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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT I

UNIT I

Writing Skills – Essential Grammar and Vocabulary – Passive

Voice, Reported Speech, Concord, Signpost words, Cohesive
Devices – Paragraph writing - Technical Writing vs. General
Writing.

PART –A

1. What is the meaning of writing skills?

Writing skills involve adequate knowledge and the ability to express your
thoughts and ideas in written words. It refers to a sound understanding of
language through grammar, punctuation marks, and spelling. A good writing skill
also includes writing style and tone of the language etc.

2. What is a good definition of writing?

It may seem obvious, but in order to get something on the page, a writer
chooses the words, the order of the words in the sentence, the grouping of
sentences into paragraphs, and the order of the paragraphs within a piece.

3. What is writing skill called?

three Rs literacy
Literateness reading ability
reading proficiency writing proficiency
ability to read and write articulacy
Articulateness letters

4. What are written skills or writing skill?

Writing skills: skills which apply to writing. (Usually meaning composition and
language skills, not mechanical handwriting/typing.) "Written skills", if it meant
anything, would mean those skills which had been written down. Writing skills or
written communication skills.

5. What defines writing?

Writing is the act of creating a persistent representation of human language. A
writing system uses a set of symbols and rules to encode aspects of spoken
language, such as its lexicon and syntax. However, written language may take
on characteristics distinct from those of any spoken language.

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6. What is basic writing skill?

Basic writing skills: These include spelling, capitalization, punctuation,

handwriting and keyboarding, and sentence structure (e.g., learning to eliminate
run-ons and sentence fragments). Basic writing skills are sometimes called the
―mechanics‖ of writing.

7. What is the importance of writing skills?

Writing skills are at the heart of education. They are essential for composing
essays, research papers, and assignments that demonstrate a student's
understanding of a subject. A well-written paper not only garners higher grades
but also reflects a student's depth of knowledge and critical thinking abilities.

8. What are the functions of writing skills?

Writing Function

Structuring Function Writing has a function of structuring one's ideas, thoughts,

opinions and fantasies. So that the writing written by the author describes and
expresses his ideas, thoughts, opinions and imagination clearly.

9. What are the benefits of writing?

Writing thoughts will help you perform better professionally in the

workplace.
 Writing helps recall memories. ...
 Writing enables you to store creative ideas. ...
 Writing makes you more productive. ...
 Writing helps to improve verbal and non-verbal communication. ...
 Writing is a great exercise for the mind. ...
 Writing gives voice to writers.

10. What is essential grammar?

Essential Grammars are a reference source for the learner and user of the
language, irrespective of level, setting out the complexities of the language in
short, readable sections that are clear and free from jargon.

11. What is the role of grammar and vocabulary?

Proper grammar helps identify the relationships between words and phrases, the
context of the message, and the intended emphasis. By understanding the
grammar in written materials, you can extract information accurately,
comprehend complex texts, and expand your vocabulary in context.

12. What is the role of vocabulary?

Vocabulary plays an important part in learning to read. Beginning readers must
use the words they hear orally to make sense of the words they see in print. Kids

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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who hear more words spoken at home learn more words and enter school with
better vocabularies.

13. Which is important grammar or vocabulary?

For beginners, I'd recommend starting with more focus on vocabulary than on
grammar. Give your students something to work with. But as they move onward,
vocabulary should give way to grammar. Once context is established, meaning
needs to be communicated.

14. What are the essential elements of English grammar?

The main elements of English grammar we'll be looking at today
are: morphemes, clauses, conjunctions, types of phrase, grammatical voice,
tenses, aspects, types of sentence, sentence functions, and word classes.

15. Why is vocabulary essential?

Vocabulary is important for Success in Life

Words are the puzzle pieces that we use to convey our thoughts and ideas, share
important information, show our understanding of others, and help us grow
relationships with family and friends. A strong vocabulary can help foster a
healthy life.

16. What are the 12 basic rules of grammar?

Twelve basic English grammar rules

 Make your subjects and verbs agree. ...

 Be consistent with your tenses. ...
 Choose the right articles. ...
 Use complete sentences. ...
 Capitalize where needed. ...
 Use the right pronouns. ...
 Add the right preposition. ...
 Link your ideas with conjunctions.
17. Why do we teach grammar and vocabulary?
The primary purpose of grammar is to improve the speaking and writing skills of
the learner. In addition, grammar can help them become a better communicator.
Grammar studies the rules and structure of language, including parts of speech,
sentence structure, and punctuation.

18. What is the full form of grammar?

Grammar full form- g- growth, r- real, a- attitude, m- man, m- mind, a- ample,
r- range. Grammar:- the knowledge of correct reading, writing and speaking is
called grammar.

19. What is the definition of passive voice?

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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Passive voice is when the subject of a sentence receives the action of the verb
rather than performing the action. In grammar, voice indicates the relationship
between the subject of the sentence and its verb.

20. What is passive voice with example?

In the passive voice, the action's target, ball, is positioned first as the focus of
the sentence. The sentence gets flipped, and the subject is now being acted upon
by the verb. In other words, the subject is passive: The ball is being chased by
the dog

21. What are the 7 types of passive voice?

 Present simple – passive.

 Present continuous – passive.
 Present perfect – passive.
 Present perfect continuous – passive.
 Past simple – passive.
 Past perfect – passive.
 Past continuous – passive.
 Past perfect continuous – passive.

22. What is the definition of a reported speech?

Reported speech is speech which tells you what someone said, but does not use
the person's actual words: for example, 'They said you didn't like it', 'I asked her
what her plans were', and ' Citizens complained about the smoke'.

23. What are reported speech examples with answers?

Direct speech Reported speech

Are you going to my house? She asked me if I was going to her house.

Where were you going? He asked me where I was going.

Where have you been? She asked me where had I been.

24. What is reported speech used?

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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We use reported speech when we want to tell someone what someone said. We
usually use a reporting verb (e.g. say, tell, ask, etc.) and then change the tense
of what was actually said in direct speech.

25. How to explain reported speech?

Reported speech puts the speaker's words or ideas into a sentence without
quotation marks. Noun clauses are usually used. In reported speech, the reader
does not assume that the words are the speaker's exact words; often, they are a
paraphrase of the speaker's words.

26. What is the formula for reported speech?

The pattern is verb + indirect object + to-clause. The indirect object is the
person spoken to. Other verbs used to report orders and requests in this way
are: command, order, warn, ask, advise, invite, beg, teach, & forbid.

27. How many types of sentences are there in reported speech?

The reported speech can be Assertive/Declarative, Imperative, Interrogative, and

Exclamatory. Reported verb is the tense in which the sentence is spoken.

28. What is concord in communication or concord in English grammar?

Concord definition. Concord is the need for grammatical agreement between

the different parts of speech in a sentence. The word concord comes from the
Latin word for agreement.

29. What do you mean by concord?

1. Agreement between persons, groups, nations, etc.; concurrence in attitudes,

feelings, etc.; unanimity; accord. There was complete concord among the
delegates.
2. Agreement between things; mutual fitness; harmony.

30. What are examples of a concord?

Solved Examples for You on Subject Verb Concord

 The lady in the car (look/looks) like your mother.

 Most of the milk (is/are) gone.
 One of the flowers (has/have) wilted.
 Either Ram or Shyam (is/are) coming today.
 Here (is/are) the newspaper.
 The group of dancers (is/are) here.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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 Civics (is/are) my favorite subject.

31. What is concord and explain its types?

Concord is a term used in grammar to describe how a word has a form that
corresponds to the number or gender of the noun or pronoun it refers to. For
example, in 'She hates it,' the singular form of the verb and the singular pronoun
‗she' are in agreement.

32. How many rules are there in concord?

Hence, in this second sentence, you use a plural verb – the 24 rules of concord.
When two subjects are joined together by and, the verb to be used should be
plural.

33. What are the benefits of concord?

Concord grapes actually have the power to keep us youthful because they
contain high concentrations of antioxidants that protect our skin, brain and heart
from inflammation and aging. The healthiest part of the grape is the skin, which
is packed with not one but 19 different types of health-supporting nutrients

33. What are signposts in communication?

A signpost is a verbal or visual marker indicating the direction you are taking
your speech/presentation or where you are presently at in order to help your
audience move through different concepts, connect the dots, and help them stay
engaged.

34. What are signpost words?

Signpost words specify how the two ideas are related: for example, whether they
are similar ideas, contrasting ideas, or whether one idea adds more detail or a
further example to another. They can show that one idea is the result or
conclusion of another, or to show the order of the ideas in a sequence.

35. What are three types of signposts?

Types of Speech or Presentation Signposts

 Transition Signposts. Transition signposts are used to smoothly guide your
audience from one idea or section to another. ...
 Enumeration Signposts. Enumeration signposts help you organize and
present various ideas or signs throughout your Speech. ...
 Summary Signposts.

36. How many signposts are there?

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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Six signposts

The six signposts include Contrast and Contradiction, Words of the Wiser, Aha!
Moment, Again and Again, Memory Moment, and Tough Questions. Contrast and
Contradiction: This refers to when a character does something that contrasts
with a reader's expectations, or contradicts an earlier act or statement.

37. What is a cohesive device and examples?

Cohesive devices are words or phrases that help to connect your ideas and make
your writing more coherent and logical. They are also known as linking words,
connectors, or discourse markers. They show the relationship between
sentences, paragraphs, or sections of a text or speech.

38. What are the 4 types of cohesive devices?

The types of cohesive devices are reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction,

and lexical cohesion. From the findings, it is concluded that cohesive devices hold
important part in writing news. Cohesive devices will help the readers to focus
well on the topic and for clearer emphasis and understanding of the text.

