Major Geomorphological Events

1. Earthquakes

• Types
‣ Tectonic earthquakes: The most common ones are the tectonic earthquakes. These are
generated due to sliding of rocks along a fault plane.
‣ Volcanic Earthquakes: A special class of tectonic earthquake is sometimes recognised
as a volcanic earthquake. They are generated due to violent volcanic eruptions. However,
these are con ned to areas of active volcanoes.
‣ Collapse Earthquakes: In the areas of intense mining activity, sometimes the roofs of
underground mines collapse causing minor tremors. These are called collapse
earthquakes.
‣ Explosion Earthquakes: Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of chemical
or nuclear devices. Such tremors are called explosion earthquakes.
‣ Reservoir-induced Earthquakes: The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large
reservoirs are referred to as reservoir-induced earthquakes.

• Causes
‣ Fault Zones: Most shallow earthquakes is due to the sudden release of stress along a
fault rupture (crack) in the earth’s crust.
‣ Plate Tectonics: Earthquakes are a consequence of inter-plate interaction.
‣ Due to force: Along convergent boundary compressive forces crush and cause
earthquakes while along divergent boundary tensile forces stretch and snap the earth
creating earthquakes.
‣ Due to motion: Earthquakes can also be due to plate motions and the friction of
lithospheric plates while they drift along asthenosphere.
‣ Location of focal point: Divergent boundaries and convergent boundaries between two
continental plates will only have shallow focus earthquake. Intermediate and deep focus
earthquakes are almost entirely limited to ocean oor subduction.
‣ Volcanic Activity: Earthquakes in volcanic regions are caused by the consequent release
of elastic strain energy both by tectonic faults and the movement of magma in volcanoes.
‣ Anthropogenic: It refers to typically minor earthquakes and tremors that are caused by
human activity like mining, large scale petroleum extraction, arti cial lakes (reservoirs),
nuclear tests etc.

• Earthquake Swarms: de ned as a sequence of events closely clustered in time and space
without a single outstanding shock. There are a series of low magnitude earthquakes that
occur in a localised region and over a period of time ranging from days, weeks to even
months.

• Features:
• Di erentiated from earthquake: They are di erentiated from earthquakes succeeded by
a series of aftershocks.
• Piling up of energy: When seismic energy piles up inside the Earth and is released in
small amounts from certain points, such a series of earthquakes can occur.
• An early warning: Sometimes, the rumblings of the Earth are also accompanied by
acoustic or sound emissions.
• The situation cannot be taken lightly as many earthquakes have been preceded by
earthquake swarm activity.

• Distribution
- Circum-Paci c Belt
- Trans-Eurasian Mountain Belt
- Mid-Oceanic Ridges and East African Rift Valley
- Intra-plate Earthquakes
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• Distribution of Earthquake Zone in India

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2. Volcanoes

A volcano is a vent in the earth's crust from which molten rock material (magma), explosive bursts
of gases and volcanic ashes erupt.

• Types of Volcano:
1. Shield Volcanoes: Largest of all the volcanoes, but are not steep. They are mostly made
up of basalt. They become explosive if in some way water gets into the vent, otherwise,
they are characterized by low-explosivity. The lava that is moving upwards does so in a
fountain-form and emanates the cone at the vent’s top and then develops into a cinder
cone.
• Example: Hawaiian shield
volcanoes
2. Dome volcanoes (lava dome):
Steep-sided mound are formed
when the viscous lava reaches
the Earth's surface cannot ow
away readily and accumulates
around the vent
• Example: Galeras lava dome,
Colombia
3. Composite Volcanoes: They
are characterized by outbreaks
of cooler and more viscous
lavas than basalt. They are
constructed from numerous
explosive eruptions. Large
quantities of pyroclastic
material and ashes nd their
way to the ground along with
lava. This material gathers near
the vent openings resulting in the creation of layers.
• Examples: Mayon Volcano in the Philippines, Mount Fuji in Japan, and Mount Rainier in
Washington.
4. Caldera: The are the most explosive volcanoes of Earth. When they erupt, they incline to
collapse on themselves rather than constructing any structure. The collapsed depressions
are known as calderas.
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 • Example: Crater lake, Newberry
5. Flood Basalt Provinces: They discharge highly uid lava that ows for long distances.
Many parts of the world are covered by thick basalt lava ows.
• Example: Columbia river plateau
• Causes:
1. Trapped heat: The chemical reactions of radioactive substances deep within the
interior of the earth generate tremendous amount of heat. Some heat is already present
in the form of residual heat is already present at the earth’s interior
2. Temperature gradient: There is a huge temperature di erence between the inner
layers and the outer layers of the earth due to di erential amount of radioactivity

3. Convectional currents: They are generated in the outer core as well as the mantle due
to temperature gradient. Convectional currents in the mantle create convergent and
divergent boundaries.
4. At the divergent boundary: Molten, semi-molten and sometimes gaseous material
appears on earth usually at the plate margin. The earthquakes may expose fault zones
through which magma may escape. ● Example: Fissure type volcano
5. At the convergent boundary: Subduction of denser plate creates magma at high
pressure which will escape to the surface. Because of high pressure, the magma and
gases escape with great velocity as the pressure is released through eruptions.

• Volcanos in India
• Mainland India: There are no volcanoes in the Himalayan region or in the Indian peninsula.
• Barren Island: Located 135 km northeast of Port Blair, it became active in 1991 and 1995.
After its activity in the nineteenth century, it passed through a mild solfataric stage as
evidenced by the sublimations of sulphur on the walls of the crater.
• Narcondam island: Located at about 150 km north-east of Barren Island, it is probably
extinct. Its crater wall has been completely destroyed.

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 3. Tsunami: Tsunami meaning "harbour wave". A tsunami also called seismic sea waves, is one
of the most powerful and destructive natural forces.

• Causes:
1. Earthquake: Tsunami is generated by the earthquake because of the disturbance of the
sea oor and is formed generally with vertical displacement. Most Tsunami is generated by
earthquakes that occur along the subduction boundaries of plates along the ocean
trenches. The size of the Tsunami is related to the size of the earthquake.
• Example: 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami was an earthquake-induced Tsunami, caused by
an earthquake (Mw 9.2) in the Indian Ocean
2. Underwater explosion: It is an example of man-made disaster. Massive explosions
created by a nuclear weapon of nuclear tests have the potential to cause Tsunami. There
have been dangers of using this as a tectonic weapon.
• Example: A Nuclear Testing by the US generated Tsunami in 1940 and 1950s in
Marshall island.
3. Volcanic eruption: Volcanoes that occur along the Coastal waters can cause several
e ects that can cause a tsunami.
• Example: 1883 Indonesia Tsunami was caused by the explosion of Krakatau volcano.
4. Landslides: Earthquake and volcanic eruptions generally generate landslides, these
landslides when moving into the Oceans, bays and lakes can generate Tsunami.
• Example: 1998 Papua New Guinea Tsunami was generated by a landslide cause by an
earthquake.
5. Meteorite Impacts: Though no historic example as such of meteorite impact has caused
Tsunami, the apparent impact of a meteorite about 5 million years ago produced Tsunami
leaving deposits along the Gulf Coast of Mexico and the United States.
6. Meteotsunamis: Some meteorological conditions, for example, air pressure disturbances
often associated with fast moving weather systems, can displace bodies of water enough
to generate Tsunamis. These meteotsunamis are similar to tsunamis generated by
earthquakes, but usually with lower energies.
• Example: 2013 New Jersey, USA Tsunami caused by a high-speed windstorm
associated with thunderstorms.

• Impacts:
• Social
• Economic
• Environment

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