MAHARISHI UNIVERSITY OF

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

DIGITAL NOTES
[Department of Computer Application]

Subject : C.O.A
Name
Subject : BCA-302
Code
Course : BCA
Branch :
Semester : 3RD
Prepared by :

SESSION 2024-25
Certainly! Here’s a more detailed exploration of the evaluation of microprocessors, focusing on
Intel processors from the 100105 series to Pentium processors, as well as an in-depth look at
microprocessor architecture, memory organization, and input/output interfaces.

Evaluation of Microprocessors
1. Overview of Intel Processors: 100105 to Pentium
Intel 100105 Series
• Introduction: The Intel 100105 series represents some of the earliest microprocessors,
serving as foundational technologies for subsequent generations.
• Architecture:
o 16-bit Data Bus: Allowed for 16 bits of data to be processed at a time, limiting the
complexity of operations.
o 20-bit Address Bus: Enabled the processor to address up to 1 MB of memory, a
significant limitation for later applications.
• Instruction Set:
o Basic set of instructions for arithmetic, logic, and control operations.
o Focused on simple computational tasks typical of early computing environments.
Intel 80286
• Overview: Introduced in 1982, the 80286 marked a significant advancement with the
introduction of protected mode.
• Architecture:
o 16-bit Architecture: Maintained the data bus width but increased addressable
memory capacity with a 24-bit address bus, allowing access to 16 MB of RAM.
o Protected Mode: Allowed for multitasking by isolating processes and providing
more advanced memory management.
• Performance: Faster than its predecessors due to enhanced internal architecture and
support for more complex operations, which facilitated business applications.
Intel 80386
• Overview: Launched in 1985, the 80386 was a transformative step in microprocessor
design.
• Architecture:
o 32-bit Architecture: Enabled processing of 32 bits of data and addressing up to
4 GB of RAM.
o Virtual Memory: Introduced virtual memory support, allowing programs to use
memory more efficiently by swapping data in and out of physical memory.
• Enhanced Instruction Set:
o Included new instructions that improved performance for tasks such as graphics
processing and scientific calculations.
o Allowed for more complex data structures and improved handling of multiple
tasks.
Intel 80486
• Overview: Released in 1989, the 80486 further advanced microprocessor technology.
• Architecture:
o 32-bit Architecture: Continued support for 32-bit processing with an integrated
cache, which improved access speeds.
o Pipelining: Allowed for overlapping execution of instructions, increasing
throughput.
• Integrated Cache:
o Included both instruction and data caches, reducing the need for slower RAM
access and enhancing performance for computational tasks.
Intel Pentium
 • Introduction: Released in 1993, the Pentium processor represented a major leap
forward.
• Architecture:
o Dual Pipeline Architecture: Allowed the execution of two instructions
simultaneously (superscalar architecture), significantly improving performance.
o Floating Point Unit (FPU): Enhanced mathematical capabilities, crucial for
graphics, scientific computing, and multimedia applications.
• Performance:
o Introduced a more complex instruction set and more registers, leading to greater
efficiency in executing tasks.
o Supported MMX technology for multimedia instructions, enhancing performance
in audio and video processing.
2. Basic Microprocessor Architecture
a. Internal Architecture
• ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit):
o The core component responsible for executing arithmetic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical operations (AND, OR, NOT).
• Registers:
o General Purpose Registers: Used for temporary data storage and operations
(e.g., AX, BX, CX, DX in x86 architecture).
o Special Purpose Registers:
▪ Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instruction to be
executed.
▪ Instruction Register (IR): Stores the current instruction being executed.
▪ Stack Pointer (SP): Points to the top of the current stack in memory, used
for function calls and local variables.
• Control Unit (CU):
o Directs the operation of the processor by interpreting instructions and
coordinating the ALU, registers, and memory.
b. External Architecture
• Data Bus:
o The pathway for transferring data between the CPU and other components,
typically ranging from 8 to 64 bits in modern processors.
• Address Bus:
o Carries the addresses of data, indicating where data is stored or retrieved. Its
width determines the maximum memory the processor can address.
• Control Bus:
o Carries control signals from the CPU to other components, facilitating
coordination for memory and I/O operations.
3. Memory and Input/Output Interface
a. Memory Organization
• Types of Memory:
o RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile memory used for temporary storage
while the computer is operational. Types include:
▪ DRAM (Dynamic RAM): Needs to be refreshed thousands of times per
second.
▪ SRAM (Static RAM): Faster and more expensive; used for cache
memory.
o ROM (Read-Only Memory): Non-volatile memory that retains data even when
the power is off. Types include:
▪ PROM (Programmable ROM): Can be programmed once.
 ▪ EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): Can be erased and
reprogrammed using UV light.
▪ EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM): Can be
reprogrammed and erased using electrical charge.
o Cache Memory:
▪ Small, high-speed storage located close to the CPU, used to store
frequently accessed data and instructions, improving performance by
reducing access time to main memory.
b. Input/Output Interface
• I/O Devices: Include a wide range of peripherals:
o Input Devices: Keyboards, mice, scanners, microphones.
o Output Devices: Monitors, printers, speakers.
o Storage Devices: Hard drives, SSDs, USB drives.
• I/O Ports:
o Communication endpoints that facilitate data transfer between the CPU and
peripheral devices. Types include:
▪ Serial Ports: Send data one bit at a time.
▪ Parallel Ports: Send multiple bits simultaneously.
• Bus Systems:
o Parallel Bus: Allows multiple bits to be transmitted simultaneously but requires
more wires and can be limited by distance.
o Serial Bus: Transmits data one bit at a time, simplifying wiring and enabling
longer distances (e.g., USB, SATA).
4. Performance Evaluation
a. Metrics
• Clock Speed: Measured in MHz or GHz, indicating how many cycles per second the
CPU can perform. Higher clock speeds generally indicate better performance but may
also lead to increased heat generation.
• Instructions Per Cycle (IPC): Measures the average number of instructions executed in
one clock cycle. Higher IPC indicates more efficient processing.
• Thermal Design Power (TDP): The maximum amount of heat generated by the
processor, which affects cooling system design and power consumption.
• Benchmarking: The process of measuring the performance of the CPU under various
workloads to compare it against other processors or configurations. Tools used include
SPEC, Geekbench, and Cinebench.
5. Conclusion
The evolution of Intel processors from the 100105 series to the Pentium processors illustrates
significant advancements in microprocessor architecture, performance, and capability. Each
generation has built upon previous designs, resulting in more powerful and efficient processors
that support complex applications, multitasking, and high-performance computing tasks. The
continued development of microprocessors remains critical to advancements in computing
technology.