cross-sectional Questionnaire
of China students method
28. Hamaideh et al. 2021 Jordanian uni- Students 1380 78.7 Cross-sectional Online
versity
29. Herbert et al. 2021 Egypt/Germany University stu- 220 51.82 Cross-sectional Online
dents
30. Ho-Fung et al. 2022 Sweden Pregnant women 470 43.2 Cross-sectional Online
31. Hollenstein et al. 2021 Mothers and Ado- 155 and 146 Longitudinal Direct interaction
lescent children and online
32. Hou et al. 2021 China Rural Adolescents 826 77.6 Cross-sectional Direct interaction

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Charul et al. European Journal of Medical Research (2023) 28:265 Page 8 of 13

Table 1 (continued)
S. no. Author Year Region Group Sample size Depression (%) Type of study Mode of study
(reference)

33. Hou et al. 2021 Hong Kong General popula- 4011 Cross-sectional Telephonic inter-
tion views
34. Islam et al. 2020 Bangladesh University stu- 476 15 Cross-sectional Online
dents
35. Islam et al. 2021 Bangladesh General popula- 13654 43.5 Cross-sectional Online
tion
36. Jeelani et al. 2022 Indian Kashmir School-going 426 16 Cross-sectional Online
valley adolescents
37. Khademian et al. 2021 Iran General popula- 1498 47.9 Cross-sectional Online
tion
38. Khames et al. 2021 Pregnant women 120 Cross-sectional Questionnaire
method
39. Khonsari et al. 2021 Iran Health care work- 938 Cross-sectional Online
ers
40. Kim et al. 2021 South Korea General popula- 1500 20.9 Cross-sectional Online
tion
41. Knolle et al. 2021 Germany and Uk General popula- 541, 241 Cross-sectional Online
tion
42. Krampe et al. 2021 Norwegian General popula- 1225, 1527 Cross-sectional Online
and German- tion
speaking popula-
tion
43. Lee et al. 2021 US College students 200 59.8 Cross-sectional Online
44. Lee et al. 2022 First Nations peo- General popula- 95 18 Cross-sectional Questionnaire
ple of Canada tion method
45. Lin et al. 2021 Shenzhen, China Pregnant women 751 12.3 Cross-sectional Online
46. Liu et al 2021 China Students and their 1550 Cross-sectional Online
parents
47. Liu and Wang 2021 China Adolescents 617 Cross-sectional Online
48. Liu et al. 2021 China Medical Students 29663 Cross-sectional Online
49. Magnavita et al. 2021 Central Italy Frontline Workers 153 60 Cross-sectional Online
50. Maharlouei et al. 2021 Southwest of Iran Pregnant mothers 540 Cross-sectional Online
51. Marthoenis et al. 2021 Indonesia Nurses 491 8.5 Cross-sectional Online
52. Mistry et al. 2021 Bangladesh Older adults 1032 Cross-sectional Telephonic inter-
view
53. Morin et al. 2021 International- 13 General popula- 22330 23.1 Online
countries and 4 tion
continents
54. Noguchi et al. 2021 Japan Older adults 957 Cross-sectional Mailed question-
naire
55. Nomura et al. 2021 Japan University stu- 2712 Cross-sectional Institutional email
dents
56. Oh et al. 2021 US College students 36875 Upto 32.68 Cross-sectional Online
57. Perera et al. 2021 Sri Lanka Healthcare profes- 512 53.3 Cross-sectional Online
sionals
58. Pizarro-Ruiz et al. 2021 Spain Children and ado- 590 Cross-sectional Online
lescents
59. Qi et al. 2021 General popula- 1171 22.6 Cross-sectional Online
tion
60. Rouhbksh et al. 2021 Tehran Health Care 306 36.6 Cross-sectional Questionnaire
Workers method
61. Schindler et al. 2021 Germany Medical students 63 Longitudinal Questionnaire
method
62. Schmits et al. 2021 Students in Higher 23307 55.1 Cross-sectional Online
education

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Charul et al. European Journal of Medical Research (2023) 28:265 Page 9 of 13

Table 1 (continued)
S. no. Author Year Region Group Sample size Depression (%) Type of study Mode of study
(reference)