39. What are the elements of cohesive devices?

Elements of Cohesion in Writing

 Temporal: first, later, next.
 Causality: as a result, therefore, consequently.
 Illustration: for example, for instance.
 Reiteration: in other words, again.

40. What is paragraph writing?

A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and are all
related to a single topic. Almost every piece of writing you do that is longer than
a few sentences should be organized into paragraphs.

41. What is the best definition paragraph?

A subdivision of a written composition that consists of one or more sentences,

deals with one point or gives the words of one speaker, and begins on a new
usually indented line.

42. Why is writing a paragraph?

Paragraphs don't just make a text easier to read by breaking it up on the page.
They are a key tool in creating and signposting structure in academic writing, as
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they are the building blocks of an argument, separating each point and showing
how they link together to form the structure.

43. What is the difference between general and technical writing?

One of the main differences between technical writing and other forms of writing
is the purpose and audience. Technical writing is not meant to entertain,
persuade, or express personal opinions, but to inform, instruct, or explain
something to a specific group of readers.

44. What is the difference between technical and general report?

The main difference between a technical report and a general report is that tech
reports are supposed to be technical, and general reports are the reports for
everyone. However, they also have some aspects in common. When you write
any report: The high readability level is the main purpose.

45. What is general writing?

General writing refers to any piece of writing which focuses in general subjects of
writing and general papers are published for amusement of the reader. But
sometimes many general topics also gives life lessons, moral, inspiration etc.
There is not such specific set of audience or readers like technical writing

46. What is the difference between technical and non technical writing?

It is not limited to technical or business matters and can include various forms of
creative writing, journalism, and literature. While technical writing is focused on
conveying technical information accurately and clearly, non-technical writing
allows for more self-expression and creativity in the writing process.

47. What are the 3 main types of writing?

As explained in the USC Rossier infographic, ―There are three writing capacities:
writing to persuade, writing to explain, and writing to convey real or imagined
experiences.‖ These three types of writing are usually called argument,
informative, and narrative writing.

48. What are the 7 steps of the technical writing process?

The process of creating and publishing technical writing can be broken

down into these seven parts:
 identify the specification, audience and scope;
 planning;
 research and writing;

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 testing, reviewing and revision;

 delivery;
 evaluation and feedback;
 revision, archiving or destruction.

49. What is technical vs formal writing?

Technical writing requires a completely different mindset than traditional formal

writing. Whenever we write, we are keeping a particular audience in mind; for
example, your professor is the audience of your academic research paper.
However, technical writing needs to be accessible to everyone.

50. Which writing style is best?

If you've read a lot of academic writing or technical writing, you're probably most
comfortable with an expository style. That's the one that will feel most familiar. If
you've read a lot of creative writing, then you might be more comfortable
working with a narrative style.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT I

PART –B

1. Explain the different Writing Skills required for Project report writing
in engineering.
Over View
 Introduction
 Teaching Writing Skills
 How to teach writing skills
 Approaches to teaching writing skills
 5 Stages of the writing process

Introduction
 Writing skills are skills that help you communicate with others using
written words. Before writing a report, it is essential to understand the
audience you are trying to connect. Knowing about the audience can help
you choose words that are relatable.
 Excellent writing skills are essential to creating an interesting report that
delivers the intended business message. This skill set refers to your ability
to write reports that are professional and clear to understand.
 Employers prefer candidates who can write reports free from grammatical,
spelling and punctuation errors. The ability to use coherent sentences and
correct terminologies makes a report professional.
Teaching Writing Skills: Approaches and Effective

 Listening, speaking, reading and writing are the four skills that make up
any language. Having good writing skills may assist you in conveying
information in a more comprehensive, informative, and clear and direct
manner.
 The ability to write effectively and precisely is an important skill, especially
in a professional environment. In this article, we discuss how to teach
writing skills, the approaches to teaching writing and the stages of the
writing process and we provide some tips to help you improve your
teaching skills.

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How to teach writing skills

 The writing process requires several key skills. There are methods available
to assist struggling writers in developing these writing skills. That is
because there is a lot that goes into expressing thoughts in writing or
written expression. Here are some basic steps for teaching writing skills
that can help establish a strong foundation in the learning process:
1. Ensure proper spelling and punctuation usage

The proper usage of spelling and punctuation is one of the most

important elements of writing. By distributing worksheets, you can
teach spelling and punctuation skills.
The worksheets can include a 'fill in the blank' section that prompts
candidates to use their vocabulary to complete sentences with proper
spelling and punctuation. These blank sections may prompt
candidates to use their vocabulary to fill in missing words and
punctuation in sentences and improve their skills.
2. Improve reading comprehension

Good reading comprehension is important for good writing skills as it

adds meaning to what is read. You may improve your students'
reading comprehension by enhancing their vocabulary and
encouraging them to read more books and other types of material.
Reading comprehension also improves by answering questions and
writing a summary about the text. Other simple tips, such as reading
aloud for extra clarity and reading in a quiet environment, may be
effective.
3. Build sentence and paragraph structure

Building sentence and paragraph structure ensures that the writing is

as clear and understandable as possible. It primarily consists of
forming sentences and paragraphs with the appropriate tense and
placing modifiers and verbs in the right place.
Teaching students the importance of having a beginning, middle and
end in their paragraphs is important for their progression to more
advanced writing skills, such as essays and articles.
4. Explain the different types of writing

A comprehensive understanding of the different types of writing is an

important part of learning how to write. The four types of writing are

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narrative, descriptive, persuasive and expository writing.

Besides regular writing assignments, you can provide your students
with creative writing assignments to hone their creativity and solidify
their writing skills.

5. Educate about editing

The final part of the writing process is editing the draft for grammar
and punctuation errors. It is important to revise the draft, catch the
errors and rectify them to have an error-free document. You can
encourage your students to read the draft aloud or ask a peer to
review it to find the mistakes.

Approaches to teaching writing skills

 The product approach and the process approach are the two methods for
teaching writing.
 English language teachers have recommended these approaches over the
last few decades.
 Here are some writing approaches and how they contribute to the teaching
and learning of English writing skills:
o Product approach
 The product approach compels the writer to focus on the finished
text or the product of writing, rather than the steps and stages
necessary to get there.
 The focus of the product approach to writing is the final, polished
document. It is usually done in a single sitting, with no revisions or
breaks. Product approaches include reports, blogs, newspaper
articles, formal letters and emails and memos.
o Process approach
 The process approach to teaching writing is that if students receive
feedback while writing, it may improve the final result. This method
is a natural sequence of steps that writers take to complete a piece
of writing.
 The emphasis of process writing is on the process rather than the
finished product. It divides the act of writing into manageable steps
for completion, with enough time given for each step.

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5 Stages of the writing process

The writing process consists of a series of specific steps writers use to create
text. It is important for teachers to recognize and use these five stages to teach
writing skills effectively. Each step discussed below may provide you with details
of the writing process in shown in fig 1.1:

Fig. 1.1 the writing process

1 - Prewriting
This is the initial phase where the writer generates ideas and plans the structure
of the piece. It involves brainstorming, outlining, and organizing thoughts. Things
like writing workshops can help engage students in this kind of activity.
Prewriting is the foundation for the writing process, helping writers clarifies their
purpose, audience, and main ideas.

Here you could even use graphic organizers to help plan and map out thoughts
and ideas ready for the next step!

2. Drafting

Drafting is the process of putting points and ideas on paper and arranging
them in a readable manner. Before accumulating all the information,
writers usually research their topics during the prewriting stage. Writers
start with a draft version, then arrange their points in the best way
possible and gradually prepare a revised version.
3. Revising

Revising is another important stage in which there is a thorough revision of

a draft. This includes the addition, replacement and deletion of points
based on the requirements. Revision often makes the writer's viewpoint
more compelling.
4. Editing

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It is important to refine the tone of the writing and thoroughly check each
line of text. To eliminate errors, it is necessary to review spelling,
grammar, punctuation, sentence structure, document format and other
factors. Editing is the stage at which writers can make any necessary
changes to improve the document.

5. Publishing

Publishing is the final stage in which writers submit their work to a

publisher. Before submitting the written document to the publisher, a
writer may ensure that it is complete with no errors. Teaching your
students about the publishing process may help them become better
writers and readers.

2. Explain the Essential Grammar and Vocabulary for Engineering Project

report

Over View
 Writing Grammar

 Sentence Structure

 Verb Tense

 Modals

 Conditionals

Writing Grammar
Effective grammar is the cornerstone of clear and precise communication in
engineering project reports.

Sentence Structure
 Clarity and conciseness: Prioritize clear and direct expression of ideas,
avoiding convoluted sentence structures.
 Example: Instead of "Due to the fact that the results were inconclusive,
the experiment was repeated," write "Because the results were
inconclusive, the experiment was repeated."
 Active voice: Generally preferred for direct and engaging communication.
 Example: "The engineer conducted the experiment" is more direct than
"The experiment was conducted by the engineer."
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 Passive voice: Use judiciously for emphasis on the action or when the
actor is unknown or unimportant.
 Example: "The equipment was damaged during the testing phase" focuses
on the damage rather than the cause.
 Subject-verb agreement: Ensure the subject and verb correspond in
number and person.
 Example: "The data is accurate" (singular subject, singular verb).
 Parallelism: Maintain consistent grammatical structure within lists or
comparisons.
 Example: "The experiment involved collecting data, analyzing results, and
drawing conclusions."
Verb Tense

 Consistency: Use consistent verb tense throughout the report to maintain

clarity and coherence.
 Example: If the report is in the past tense, maintain this tense unless
there's a clear reason to shift.
 Past tense: Typically used to describe completed actions or events.
 Example: "The experiment was conducted last week."
 Present tense: Used for general truths, statements of fact, or ongoing
actions.
 Example: "Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius at sea level."
 Future tense: Used for planned or predicted actions.
 Example: "The project will be completed by the end of the month."
Modals

 Certainty: Use "will" for future actions, "must" for obligation, and "shall"
for formal declarations.
 Example: "The report will be submitted on time."
 Possibility: Use "may," "might," or "could" to express uncertainty or
permission.
 Example: "There may be unforeseen challenges in the project."
 Ability: Use "can" or "could" to express ability or capacity.

