Chapter 6 Human Physiology- Nervous System

Neurons
Neurons are specialized cells that function to transit electrical impulses within the nervous system.

• The nervous system converts sensory information into electrical impulses in order to rapidly

detect and respond to stimuli.

While neurons may differ according to role sensory, relay, or motor) most share three basic components:

1. _____________: Short-branched fibers that convert chemical information from other neurons or receptor cells

into electrical signals.

2. ________: An elongated fiber that transmits electrical signals to terminal regions for communication with other

neurons or effectors

3. ______: A cell body containing the nucleus and organelle where essential metabolic processes occur to

maintain cell survival.

In some neurons, the axon may be surrounded by an insulating layer known as a myelin sheath.

• The myelin sheath improves the conduction speed of electrical impulses along the axon but require additional
space and energy

Saltatory Conduction
• Nerve fibers conduct electrical impulses along the length of their axons. Some of these axons such as
interneurons are unmyelinated, and therefore the impulse travels much slower.

• The greater the diameter, the greater the speed of the nerve impulse.

• Some axons are surrounded by a mixture of protein and phospholipids called myelin that collectively form a
myelin sheath.

• Many layers of myelin are deposited around the axon by special cells called _________________________.

• The myelin sheath insulates the axon and greatly increases the speed of the nerve impulse.

• In between the myelin are gaps called the ___________________________________.

• In myelinated neurons, the impulse can jump from one node to the next. This is called _________________________

_________________________.

• This allows myelinated neurons to conduct impulses up to 100x faster than unmyelinated axons.

----But how do neurons send electrical signals? What are the events involved? ----

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Resting Potential
• The time period when a neuron that is not conducting a nerve impulse but is ready to conduct one, is called the
resting potential.

• This membrane potential is due to an imbalance of positive and negative charges across the membrane.

•
+ +
Sodium-potassium pumps pump Na out of the axon and K into the axon

• Three Na+ are pumped out of the neuron and two K+ are pumped into the neuron

• This creates a concentration gradient of Na+ (outside to in) and of K+ (inside to out)

• The membrane is also much more ____________________________ to K+ as Na+ so K+ diffuses back out of the
neuron through leak channels.

• This means the Na+ concentration is much greater outside the neuron

• There are also negatively charged ions permanently located in the cytoplasm of the neuron

• These conditions create a resting membrane potential of ____________ inside the neuron.

!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!Action Potential- Depolarization

Action potentials are the rapid changes in charge across the membrane that occur when a neuron is firing.

• Action potentials occur in three main stages: ___________________________, _____________________________ and a

_________________________________________.

Depolarization

Refers to a sudden change in _____________________ - usually from a (relatively) negative to positive internal charge.

• In response to a signal initiated at a dendrite, sodium channels open within the membrane of the axon

•
+
As Na ions are more concentrated outside of the neuron, the opening of sodium channels causes a passive
influx of sodium

• The influx of sodium causes the membrane potential to become more positive (depolarization).

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 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Action Potential-Repolarization
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Refers to the restoration of a membrane potential following depolarization (i.e. restoring a negative internal charge).

• Following an influx of sodium, potassium channels open within the membrane of the axon

• As K+ ions are more concentrated inside of the neuron, the opening of sodium channels causes a passive efflux of
potassium

• The efflux of potassium causes the membrane potential to return to a more negative internal differential
(repolarization).

!
!

Action Potential-Refractory Period

Refers to the period of time following a nerve impulse before the neuron is able to fire again.

• In a normal resting state, sodium ions are predominantly outside the neuron and potassium ions mainly inside
(resting potential)

• Following depolarization (sodium influx) and repolarization (potassium efflux), this ionic distribution is largely
reversed.

• Before a neuron can fire again, the resting potential must be restored via the antiport action of the sodium-
potassium pump.

-OVERVIEW TIME-

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!
Step Voltage-gated ion channels Ion permeability Action potential curve
Resting state All channels closed No ion movement Flat
Depolarization Na+ channels open (activation Na+ flows into cell Sharp upward spike
gates)
Repolarization Na+ channels inactivating K+ flows out of cell Downward curve
(inactivation gates)
K+ channels open
Hyperpolarization Some K+ channels remain Some K+ continues to Slight dip below resting
open flow out of cell membrane potential
+
Na channels reset (activation
gates close & inactivation
gates open)

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 Nerve impulses propagate UNIDIRECTIONALLY
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• As depolarization occurs in one part of the neuron, the positive charge triggers the Na+ channels to open in the
nearby regions, causing an action potential to occur.