63. Shahriarirad et al. 2021 Iran General popula- 8591 Cross-sectional Online
tion
64. Shehata et al. 2021 Egypt Young adults 283 Upto 14.1 Cross-sectional Online
65. Simon et al. 2021 Austrian Adults 560 Cross-sectional Online
66. Smallwood et al. 2021 Australia Frontline workers 7846 57.3 Cross-sectional Online
67. Soltan et al. 2021 Egypt Medical students 282 75.2 Cross-sectional Online
68. Srifuengfung et al. 2021 Thailand Older adults 200 7 Cross-sectional Direct interaction
69. Sun et al. 2021 Wuhan, China Parents 1187 13.82 Cross-sectional Questionnaire
method
70. Sunjaya et al. 2021 Indonesia Health care per- 544 22.8 Cross-sectional Online
sonnel
71. Tasnim et al. 2021 Bangladesh Frontline health- 803 39.5 Cross-sectional Online
care workers
72. Van den Heuvel 2022 Dutch Parents 681 6.4–14.5 Cross-sectional Online
et al.
73. Villani et al. 2021 Italian university Students 501 72.93 Cross-sectional Online
74. Wang et al. 2021 Chain and Spain General popula- 1528 Cross-sectional Online
tion
75. Wang et al. 2021 Shenzhen, China General popula- 1674 Case-controlled Online
tion study
76. Wang et al. 2021 Frontline nurses 498 50.90 Cross-sectional Online
77. Wang et al. 2021 Zhejiang Province, Adolescents 6435 17.7 Cross-sectional Online
China
78. Wang et al. 2021 Three provinces Parents of chil- 1764 & 4962 21.7–31 Cross-sectional Online
(Heilongjiang, dren with autism
Henan, and Fujian) spectrum disorder
of China and normal
79. Watkins-Martin 2021 Canada General popula- 1039 6.1–8.2 Longitudinal Questionnaire
et al. tion method
80. Wu et al. 2021 China Young adolescents 1825 Longitudinal
81. Yang et al. 2021 China Epidemic preven- 1136 39.7 Cross-sectional Online
tion workers
82. Yee et al. 2021 Malaysia General popula- 528 28.2 Cross-sectional Online
tion
83. Yigitoglu et al. 2021 Turkey Healthcare staff 435 Cross-sectional Direct interaction
84. Zhang et al. 2021 China Adolescents 90, 107 36 Cross-sectional Direct interaction
85. Zhang et al. 2021 Brazil General popula- 482 70.3 Cross-sectional Online
tion
86. Zhou et al. 2021 China Pregnant women 1266 41.63 Cross-sectional Questionnaire
method
87. Zhu et al. 2021 China Nursing students 342 56.4 Cross-sectional Online

Limitations of the study instead of diagnostic interviews may lead to biasness.

Several limitations were noted while reviewing the find- Fourthly, the depressive symptoms among different groups
ings of different studies. Firstly, the study design of most of of populations residing in different geographical areas
the conducted studies was cross-sectional and represents could be influenced by many other variables in addition to
the data at a certain time while longitudinal studies help the variables considered in the different studies and need to
in the better assessment of data over time and can validate be taken into consideration.
the results. Secondly, the small sample size of some of the
reviewed studies might limit the generalization of results
to a large population. Thirdly, most of the studies used
online methods for sampling. And this use of self-reporting

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Charul et al. European Journal of Medical Research (2023) 28:265 Page 10 of 13

Papers Reviewed Observed Depression (%)

86.7
75.2
70.3
12%

69

61.4
62
57.3

56.4

60
51.82

53.3
56
46.24

47.9
43.76

44.8
41.63
43.5

43.2
39.7
39.5

36.6
27.65

28.2
30

22.8

26

18.35

20.9
20.9
13.82

14.1
18

10.45
12.3

12.3

16
11.6
15

7.15

9.6
88%

8.5
8.4

7
S AUDI A RABIAN G ENERAL P OPULATION
S RI L ANKAN H EALTHCARE WORKERS
C ANADIAN G ENERAL P OPULATION
BANGLADESH FRONTLINE WORKERS

C HINESE H EALTHCARE WORKERS

E GYPTIAN G ENERAL P OPULATION

CANADIAN ADULTS

J APANESE G ENERAL P OPULATION

CHINESE FRONTLINE WORKERS

I NDONESIAN H EALTHCARE WORKERS

T EHRAN H EALTHCARE WORKERS

GHANA ADULTS

I RANIAN G ENERAL P OPULATION

K ASHMIRI A DOLSCENTS
B ANGLADESH G ENERAL P OPULATION

C HINESE P REGNANT W OMEN

DUTCH PARENTS

E GYPTIAN Y OUNG A DULTS

ITALIAN FRONTLINE WORKERS

O OTY P REGNANT W OMEN

AMERICAN COLLEGE STUDENTS

CHINESE NURSING STUDENTS

Cross-seconal Studies
Longitudinal Studies

Fig. 1 Graphs showing study characteristics

Conclusion manuscript writing and analysis. All the authors undertake to declare that they
have read the complete manuscript before submission to the journal.
The present review has indicated that the COVID pan-
demic has an impact on the mental health of all the Funding
population groups irrespective of the sociodemographic There has been no funding for the study under reference.
variations owing to different countries. Availability of data and materials
All the data have been included in the manuscript.

Abbreviations
CoV Corona virus Declarations
COVID-19 Corona virus disease 2019
CRIES Children Revised Impact of Event Scale Ethics approval and consent to participate
HCoV Human Coronavirus Not applicable.
HCW Health care workers
ICTV International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses Consent for publication
MERS Middle East respiratory syndrome We give our consent for publication of manuscript titled “Covid and Depres-
nCoV Novel Coronavirus sion among stratified population Groups: A narrative review” in “European
PLEs Psychotic-like experiences Journal of Medical research”.
SARS Severe acute respiratory syndrome
WHO World Health Organization Competing interests
The authors declare that they do not have any conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
The authors humbly acknowledge the support rendered by the patients and
families for providing their consent for participation in the study. Received: 29 August 2022 Accepted: 7 July 2023

Author contributions
C and JKR carried out the web search for the articles on COVID and Depres-
sion. RKP, PK and VD have conceptualized the review. S and SS carried out

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Charul et al. European Journal of Medical Research (2023) 28:265 Page 11 of 13

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