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 Example: "The software can analyze large datasets efficiently."

Conditionals

 Zero conditional: Used for general truths or conditions that are always
true.
 Example: "If you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils."
 First conditional: Used for real possibilities in the future.
 Example: "If we increase the pressure, the boiling point will rise."
 Second conditional: Used for hypothetical or unlikely situations.
 Example: "If we had more funding, we could develop a prototype."
 Third conditional: Used for unreal past conditions and their
consequences.

 Example: "If we had conducted more tests, we would have identified the
problem earlier."

Vocabulary

 Precise and effective vocabulary is essential for conveying technical

information accurately.
 Technical Terminology:
 Use precise technical terms to accurately describe concepts and processes.
 Define unfamiliar terms for a broader audience.
 Avoid jargon unless it is essential and defined.
 Descriptive Language:
 Employ vivid and descriptive language to enhance understanding and
engagement.
 Use precise adjectives and adverbs to modify nouns and verbs.
 Example: Instead of "The material is strong," write "The material exhibits
exceptional tensile strength."
Concise Expression:
 Use the fewest words necessary to convey information effectively.
 Eliminate unnecessary words and phrases.

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 Example: Instead of "In the event that the results are negative," write "If
the results are negative."
 Formal Tone:
 Maintain a formal and objective tone throughout the report.
 Avoid colloquialisms, contractions, and overly casual language.
 Variety: Use a diverse vocabulary to avoid repetition and enhance
readability.
 By mastering these grammar and vocabulary skills, engineers can produce
clear, concise, and technically accurate project reports.
3. Explain the structure of the passive voice and its function in formal
writing. When is it appropriate to use the passive voice in a project
report?

Over View

 The Passive Voice Structure,

 Function, and

 Application in Project Reports

 Understanding the Passive Voice

Structure of the Passive Voice

The passive voice is a grammatical construction where the subject of the

sentence is the recipient of the action rather than the doer of the action. It
typically consists of:
 Auxiliary verb "be" in the appropriate tense (is, are, was, were, will be,
etc.)
 Past participle of the main verb
 Example:
 Active voice: The engineer conducted the experiment.
 Passive voice: The experiment was conducted by the engineer.
 As seen in the example, the focus shifts from the engineer (subject in the
active voice) to the experiment (subject in the passive voice).

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Function of the Passive Voice in Formal Writing

The passive voice is often used in formal writing, including project reports,
for several reasons:
 To emphasize the object or result of an action: This is useful when the
object is more important than the doer.
 Example: "The data was analyzed using statistical software." (Focus on the
data and the process)
 To avoid mentioning the doer of an action: This can be helpful when
the doer is unknown or unimportant.
 Example: "The equipment was damaged during the testing phase." (Focus
on the damage, not the cause)
 To create a more formal and objective tone: The passive voice can
lend a sense of objectivity and impartiality to the writing.
 Example: "The results were carefully evaluated." (Implies a detached and
impartial assessment)

The Passive Voice in Project Reports

Project reports often require a formal and objective tone, making the
passive voice a suitable choice in many instances. However, overuse can make
the writing dull and impersonal.

Appropriate Use of Passive Voice in Project Reports

 Describing procedures and methods:

o "The samples were collected from three different locations."
o "The data was processed using MATLAB software."
 Presenting results:
o "It was found that the proposed design exhibited superior
performance."
o "The correlation between variables X and Y was determined to be
significant."

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 Reporting on actions taken:

o "The project was initiated in January 2023."
o "Safety measures were implemented throughout the experiment."

Engineering Examples:

 Materials Science Project Report

 Objective: To investigate the effect of temperature on the tensile strength
of a new alloy.
 Passive voice usage:
o "Tensile tests were conducted at various temperatures."
o "The data obtained from the tests was analyzed using statistical
software."
o "It was observed that the tensile strength decreased as the temperature
increased."
Civil Engineering Project Report
 Objective: To evaluate the structural integrity of an existing bridge.
 Passive voice usage:
o "Finite element analysis was performed to assess the bridge's behavior
under different load conditions."
o "Deflections were measured at various points on the bridge."
o "The bridge was found to be structurally sound within the design limits."
Mechanical Engineering Project Report
 Objective: To optimize the performance of a combustion engine.
 Passive voice usage:
o "Engine performance parameters were measured under different
operating conditions."
o "Fuel consumption was determined for various engine loads."
o "It was concluded that the proposed modifications resulted in a 10%
improvement in fuel efficiency."

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Cautions on Overuse

While the passive voice has its place in project reports, excessive use can lead
to unclear and convoluted writing. It's essential to balance the use of passive and
active voice to maintain reader engagement.
Example:
 Overuse of passive voice: "The experiment was conducted by the
researchers. The data was collected and analyzed. The results were
presented in the form of graphs."
 Improved version: "Researchers conducted the experiment, collected and
analyzed the data, and presented the results graphically."

The passive voice is a valuable tool in formal writing, particularly in project

reports. By understanding its structure and function, engineers can effectively
use it to convey information clearly and objectively. However, it's crucial to use
the passive voice judiciously and balance it with the active voice to maintain
reader interest and engagement.

Expanding on the Passive Voice and Project Reports

Deeper Dive into Passive Voice Usage

When to Avoid Passive Voice:

 When clarity is compromised: Excessive use of passive voice can
obscure the subject and make the sentence difficult to understand.
 Instead of "The experiment was conducted by the researchers," consider
"Researchers conducted the experiment."
 When accountability is important: In certain contexts, it's crucial to
identify the person or entity responsible for an action.
 Example: "John Smith failed to submit the report on time."
Nuances of Passive Voice:
 Impersonal Constructions: The passive voice can be used to create an
impersonal tone, which is often desirable in scientific and technical writing.
 Example: "It is believed that..."

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 Emphasis on Process: When the process itself is more important than

the agent, the passive voice can be effective.
 Example: "The data was collected, processed, and analyzed using
advanced statistical techniques."
 Avoiding Personal Pronouns: In some academic styles, personal
pronouns (I, we, you) are discouraged. Passive voice can help maintain
objectivity.
 Example: Instead of "I conducted the experiment," write "The experiment
was conducted."
Engineering-Specific Examples

Electrical Engineering:
 Circuit Analysis: "The circuit was simulated using SPICE software to
determine the voltage drop across the resistor."
 Power Systems: "The load flow analysis was performed to identify
potential bottlenecks in the power grid."
 Chemical Engineering:
 Process Design: "The reactor was modeled using Aspen Plus to optimize
operating conditions."
 Materials Characterization: "The material's microstructure was analyzed
using scanning electron microscopy."
Aerospace Engineering:
 Structural Analysis: "Finite element analysis was conducted to evaluate
the stress distribution in the aircraft wing."
 Fluid Dynamics: "Computational fluid dynamics simulations were
performed to predict aerodynamic forces on the airfoil."
Additional Considerations:
 Vary Sentence Structure: To enhance readability, alternate between
active and passive voice.
 Consider Audience: The appropriateness of passive voice can depend on
the target audience. For example, a report for technical experts might use
more passive voice than one for a general audience.

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 Style Guides: Adhere to specific style guides (e.g., APA, IEEE) for
consistent passive voice usage.
By carefully considering these factors, engineers can effectively employ the
passive voice to enhance the clarity and objectivity of their project reports.

4. Explain the Reported Speech for project report writing in

Engineering with an example.

Over View

 What is Reported Speech?

 Difference between Reporting Clause and Reported Speech
 Definition of Reported Speech
 Reported Speech Rules
 Rules for Modal Verbs
 Rules for Pronouns
 Rules for Changing Interrogative Sentences into Reported Speech
 Tips to Practice Reported Speech
 Example

What is Reported Speech?

 When we use the exact words spoken by someone, it is known as Direct
Speech or Reported Speech. Reporting speech is a way to effectively
communication something that has been spoken, usually in the past, by
the speaker.
 It is also possible to describe it from the speaker‘s perspective from the
third person. Since you are only communicating the message and are not
repeating the speaker‘s exact words, you do not need to use quotation
marks while using this type of speaking.
For example: Rita said to Seema, “I am going to bake a cake”
Here we are using the exact words spoken by Rita, however, reported or indirect
speech is used when we are reporting something said by someone else but we do
not use the exact words. So, we use this form of speech to talk about the past.
For example:
Rita told Seema that she was going to bake a cake
In this case, we haven‘t used the exact words of Rita but conveyed her
message.
Difference between Reporting Clause and Reported Speech
 The words that come before the inverted commas are known as the
reporting clause, in the example given above, the reporting clause will be –

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Rita said to Seema, where „said‟ is the verb and is known as the reporting
clause/verb.
 The words written within the inverted commas are known as the Reported
speech, in the above example, the reported speech is “I am going to bake
a cake”.
Definition of Reported Speech

 Here are some common definitions of reported speech for your reference:
 ➡An Oxford Learner‟s Dictionary definition of reported speech is “a report of
what somebody has said that does not use their exact words.”
 ➡Reporter speech is described as “speech which tells you what someone
said but does not use the person‟s actual words” by the Collins Dictionary.
 ➡“The act of reporting something that was said, but not using the same
words,” according to the Cambridge Dictionary.
 Reported speech is defined as “the words that you use to report what
someone else has said” by the Macmillan Dictionary.