• The action potential will cause a depolarization in the next region.

• The propagation of action potentials will continue along the axon of the neuron.

• Nerve impulses move in one direction along the neuron from one end of the neuron to the other end.

• A ___________________________ occurs after depolarization which prevent the electrical impulse from traveling
backwards along the axon.

!
It’s ALL OR NONE!!!
Action potentials are generated within the axon according to the all-or-none principle.

• An action potential of the same magnitude will always occur provided a minimum electrical stimulus is generated.

• This minimum stimulus – known as the ___________________________ (____mV) – is the level required to open
__________________________________________.

• If the threshold potential is not reached, an ______________________________________ cannot be generated and

hence the neuron will not fire.

Threshold potentials are triggered when the combined stimulation from the dendrites exceeds a minimum level of
depolarization.

• If the overall depolarization from the dendrites is sufficient to activate voltage-gated ion channels in one section
of the axon, the resulting displacement of ions should be sufficient to trigger the voltage-gated ion channels in
the next axon section.

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 Oscilloscope Traces
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!
What is neurotransmitter?
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers released into the synaptic cleft by neurons.

• They maintain signals in the nervous system by binding to receptors on post-synaptic neurons and triggering
electrical impulses.

• They also activate responses by effector organs (such as contraction in muscles or hormone release from
endocrine glands).

Neurotransmitters may be either excitatory or inhibitory in their effect (some may be both depending on the receptor
they bind to)

• __________________________ neurotransmitters trigger _______________________, increasing the likelihood of a

response

• _________________________ neurotransmitters trigger ________________________, decreasing the likelihood of a

response

!
Examples of Neurotransmitters

Dopamine

• It is primarily responsible for feelings of pleasure, but is also involved in movement and motivation.

• People tend to repeat behaviors that lead to dopamine release, leading to addictions.

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 • Abnormal dopamine secretion is normal in specific movement disorders, like Parkinson’s Disease
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Serotonin

• Contributes to feelings of well-being and happiness

• It is affected by exercise and light exposure, and plays a role in the sleep cycle and digestive system regulation.

Summation

Presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters into the synapse to trigger graded potentials in post-synaptic neurons.

• Some generate excitatory post-synaptic potentials (EPSPs) and others produce inhibitory post-synaptic potentials
(IPSPs).

• EPSPs trigger depolarization in the post-synaptic membrane, IPSPs trigger hyperpolarization in the post-synaptic
membrane

• If the combination of signals reaches a threshold level, an action potential will be triggered in the post-synaptic
neuron.

The combination of graded potentials in the post-synaptic neuron is known as summation.

• __________________________________ occurs when excitatory and inhibitory graded potentials cancel each other out
(no threshold potential reached)

• _________________________________________ occurs when EPSPs are generated from multiple presynaptic neurons
simultaneously to reach threshold

• __________________________________________ occurs when multiple EPSPs are generated from a single presynaptic
neuron in quick succession.

These summative effects determine which nerve pathways are activated and hence lead to alternate decision-making
processes.

* Use your nervous system now. This is important! *

Synaptic transfer
• Synapses are junctions or structures between the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic membrane of two cells in the
nervous system.

• The junction can be between a neuron and an effector such as a muscle or a gland.

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 • It can be between two different neurons.
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• A junction also exists between the sense receptor cells and the sensory neurons.

• Neurotransmitters are chemicals diffused across a synapse from pre-synaptic membrane to post-synaptic
membrane to send a signal to the next cell.

• As the nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal of the pre-synaptic neuron, the positive charge from the
2+
depolarization causes voltage-gated channels permeable to Ca to open.

• Ca2+ flows into the pre-synaptic neuron, increasing the amount of Ca2+ in the pre-synaptic neuron.

• This Ca2+ causes vesicles containing neurotransmitters to bind to the membrane and release their
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft (space between pre and post synaptic neuron).

• These neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptor sites on the membrane of the post
synaptic neuron.

• The binding of these neurotransmitters open ion channels allowing ions such as Na+ to diffuse into the post
synaptic neuron.

• This influx of positive charge possibly leads to an action potential and a depolarization in the post synaptic
neuron.