Reported Speech Rules

Now let us take a look at the rules for changing direct speech to indirect or
reported speech –
 First and foremost, we do not use inverted commas in reported speech
which must be clear from the example given above.
 We use conjunctions like „if‟, and „whether‟ after the reporting verb in
reported speech
 The reporting verb‟s tense is never altered.
 The verb of reporting varies according to sense: it can be told, inquired,
asked, etc.
For example:
Direct: Mohan said to Sohan, “I am going to school”
Reported: Mohan told Sohan that he is going to school

Rules for Modal Verbs

Modal words are used to show a sense of possibility, intent, necessity or ability.
Some common examples of verbs can include should, can and must. These
words are used to express hypothetical conditions. Check the table of contents
below for rules with examples of modal verbs.
Direct Indirect
this that
there those

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now then
Here There
today That day
tomorrow The next day
yesterday The previous day
last night The previous night
can Could
may Might
shall Should
will Would
ago Before
Just Then
Come Go

Rules for Pronouns

Listed below are some common rules followed in pronouns using reported
speech:
 We change the first-person pronouns (I, my, us, our, me, we) as per the
subject of the reporting verb in the reported speech.
 We change the second-person pronouns (you, your, yourself) as per the
object of the reporting verb in the reported speech.
 There is no change in the third-person pronouns.
Direct Speech Reported Speech
I He, she
We They
Me Him, her
Us Them
My His, her
You He, she, they
Our Their
Your His, her, their
Mine His, hers
Ours Theirs
You Him, her, them
Yours His, hers, theirs
For example:
Direct: Rita said, ―I like the book.‖
Reported: Rita said that she likes the book.

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Direct: Arun said to me, ―Do you like to eat cakes?‖

Reported: Arun asked me if I liked eating cakes.
Direct: Ravi said, ―I enjoy fishing.‖
Reported: Ravi said that he enjoys fishing.
Rules for Change in Tenses

Here are some common ruled used for change in tenses:

 The tense of the reported speech is not changed if the reporting verb is in
the present or the future tense.
 If a historical fact, a universal reality or a habitual fact is conveyed in a
direct speech. The indirect speech tense will not change.
 If the reporting verb is in the past tense, then it will change the tense of
the reported speech as follows:
Direct Reported
Simple Present Simple Past
Example: Sheela said, ―I Example: Sheela said she
wash clothes.‖ washed clothes
Present Continuous Past continuous
Example: Sheela said, ―I am Examples: Sheela said that she
washing clothes.‖ was washing clothes.
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Example: Sheela said, ―I Example: Sheela said that she
have washed clothes.‖ has washed clothes.
Simple Past Past Perfect
Example: Sheela said, ―I Example: Sheela said that she
washed clothes.‖ has washed clothes.
Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Example: Sheela said, ―I Example: Sheela said she had
was washing clothes.‖ been washing clothes.

For Examples:

Direct: Reema says, ―I am going out.‖

Reported: Reema says that she is going out.
Direct: Ramesh said, ―Honesty is the best policy.‖
Reported: Ramesh said that honesty is the best policy.
Direct: Vishnu said that, ―India gained independence in 1947.‖
Reported: Vishnu said that India gained independence in 1947.
Direct: Akshat will say, ―I want a slice of cake.‖
Reported: Akshat will say that he wants a slice of cake.
Direct: Reena said, ―I am writing a novel.‖
Reported: Reena said that she was writing a novel.
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Direct: Ayushi said, ―I was working on my project.‖

Reported: Ayushi said that she had been working on her project.

Rules for Changing Statements into Reported Speech

Here are some common rules for changing statements into reported speech:

 The ―said to‖ reporting verb is changed to ―told,‖ ―replied,‖ ―remarked,‖

We do not change the object i.e., the reporting verb is not followed by an
object.
 we drop the inverted commas and use a conjunction to join the reporting
clause and speech/
 The laws are followed for the changing of pronouns, tenses, etc.
For Examples:
Direct: Ramu said, ―I saw a lion in the forest.‖
Indirect: Ramu said that he had seen a lion in the forest.
Direct: Satish said to me, ―I am very happy here.‖
Indirect: Satish told me that he was very happy there.
Direct: He said, ―I can do this work.‖
Indirect: He said that he could do that work.
Rules for Changing Interrogative Sentences into Reported Speech

Here are some common rules followed for changing interrogative sentences into
reported speech:
 The reporting verb ―say‖ is transformed into ―ask, inquire,‖
By inserting the subject before the verb, the interrogative clause is
converted into a declaration and the full stop is inserted at the end of the
sentence.
 The wh-word is repeated in the sentence if the interrogative sentence has
a wh-word (who, where, where, how, why, etc). This works as a
conjunction.
 If the asking phrase is a yes-no answer style phrase (with auxiliary verbs
are, were, were, do, did, have, shall, etc.), then if or whether is used as a
conjunction.
 In the reported speech, the auxiliaries do, did, does drop in a positive
question.
 The conjunction after the reporting clause is not used.

For Examples:

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Direct: I said to him, ―Where are you going?‖

Indirect: Tasked him where he was going.
Direct: He said to me, ―Will you go there?‖
Indirect: He asked me if I would go there.
Direct: My friend said to Deepak, ―Have you ever been to Agra?‖
Indirect: My friend asked Deepak if he had ever been to Agra.

Rules for Changing Commands and Requests into Indirect Speech

The reporting verb is changed into command, order, say, enable, submit, etc. in
imperative sentences that have commands.
 By positioning it before the verb, the imperative mood is converted into the
infinitive mood. The auxiliary ‗do‘ is dropped in the case of negative
sentences, and ‗to‘ is substituted after ‗not
For Examples:
Direct: She said to me, ―Open the window.‖
Indirect: She ordered me to open the window.
Direct: The captain said to the soldiers, ―Attack the enemy.‖
Indirect: The captain commanded the soldiers to attack the enemy.
Direct: I said to him, “Leave this place at once.”
Indirect: I told him to leave that place at once.

Tips to Practise Reported Speech

Indirect speech, sometimes referred to as reported speech, is used to

communicate ideas without directly quoting another person. The following advice
will help you become proficient in reported speech:
 Understand the Basics: Ensure you have a solid understanding of direct
speech (quoting exact words) before moving on to reported speech.
 Identify Reporting Verbs: Recognize common reporting verbs such as
―say,‖ ―tell,‖ ―ask,‖ ―inform,‖ etc. These verbs are often used to introduce
reported speech.
 Practice with Various Tenses: Work on reported speech with different
tenses (present, past, future) to become comfortable with each.
 Use Reporting Words Appropriately: Experiment with different
reporting words to convey the speaker‘s attitude or emotion accurately. For
example, ―complain,‖ ―admit,‖ ―suggest.‖
 Write Dialogues: Create dialogues and convert them into reported
speech. This will help you practice both creating and transforming speech.

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 Use Authentic Materials: Practice reported speech by reading books,

articles, or watching videos. Try to convert the direct speech in these
materials into reported speech.

Here are a few exercises for reported speech along with answers:
Exercise 1
Change the following sentences from direct speech to reported speech.

1. “I love watching movies,” she said.

o Answer: She said that she loved watching movies.

2. “Don‟t forget to buy some milk on your way home,” he told me.

o Answer: He told me not to forget to buy some milk on my way

home.

3. “I will visit my grandparents next weekend,” Peter said.

o Answer: Peter said that he would visit his grandparents the

following weekend.

4. “I have finished my homework,” she announced.

o Answer: She announced that she had finished her homework.

5. “We are going to the beach tomorrow,” they exclaimed.

o Answer: They exclaimed that they were going to the beach the
next day.
Exercise 2
Combine the following sentences into reported speech.

1. Mary said, “I am going to the store. I need some groceries.”

o Answer: Mary said that she was going to the store because she
needed some groceries.

2. “It‟s raining outside,” he remarked.

o Answer: He remarked that it was raining outside.

3. “I can‟t attend the meeting,” she explained. “I have a doctor‟s

appointment.”

o Answer: She explained that she couldn‟t attend the meeting

because she had a doctor‟s appointment.

4. “We will finish the project by Friday,” they assured us.

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o Answer: They assured us that they would finish the project by

Friday.

5. “I have never been to Paris,” he admitted.

o Answer: He admitted that he had never been to Paris.

Exercise 3
Transform the sentences into reported speech.

1. “Why are you late?” she asked.

o Answer: She asked why I was late.

2. “Please help me with this heavy box,” he requested.

o Answer: He requested me to help him with that heavy box.

3. “Could you pass me the salt?” she inquired.

o Answer: She inquired if I could pass her the salt.

4. “Don‟t touch the paintings,” the guide said to the visitors.

o Answer: The guide told the visitors not to touch the paintings.

5. “I must finish this report today,” he said.

o Answer: He said that he must finish that report that day.

5. What is Concord or Subject verb agreement for project report writing
Engineering with an example?

Over View
 Define Concord
 The Classification of concord
 How important is concord in the English language
 Rules
 Example
Concord
Is a word which is originally derived from Latin for agreement, in the context of
English grammar concord could be defined as the grammatical
agreement between the two words in a sentence, which is the grammatical
agreement between mainly the subject and the verb in the sentence.
The general idea of concord is that the verb must agree with its subject in
number and person.
The Classification of concord
There are number of classifications in the concord, we would discuss these one
by one;

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 When more than two singular nouns or pronouns joined by and require a
plural verb as,
 Iron and aluminium are metals.
 He and I were swimming.
But if the noun suggests one singular idea or person than the verb is
singular.

The poet and dramatist is gone to Delhi.

 If the words are joined by with, as well as, etc to a singular subject then
verb should be singular
 The computer with its accessories was insured.
 The President with his ministers is to be present at 0930 hrs.
 A singular verb is used if the two or more than two singular nouns are
connected by nor or or
 Either the horse or the cow has been here.
 Neither praise nor criticism seems to have any effect on him.
If more than two plural subjects are joined by or or nor than the nearest to or
will decide the nature of the verb neither the manager nor the waiters are
present.
 If the subjects are joined by or or nor and it signifies different persons
than the verb has to agree to the nearer, such as,
 Either I or he is at fault.
 Either he or you are mistaken.
 Some specific words always take up singular verbs and these words are:
Somebody, none, anybody, anyone, everyone, each, and everybody.
 Each boy is running.
 Everyone is working hard.
 If two nouns are connected by and, but are qualified by every or each
then, it must take singular verb
Every boy and every girl were greeted with a rose.
 When some nouns are singular in meaning but are plural in the form then
the verb is singular as,
The news is authentic.
 If the noun is plural in meaning but is singular in form than it will take up
plural verb as,
According to the market rate, twelve dozen cost two hundred rupees.
 When we talk in respect of income, the means always take up the plural
verbs as,
His means are in great quantity.
 If the plural noun is used for a single object or its proper name then the
followed verb should be singular

How important is concord in the English language?

Concord is described as a very important aspect of English grammar for the

correct usage of English. As the concord defines that the words used in the
sentence must agree with each other to make sense.

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Rule 1

The verb and subject must agree in number (singular or plural)

This means that if the subject is singular, the verb should be singular and if the
subject is plural, the verb should also be plural.

Examples:

1. He plays football.(SINGULAR)

2. They play football. (PLURAL)

The Basics
Basic Rule
A singular subject needs a singular verb; a plural subject needs a plural
verb.
Basic Pattern
Singular Plural
First person I walk We walk
Second person you walk you walk
Third person he/she/it walks they walk

Subject-Verb Agreement – Rule 1

Rule 2

The number of the subject (singular or plural) will not change due to
words/phrases in between the subject and the verb.

Examples:

1. One of the glasses is empty. (Here, since the subject is ‗one‘, the
verb should be ‗is‘).

2. The bouquet of red roses smells so sweet. (Here, since ‗bouquet‘ is

the subject and not ‗roses‘, the verb should be ‗smells‘ and not
‗smell‘)

Rule 3

Subjects that are joined by „and‟ in a sentence, use a plural verb. Subjects
that are joined by „either/or‟, neither/nor‟ use a singular verb.

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Examples:

1. Radha and Meera are coming home.

2. Neither Akshay nor Rohit is coming home.

3. My dad or my mom is arriving today.

Rule 4

The verb in a sentence containing „or‟, „either/or‟, „neither/nor‟ agrees

with the noun or pronoun closest to it.

Examples:

1. Neither the shoes nor the bag matches the dress. (Here, ‗bag‘ is closest to
the verb, hence ‗matches‘)

2. Neither the bag nor the shoes match the dress. (Here, ‗shoes‘ is closest to
the verb, hence ‗match‘)

Rule 5

When the subject is followed by words such as „as well as‟, „along with‟,
„besides‟, „not‟ etc. ignore them and use a singular verb if the subject is
singular.

Examples:

1. Matt, as well as his dog, is expected shortly.

2. Pratik, along with his brother, is going to school.

Rule 6

In sentences that begin with „here‟, „there‟, the true subject usually
follows the verb.

Examples:

1. Here are the chocolates.

2. There is a big puddle on the road.

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Rule 7

In sentences that include sums of money, periods of time or distances etc.

(as a unit), use singular verbs.

Examples:

1. 500 rupees is a high price to pay.

2. 62 years is the minimum age of retirement.

3. 10 kilometers is too far to walk.

Rule 8

In the case of words such as „a lot of‟, all‟, „some‟ etc. in a sentence, pay
attention to the noun after „of‟. If the noun after „of‟ is singular then use
a singular verb, if plural, use a plural verb.

Examples:

1. All of the cake is gone.

2. All of the cakes are gone.

3. A lot of the cake is gone.

4. A lot of the cakes are gone.

5. Some of the cake is gone.

6. Some of the cakes are gone.

Rule 9

In the case of collective nouns such as „group, „population‟, „family‟, in a

sentence, the verb can be singular or plural depending on their use in the
sentence.

Examples:

1. Most of my family is here OR are here.

2. Half of the population was against the bill OR were against the bill.

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Rule 10

Nouns such as „mathematics‟, „civics‟, „news‟ etc. while plural in form, are
singular in meaning and use singular verbs.

Examples:

1. Mathematics is very difficult for some people.

2. The news is very saddening.

Rule 11

In sentences that express a wish, request or contrary to fact, the word

„were‟ is used instead of „was.

Examples:

1. I wish my sister were here.

2. Aditya requested that she raise her glass.

Solved Examples for You on Subject Verb Concord

Question: Choose the correct subject verb combinations in the sentences below.

a. The lady in the car (look/looks) like your mother.

b. Most of the milk (is/are) gone.

c. One of the flowers (has/have) wilted.

d. Either Ram or Shyam (is/are) coming today.

e. Here (is/are) the newspaper.

f. The group of dancers (is/are) here.

g. Civics (is/are) my favorite subject.

Solution:

a. The lady in the car looks like your mother.

b. Most of the milk is gone.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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c. One of the flowers has wilted.

d. Either Ram or Shyam is coming today.

e. Here is the newspaper.

f. The group of dancers is OR are here.

g. Civics is my favorite subject.

6. Explain the „Signpost‟ words and Phrases for project report writing
Engineering with an example?

Over View

 Define signpost words

 Using Signpost words effectively

What are „signpost‟ words?

 This is a name commonly given to words or phrases that express a

connection between two ideas and make the transition from one point to
the next in writing. They can link ideas within a sentence, link two
sentences, two paragraphs, or even two parts of the essay together.

 They help to make writing flow smoothly, without any abrupt, disjointed
breaks that leave the reader wondering what your points have to do with
one another or what their relevance is.

 Signpost words specify how the two ideas are related: for example,
whether they are similar ideas, contrasting ideas, or whether one idea
adds more detail or a further example to another.
 They can show that one idea is the result or conclusion of another, or to
show the order of the ideas in a sequence. They are a key component in
developing your argument showing the structure of your argument.
They help your reader to follow where your essay is going; hence the
term ‘signposts‘.

To introduce a sequence of points in your argument

Firstly, secondly etc To begin with Initially

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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Then Next Subsequen

Finall Lastl tly
y y

 To begin with, this essay will identify the causes of this situation.
 These factors will subsequently be analysed in detail.
To cross-reference to other parts of the essay

As noted above / below As stated previously

As is discussed below

 As noted previously, a number of scholars have offered a different

explanation.
 This development is composed of a number of stages, as discussed above.

To add an idea, or more detail

In addition Additionally Furthermo

re
Moreover Again and
Also Similarly Besides
What is more Equally Indeed
Apart from this

 The issue is, furthermore, complicated by external matters.

 Indeed, scholars reject this theory as unrealistic.

To give an example

For example, For To

As an instance demonstrate

illustration/example

Certain research methods, for instance, surveys and

questionnaires, are particularly effective.
As an example, the following quotation could be cited as
representative of this viewpoint.

To focus on specifics in more detail

In particular specifically

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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 Such examples, and in particular those from the last five years,
support the findings of recent research.

To generalize

As a rule For the most part Generally

In general On the whole In most
Usually cases

 In general, it is true to say that a good understanding of theory is essential.

 The conclusions are, for the most part, sound.
To introduce a comparison or further point to support your
argument

By the same token Compared with In like

manner
In comparison In the same Likewise
with Similarly way Whereas

 Compared with the first example, the second seems unconvincing.

 This scholar‘s argument is likewise flawed.

To introduce a contrast or alternative point or section

In contrast However Although

Nevertheless Nonetheless On the other
hand
But Yet Alternatively
Conversely By contrast, On the
contrary
 Nevertheless, arguments in favour of the theory must also be considered.
 The case must not, however, be overstated.

To introduce a fact or state the obvious

(be careful with these – is your point obvious, or an assumption that

needs to be proved?)
After all Clearly Naturally
Evidently Obviously Of course
It is evident that

 These claims must, of course, be closely examined.

 Clearly, popular opinion is against the changes.

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To rephrase or explain

In other words Or rather That is to say

To put it more simply/in another way Namely To

be more precise

 There is only one negative example, namely, that of the government.

 The model is not universal. To be more precise, it is not applicable in
seven per cent of the above cases.

To introduce a reason, result, proof or logical conclusion

Accordingly As a consequence As a
result
Consequently Hence Therefor
e
Thus For this reason Because
Due to Indeed In fact
It could be concluded
that

 The data are incomplete and, as a consequence, this

interpretation is not convincing.
 Due to problems of access, research on this topic is scarce.

To conclude

In conclusion To sum up Finally

In short To conclude

As this essay has demonstrated

 In conclusion, it has been demonstrated that the hypothesis is generally

supported by the evidence.