• The neurotransmitter is reabsorbed by the pre-synaptic neuron or broken down in the synapse by enzymes.

LIGAND-
GATED ION
CHANNEL

Graded potential

A nerve impulse is only initiatied if a threshold potential is reached, so as to open the voltage-gated ion channels within
the axon:

• Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g. noradrenaline) cause _________________________ by opening ligand-gated

sodium or calcium channels.

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 • Inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g. GABA) cause __________________________ by opening ligand-gated potassium or
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chlorine channels.

One example:

• It is commonly released at neuromuscular junctions and binds to receptors on muscle fibers to trigger muscle
contraction.

• It is also commonly released within the autonomic nervous system to promote

________________________________________________ (‘rest and digest’)

Acetylcholine is created in the axon terminal by combining _______________ with an _______________________ (derived
from the mitochondria Acetyl CoA).

• Acetylcholine is stored in vesicles within the axon temrinal until released via exocytosis in response to a nerve
impulse.

Acetylcholine actives a post-synaptic cell by binding to one of two classes of specific receptor (nicotinic or muscarinic)

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 • Acetylcholine must be continually removed from the synapse, as overstimulation can lead to fatal convulsions and
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paralysis.

Acetylcholine is broken down into its two component parts by the synaptic enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE).

• AChE is either released into the synapse from the presynpatic neuron or embedded on the membrane of the
post-synaptic cell

• The liberated chlline is returned to the presynaptic neuron where it is coupled with another acetate to reform
acetylcholine.

One more example to go:

• _______________________________ bind to acetylcholine receptors in cholinergic synapses in the CNS of insects

• Acetylcholinesterase does not break down neonicotinoids, therefore binding is irreversible.

• Acetylcholine now can’t bind and neural tranmission is stopped

• The insects go through paralysis and then death

• A benefit to this pesticide is that it is very effective in killing pests and it is not highly toxic to humans and
mammals.

• The problem is that it also affects beneficial insects such as honey bees. There is conflicting evidence if this is the
case or not.

• Many places such as the EU and Ontario, Canada has banned neonicotinoid pesticides.

Overview:

• CNS (________ nervous system) – Made up of the ________ and ______________

• PNS (__________ nervous system) – Made of _________________ wich link the CNS to the body’s ___________ and
______________.

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Real life version Versus Animated version

• The PNS can be divided into the sensory (afferent) pathway or the motor (efferent) pathway

• The motor pathway can be divided to whether the response is voluntary (___________) or __voluntary (__________)

• Finally, the autonomic divison can be split into sympathetic (‘fight or flight’) or parasympathetic (‘rest and
digest’) responses.

Stimulus Overview:

• A stimulus a change in the environment (either external or internal) that is

detected by a receptor.

• Receptors transform environmental stimuli to electrical nerve impulses.

• These impluses are then transmitted via neurons to the central nervous
system where decision-making occurs.

• When a response is selected (consciously or unconsciouly), the signal is transmitted via neurons to effectors

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 • Effectors are organs (either _______________ or _______________) that produce a response to a stimulus
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• A response is a change in the organism resulting from the detection of a stimulus.

Types of Neurons

1. Sensory neurons transmit information from sensory receptors to

the central nervous system (CNS).

2. Relay neurons transmit information within the CNS as part of the

decision-making process.

3. Motor neurons transmit infromation from the CNS to effectors

(muscles or glands), in order to initiate a response.

• This includes their: length, cell body (soma) position, and the comparative distribution of dendrites and axon
terminals.

Reflex Action
A reflex is a rapid and involuntary response to a stimulus, resulting from a simple signalling pathway called a
________________________.

• Reflex actions do not involve the brain - instead sensory informatino is directly relayed to motor neurons within
the spine.

• This results in a faster response, but one that does not involve conscious thought or deliberation.

Reflex actions are particuylarly beneficial in survival situations, when quick reactions are necessary to avoid permanent
damage.

• A common example of a reflex action is the patellar reflex (‘knee jerk’ response) that occurs when the patellar
tendon is tapped

• The patellar reflex is a common test employed by doctors to determine the presence of spinal lesions.

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 Diagrams To Know
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Draw and label a diagram of the structure of a motor neuron.

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 Diagrams To Know – Your Turn!!!
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Draw and label a diagram of the structure of a motor neuron.

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