Using Signpost words effectively

 The signpost words and phrases can be used at the start of sentences
or, in most cases, in the middle or at the end, as demonstrated above.
They can be very effective in the first sentence of your paragraph to
indicate what the function of that paragraph is in the context of your

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argument, or in the middle of a paragraph to develop your point.

 They should be used with careful thought about their function. Good
structure is more than a list of points, connected with signposts such as
‗also‘, furthermore‘, ‗in addition‘, ‗the next point‘.

 This may indicate that your argument is becoming descriptive rather

than analytical. Be clear what the relationship between your points is.
Variation in the kinds of signposts you use can indicate that you are
critically analyzing the issue and exploring the argument thoroughly,
with contrasting views, more detailed development of points, and
conclusions drawn.
 It is important to use signpost words and phrases accurately, as they
can change the meaning of what you write. These two sentences have
opposite implications:

 The government‘s stance was resolute. However, the

negotiations did not succeed.
 The government‘s stance was resolute. Therefore, the
negotiations did not succeed.
Summary
 These ‗signpost‘ words and phrases make connections and transitions
between the ideas in your writing. They help to make your argument
clear to the reader by pointing out the relationship between your ideas,
and where your line of thought is going.

 They can be used to signal the structure of your essay or the logical
connections in your argument. Use them to link ideas within a
sentence, or across sentences, paragraphs and sections of your essay.

7. Explain the Cohesive Devices project report writing Engineering

with an example?

Over view

 Define Cohesive Devices

 Types of Cohesive Devices

 Examples

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What Are Cohesive Devices?

 Cohesive devices, also known as ‗Linking Words‘ are words or phrases that
link different parts of a text together and allow it to flow logically. They help
show the connection between ideas acting as a connector by signaling
additions, contrasts, cause and effect, and other relationships.

 For example, words and phrases like ‗however‘, ‗therefore‘, ‗in addition‘, ‗for
example‘, ‗to conclude‘ etc. are connectors/linking words for writing. Using
them properly makes your writing more coherent and easier to follow.

Types of Cohesive Devices

There are several types of cohesive devices that can be used in both IELTS
Writing as well as linking words for IELTS Speaking:

 Reference words: Pronouns like ‗it‘, ‗this‘, ‗that‘, and ‗which‘ refer back to
something already mentioned.

 Substitution words: Words like ‗do‘, and ‗one‘ that replace a noun.

 Conjunctions: Words like ‗and‘, ‗but‘, and ‗so‘ that join clauses.

 Repetition: Repeating keywords and ideas across sentences and

paragraphs.

 Synonyms: Using different words with the same meaning.

 Antonyms: Contrasting words and ideas using opposites.

 Collocation: Using words that commonly go together.

 Discourse markers: Phrases like ‗in conclusion‘, and ‗on the other hand‘
that organize text.

Examples of Cohesive Devices

Here are some examples of how different types of cohesive devices can be used
in IELTS Writing Task 2:

 Referencing: Smoking has many health risks. This habit should be

avoided.

 Substitution: Doctors advise patients to exercise daily. Doing so improves

health.

 Conjunction: Smoking causes cancer, and it also increases the risk of lung
disease.

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 Repetition: Daily exercise helps us stay fit. Exercise also reduces stress
levels.

 Synonyms: Doctors advocate physical activity. Exercise has many benefits.

 Antonyms: Some people love jogging daily. Others dislike running

intensively.

 Collocation: She played a starring role in the movie. Her performance was
praised.

 Discourse Markers: However, smoking remains common despite its risks.

Therefore, more education is needed.

Tips for Using Cohesive Devices

 Here are some IELTS exam preparation tips for using cohesive
devices effectively:

 Don‘t overuse them. Using too many can make writing seem
unnatural.

 Be consistent. Don‘t jump between different devices randomly.

 Use a variety. Relying only on basic conjunctions like ‗and‘, ‗but‘, and
‗so‘ is repetitive.

 Choose devices appropriately. Use contrasting words for opposing

ideas, and linking words for related ideas.

 Pay attention to order and placement. Put them at the right spot in a
sentence or paragraph.

 Vary length. Alternate between single-word devices and longer

phrases.

 Check for grammar. Make sure the device fits correctly in the
sentence structure.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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8. Explain the Paragraph writing project report writing Engineering

with an example?

Introduce the concept of a paragraph.

 Before you can start teaching your students how to write a paragraph,
they need to have a basic understanding of what a paragraph is. A
paragraph is a group of related sentences that focus on a single main
idea. Just as sentences are grouped together in paragraphs, paragraphs
are grouped together in essays

Fig.1.2. Types of Paragraph Writing

Discuss the different types of paragraphs.

There are four different types of paragraphs that you can teach your students:
expository, narrative, persuasive (opinion), and descriptive.

1. Expository Paragraphs
Expository paragraphs provide information about a particular subject or
explain something. They are often used in nonfiction texts, such as
newspapers and textbooks, to deliver facts and introduce new concepts.
When teaching expository paragraphs, provide students with a
framework—such as a graphic organizer—that they can use to organize

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their thoughts. Encourage students to use specific and concrete evidence

from the text to support their points.

2. Narrative Paragraphs
Narrative paragraphs tell a story or relate to an experience. They are often
used in fiction texts, such as novels and short stories, but they can also be
found in nonfiction texts, such as memoirs and biographies. When teaching
narrative paragraphs, have students identify the main character(s) and plot
points in the story. Ask them to think about how the events in the story
unfold over time and how different events are connected. As with
expository paragraphs, encourage students to use specific evidence from
the text to support their points.

3. Persuasive Paragraphs
Persuasive paragraphs try to convince the reader to believe or do
something. They are often used in opinion pieces in newspapers and
magazines but can also be found in academic essays and speeches. When
teaching persuasive paragraphs, have students identify the paragraph‘s
main idea or thesis statement. Then ask them to think about the reasons
that support this main idea. Encourage students to use concrete evidence—
facts, statistics, anecdotes—to support their claims.

4. Descriptive Paragraphs
Descriptive paragraphs describe people, places, things, or events. They
may also provide sensory details—sight, sound, smell, taste, touch—to
create a vivid picture for the reader/listener/viewer. They are often used in
fiction texts to set the scene or create an atmosphere; however, they can
also be found in nonfiction texts such as travel writing and food writing.
When teaching descriptive paragraphs, ask students to identify the subject
of the paragraph (often an object or place). Then ask them to list all of the
details they can remember about that subject. Encourage students to use
strong verbs and adjectives to create vivid images for the
reader/listener/viewer.

Explain the parts of a paragraph .

Once your students understand the different types of paragraphs, it‘s time to
dive into the nitty-gritty details of how each type of paragraph is constructed. All
paragraphs should include a topic sentence, supporting details, and a
conclusion. These elements are key to our paragraph writing tips.

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 Topic Sentence: This is the most important sentence in the paragraph. It

states the main idea and introduces the reader to the topic.

 Supporting Details or Evidence: These sentences provide concrete

evidence that supports the topic sentence and main idea.

 Transitions: These are words or phrases that connect one idea to another.
They help the reader follow the flow of thought from one sentence to
another and from one paragraph to another.

 Concluding Statement: This helps emphasize the main idea of the

paragraph.

Model how to write a paragraph.

The Most Essential of the Paragraph Writing Tips

Now that your students know all about paragraphs, it‘s time for them to put their
knowledge into practice by writing their own paragraphs! To help them get
started, model how to write a paragraph yourself using one of the four types of
paragraphs discussed in Step 2. As you write your paragraph, be sure to include
a topic sentence and supporting details.

This is my favorite of the paragraph writing tips. Modeling solid writing skills and
using explicit think-aloud as you model the writing is pure GOLD!

Have students write their own paragraphs.

Once you‘ve modeled how to write a paragraph for your students, it‘s their turn
to give it a try! Assign each student a type of paragraph to write (expository,
narrative, persuasive, or descriptive) and give them some prompts to get them
started (e.g., ―Write about your best friend,‖ ―Describe your favorite place,‖
etc.). If you want to take things one step further, have students exchange
papers with a partner and have them revise and edit each other‘s work using a
peer editing checklist.

Did you know a Structured and Guided Paragraph Writing Routine is available in
my TPT shop? Students write a small piece of paragraph each day. The
worksheets include reminders so students are supported in their paragraph
writing development. There are weekly paragraph writing prompts for each
month of the school year. So you‘ll always have engaging writing prompts for
students to practice their paragraph writing skills.

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This routine is great for lower elementary grades and for students who need
extra support in paragraph writing. The routine can be used as a whole class
activity, in small groups, or for individual practice.

Ready-to-go paragraph writing tips and materials.

Did you know that I have a ready-to-go Paragraph Writing Bundle for you? The
Structured and Guided Paragraph Writing worksheets cover all the paragraph
writing tips covered in this blog post. Each month includes four different writing
prompts, one for each type of paragraph mentioned earlier. But best of all,
students successfully write paragraphs because the routine walks them through
each step, little by little.

It‘s like the trainer wheels on a bicycle. Slowly but surely, the rider becomes
more and more stable and independent. In no time at all, you‘ll be letting go of
the support and watching your little writers go!

Final Paragraph Writing Tips: Publish student work.

Paragraphs are meant to be read by others (unlike diary entries), so encourage

your students to share their work with classmates, family members, or even
strangers! One way to do this is by creating an online class newspaper or blog
where everyone can post their paragraphs for all to see. Alternatively, you could
compile all of the student work into one class book that everyone can read and
enjoy (and add to throughout the year).

To read 12 Creative Ways for Students to Share Their Writing, click this link to
read the blog post.

These seven steps will turn even the most reluctant writers into confident
experts when it comes time to put pen (or pencil)to paper (or screen). So what
are you waiting for? Get started today and watch your students‘ writing skills
blossom before your very eyes!

Good Paragraph

 To understand how a paragraph is structured

 To show cohesiveness in a paragraph, and coherence in a piece of
academic writing
 To be aware of the different types of paragraphs in a piece of
academic writing
Objective

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 How long should a good paragraph be? Is there a minimum/maximum

length/number of sentences?
 Is a one-sentence paragraph ok? Yes/no? Why?
 Do I need to have references in every paragraph?
Questions

A paragraph is a related group of sentences which develops one main idea.

 The topic sentence expresses the main idea and usually occurs as the
first sentence in each paragraph.
 Supporting sentences follow the topic sentence.
 A paragraph may also contain a concluding sentence, or sentences
which provide a transition to the following paragraph.

Fig. No. 1.3. Hamburger Model

Paragraph features
A paragraph should have a topic sentence that establishes the subject of the
paragraph. Topic sentences most often appear at the beginning of a paragraph,
though this is not a requirement. Placing topic sentences near the front of a
paragraph can help you as a writer better keep in mind the subject you want to
develop in the paragraph.

Paragraphs should show purpose unpattern of development. Effective patterns

include:
 Narration—tell a story from beginning to end
 Description—provideadetaileddescriptionusingavarietyofsensorydetails

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 Explanation—identify an idea, event, object, etc. and explain it

significance
 Evaluation—examine the merit of an idea, action, device ,etc.
 Comparison and contrast
 Cause and effect analysis
 Process description—present the steps in a process

Paragraph Length
There is no set length for a paragraph in an academic paper. A paragraph
might be two sentences long(in which case it would do few of the things
mentioned above), or it might stretch for a full page or longer. To determine if
the length of a paragraph is appropriate, answer the questions:

 Does it adequately develop it main idea?

 Does this paragraph fulfill its purpose in my paper sawhole?

9.Explain the Technical Writing vs. General Writing.

1. Technical Writing :

Technical writing is a piece of writing which focuses on factual and straight

forward content and technical papers are published to inform and instruct
and educate the user about some specific topic. There exists specific
readers who prefers technical papers. It gives readers information about
some technical topics or it gives directions on how to do something.

For example writing any articles on Geeks for Geeks related to computer science
field comes under technical writing.

2. General Writing :

General writing refers to any piece of writing which focuses in general

subjects of writing and general papers are published for amusement of the
reader. But sometimes many general topics also gives life lessons, moral,
inspiration etc. There is not such specific set of audience or readers like
technical writing. It is written on subjective tone and purely personal style.

For example writing any prose or story which will be published in a local
magazine comes under general writing.

Difference between Technical Writing and General Writing:

S.No. TECHNICAL WRITING GENERAL WRITING

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Technical writing focuses on factual General writing focuses on general

01.
and straight forward content. subjects of writing.

Technical writing aims to impart

General writing aims at
02. information, instructions and
amusement.
explanations.

Technical writing is based on General writing is based on

03.
objective tone. subjective tone or personal style.

It follows artistic unstructured

04. It follows standard structured format.
format.

It is usually based on a formal way of It may be formal or informal way of

05.
writing. writing.

The voice used in technical writing is The voice used in general writing is
06.
3rd person. 1st person.

In technical writing specialized In General writing evocative

07.
vocabulary is required. vocabulary is required.

Technical writing has its specific set of General writing has no specific set
08.
audience or readers. of audience or readers.

09. Technical writing is archival. General writing is non-archival.

It is accurate and more precise in It is decorative and bombastic in

10.
manner. manner.

Technical writing is related to any General domain is related to any

11.
specific area or domain. life in general.

It focuses on more technical words It focuses on more common words

12.
specific to the area. suitable to the general topic.

For example writing any articles on For example writing any prose or
GeeksforGeeks related to computer story which will be published in a
13.
science field comes under technical local magazine comes under
writing. general writing.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

UNIT II Project Report Structure and Content

Project Report – Definition, Structure, Types of Reports, Purpose – Intended
Audience – Plagiarism – Report Writing in STEM fields – Experiment – Statistical
Analysis.

PART – A
1. What is a project report?
o A formal document outlining a project's objectives, methodology, results, and conclusions.
o It serves as a record of project activities and outcomes.
o Used for communication, evaluation, and decision-making.

2. What are the essential components of a well-structured project report?

o Typically includes a title page, abstract, table of contents, introduction, methodology,
results, discussion, conclusion, references, and appendices.
o Each component serves a specific purpose in conveying project information.
o Proper organization enhances readability and understanding.

3. How does the target audience influence a project report?

o The report's content, style, and level of detail should align with the audience's knowledge
and expectations.
o Consider the audience's needs and preferences when structuring the report.
o Tailor the language and tone to suit the audience’s understanding.

4. Explain the concept of plagiarism in project reports.

o Plagiarism is presenting someone else's work as your own without proper citation.
o It is a serious academic and professional offense.
o Proper citation and referencing are essential to avoid plagiarism.

5. Discuss the role of experimentation and statistical analysis in STEM project reports.
o Experimentation generates data for analysis.
o Statistical analysis helps interpret data and draw conclusions.
o Both are crucial for evidence-based research and reporting.

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6. What is the significance of the front matter in a project report?

o Provides essential preliminary information, guiding the reader and establishing the report's
context.
o Includes title page, abstract, table of contents, acknowledgements, and potentially a list of
figures/tables.
o Orients the reader to the report's structure and content.

7. How does a literature review contribute to the overall project report?

o Establishes the research context by summarizing existing knowledge.
o Identifies research gaps and justifies the current study.
o Demonstrates the researcher's familiarity with the field.

8. Differentiate between the methodology and results section.

o Methodology outlines research design, data collection, and analysis methods.
o Results present data without interpretation, using tables, graphs, and charts.

9. What is the purpose of the discussion section in a project report?

o Interprets results in light of the research questions.
o Relates findings to existing knowledge and theories.
o Discusses limitations, implications, and recommendations.

10. How do conclusions and recommendations differ?

 Conclusions summarize key findings and reiterate research objectives.
 Recommendations suggest future actions based on the study's outcomes.

11. Explain the importance of technical writing in STEM project reports.

 Clear and precise communication of complex ideas is essential.
 Technical writing ensures accuracy and avoids ambiguity.
 Targeted to a specific audience with technical expertise.

12. How does data analysis support decision-making in project reports?

 Provides insights into data patterns and trends.
 Supports evidence-based decision making.

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OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

13. What are the ethical considerations in using visual aids in project reports?
 Avoid misleading or deceptive visuals.
 Ensure data accuracy and integrity.
 Respect copyright and intellectual property.

14. Discuss the role of audience analysis in determining the appropriate level of detail in a
project report.
 Tailor the report to the audience's knowledge level and needs.
 Avoid overwhelming the audience with unnecessary technical details.
 Ensure the report effectively communicates key messages.

15. How can plagiarism be avoided when writing a project report?

 Properly cite all sources using a consistent citation style.
 Paraphrase information and use quotations when necessary.
 Use plagiarism checking tools to identify potential issues.

16. What is the primary purpose of a progress report?

 To communicate project status, achievements, and challenges to stakeholders.
 To inform decision-making regarding resource allocation and project continuation.
 Typically includes timelines, milestones, and risk assessments.

17. How does a feasibility report differ from a design report?

 A feasibility report assesses the viability of a project, while a design report details its
implementation.
 Feasibility reports focus on economic, technical, and operational factors.
 Design reports emphasize specifications, drawings, and testing procedures.

18. What are the key components of a laboratory report?

 Includes abstract, introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
 Emphasizes experimental procedures, data collection, analysis, and findings.
 Often follows a standardized format for clarity and reproducibility.

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OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

19. How is statistical analysis employed in a research report?

 To analyze data, test hypotheses, and draw conclusions.
 Supports data interpretation and identifies trends.
 Enhances the credibility and reliability of research findings.

20. What are the challenges of writing a technical report for a non-technical audience?
 Balancing technical accuracy with clarity and simplicity.
 Avoiding jargon and complex terminology.
 Using visuals effectively to enhance understanding.

21. Explain the relationship between project objectives and report structure.
 Project objectives guide the report's focus and content organization.
 Clearly defined objectives help structure the introduction, methodology, and results
sections.

22. How can effective use of visuals enhance data interpretation in a project report?
 Visuals simplify complex data, making it easier to understand.
 Graphs, charts, and images complement textual information.
 Enhance reader engagement and retention of key points.

23. Discuss the ethical implications of using human subjects in research reported in STEM
fields.
 Obtain informed consent from participants.
 Protect participant privacy and confidentiality.
 Minimize harm and maximize benefits.

24. What are the key differences between qualitative and quantitative data analysis in project
reports?
 Qualitative analysis focuses on understanding and interpreting data, often through themes
and patterns.
 Quantitative analysis uses statistical methods to analyze numerical data and draw
inferences.

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25. How can project reports be used to inform strategic decision-making within an
organization?
 Provide data-driven insights for resource allocation and future projects.
 Identify successful strategies and areas for improvement.
 Support evidence-based decision making.

26. What is the importance of clear and concise writing in technical reports?
 Enhances readability and understanding.
 Avoids ambiguity and misinterpretation.
 Saves time for the reader.

27. How can project reports be used to measure project performance?

 By comparing actual results to project objectives.
 Identifying deviations from the project plan.
 Assessing the project's overall success or failure.

28. What are the potential challenges in writing a feasibility report?

 Gathering accurate data and information.
 Assessing potential risks and uncertainties.
 Convincing stakeholders of the project's viability.

29. How can the use of templates improve the consistency of project reports within an
organization?
 Ensures adherence to formatting and style guidelines.
 Saves time and effort for report writers.
 Improves overall report quality and professionalism.

30. What is the role of collaboration in producing high-quality project reports?

 Combines diverse perspectives and expertise.
 Facilitates knowledge sharing and learning.
 Improves the overall quality and comprehensiveness of the report.

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31. Why a project report is important?

A project report is important because it summarizes the objectives, budget, resources,
timeline, and every other important aspect related to a project. It also enables the project
managers to track the outcome and progress of the project. Additionally, it conveys the status o f
the project to the stakeholders.

32. What are the best practices for creating project reports?

Here are a few best practices when creating project reports:

• Clear objectives: Define the report’s purpose and outcomes clearly.

• Audience understanding: Tailor the content to meet the intended audience’s needs.

• Relevant data: Use accurate and relevant data from reliable sources.

• Concise communication: Present the findings succinctly with plain language.

• Visual aids: Utilize charts and graphs for more transparent data representation.

33. What is STEM?

STEM is an approach to learning and development that integrates the areas of science,
technology, engineering and mathematics. These four fields share an emphasis on innovation,
problem-solving, and critical thinking.
STEM empowers individuals with the skills to succeed and adapt to this changing world.

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OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

PART B
1. Elaborate on the different types of project reports.
DEFINITION:
A project report is a comprehensive document that provides detailed information about a specific
project.
In other words, it is a report that includes all the details about a project, navigating each step
with great insight. This document helps to ascertain the feasibility of the activities or plans taken
to fulfill a particular project's objectives.

Types of Project Reports

Project reports can vary widely depending on their purpose, audience, and level of detail. Here are
some common types of project reports:
1. Status Reports
2. Risk Management Reports
3. Resource Allocation Reports
4. Budget Reports
5. Stakeholder Reports
6. Quality Assurance Reports
7. Change Management Reports
8. Time-Tracking Reports
9. Project Portfolio Management Reports
10. Final Reports
11. Feasibility Reports
12. Design Reports
13. Laboratory Reports
14. Research Reports
15. Technical Reports
16. Business Case Reports
1) Status Reports
 One of the most popular report types, Status Report, refers to a type of document that
comprises a detailed analysis of the timely progress or status of any project with regard to
the planned steps and the decided timeline.

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 The status report enables team members and stakeholders to keep track of the project's
progressions.
 A status report will require you to keep track of significant changes, compile them briefly and
present them comprehensively.

Contents within Status Report

• Progress reports: Comprehensive view of completed and ongoing tasks, highlighting

achievements, deviations, and upcoming tasks.
• Milestone reports: Detail pivotal milestones, completion, delays, and overall project impact.
• Task status reports: Specify tasks, including status, assignees, dates, and challenges.
• Task dependency reports: Highlight task interdependencies, aiding sequence, and bottleneck
management. These can be depicted through a Gantt chart.
• Activity reports: Breakdown of day-to-day actions, tracking micro-level progress and
alignment with project goals.
• Work completed reports: Retrospective view of time-framed accomplishments, revealing
trends and improvement areas.

2) Risk Management Reports

 This type of report assists in presenting the steps taken by the risk management team for the
teams working on the project or the people who are involved.
 It records the effective management of emerging and current risks associated with the
project.
 The risk report must include an outline of the overall risk assessment for the project.
 It should also include details about the risks that could have the possibility of cutting the
project as well as the ways you intend to deal with them.

Contents within the domain of risk management reports:

• Risk identification reports: Catalogue potential risks, impact, and likelihood.
• Risk assessment reports: Evaluate risk severity and prioritize based on impact.
• Risk mitigation reports: Outline strategies, action plans, and prevention.
• Risk tracking reports: Monitor mitigation progress and risk changes.
• Issue resolution reports: Address project issues, nature, impact, and resolution.

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OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

3) Resource Allocation Reports

 This kind of report on the project permits the project team, as well as the participants, to see
how resources are distributed throughout the various tasks that are part of the plan .
 The report on project resources will detail the members of the project team who are assigned to
which job on what day.
 The report on resource allocation can help to highlight the problem of the under -allocation of
resources for projects.
Contents within resource allocation reports:
• Resource utilization reports: Provide a snapshot of resource usage, identifying efficiency
adjustments and opportunities to level resources.
• Workload distribution reports: Balance tasks among hybrid and remote teams, preventing
burnout.
• Resource forecasting reports: Predict future resource needs and prevent disruptions.
• Resource allocation analysis reports: Align resource distribution with project goals.
• Capacity planning reports: Forecast long-term resource availability and timeline realism.

4) Budget Reports
 Budget reports provide a comprehensive overview of a project’s financial health, offering insights
into budget allocation, expenditures, and potential discrepancies.
 Budget reports ensure that projects stay on track financially and that resources are optimally
utilized.
There are several formats within the domain of budget reports:
• Budget allocation reports: Detail initial budget distribution across project elements.
• Cost analysis reports: Show a breakdown of actual expenses compared to budget.
• Expense tracking reports: Real-time view of ongoing expenditures.
• Variance reports: Highlight budget deviations and identify causes.
• ROI (Return On Investment) reports: Analyze project’s financial returns, meeting objectives.

5) Stakeholder Reports

 Stakeholder reports serve as bridges that connect project teams with those invested in the
project’s success.
 These reports provide insights tailored to stakeholders’ needs to foster understanding,
alignment, and collaboration.

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Contents within stakeholder reports are:

• Executive summary reports: High-level overview for senior management.
• Progress snapshot reports: Real-time project status snapshot in the form of a dashboard.
• Performance highlights reports: Showcase KPIs and achievements.
• Major milestone reports: Chronicle significant milestones.
• Project health reports: Assess overall project condition.
• Investor reports: Focus on financial health and alignment.
• Stakeholder engagement reports: Demonstrate stakeholder involvement.

6) Quality Assurance Reports

• Quality assurance reports guide projects toward excellence by evaluating processes,

deliverables, and outcomes.
• These reports provide insights into the project’s adherence to established quality standards
and facilitate continuous improvement.
Several formats within the domain of quality assurance reports are:
• Quality control reports: Assess deliverable quality against standards.
• Process evaluation reports: Examine workflow efficiency and consistency.
• Audit reports: Review for compliance and accountability.
• Performance evaluation reports: Track progress against KPIs and OKRs.
• Lessons learned reports: Capture insights and improvements.

7) Change Management Reports

 Change management reports are navigational tools for addressing shifts, modifications, and
adaptations within a project’s scope, requirements, or objectives.
 This is done by providing insights into managing, communicating, and integrating changes
to ensure project success.
Several formats within the domain of change management reports are:
• Change impact reports: Outline consequences on scope, timeline, and resources.
• Change request reports: Document change requests and rationale.
• Change communication reports: Ensure transparent communication.
• Change implementation reports: Track execution and adjustments.
• Change evaluation reports: Assess outcomes and continuous improvement.

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OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

8) Time-Tracking Reports
 Time tracking reports serve as navigational tools for monitoring the allocation and utilization
of time within a project.
 These reports provide insights into time spent on tasks and how to exercise better resource
management and project efficiency with proper time management.
Several formats within the domain of time-tracking reports are:
• Time log reports: Provide a detailed task-time breakdown.
• Weekly time sheets: Summarize weekly time allocation.
• Time allocation reports: Balance team workload.
• Time analysis reports: Identify patterns and inefficiencies.
• Overtime and time-off reports: Manage work-life balance and availability

9) Project Portfolio Management Reports

Project portfolio management reports serve as navigational tools for overseeing and
optimizing the collective performance of a portfolio of projects.
These reports provide insights into resource allocation, risk exposure, and alignment with
organizational goals.
Several main formats emerge within PPM reports:
• Portfolio overview reports: Summarize portfolio status and progress.
• Resource allocation reports: Provide insights into resource distribution.
• Risk exposure reports: Assess portfolio risk vulnerability.
• Financial performance reports: Analyze financial health and impact.
• Strategic alignment reports: Evaluate project alignment with goals.

10) Final Reports

 To provide a comprehensive overview of the entire project, including its objectives,
methodology, findings, conclusions, and recommendations.

Several main formats emerge within Final reports:

 Comprehensive overview: Provides a detailed summary of the entire project, from
initiation to completion.
 Results and findings: Presents the project's outcomes, achievements, and key findings.

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OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

 Evaluation: Assesses the project's success in meeting its objectives and goals.
 Recommendations: Offers suggestions for future improvements or related projects.
 Appendices: Includes supporting documentation, such as raw data, calculations, and
detailed methodology.

11) Feasibility Reports

 To assess the viability of a proposed project, considering factors such as technical
feasibility, economic feasibility, and market potential.
Several main formats emerge within Feasibility reports:
 Problem identification: Clearly defines the problem or opportunity the project aims to
address.
 Alternative solutions: Presents various options for addressing the problem.
 Evaluation criteria: Outlines the criteria used to assess the feasibility of each option.
 Financial analysis: Provides cost-benefit analysis and return on investment estimates.
 Recommendations: Suggests the most feasible option based on the analysis.
12) Design Reports
 To document the design process, including concept development, design alternatives, and
final design specifications.
Several main formats emerge within Design reports:
 Design process: Documents the design process, including concept generation, development,
and evaluation.
 Design specifications: Provides detailed technical specifications for the design.
 Design analysis: Presents the results of design analysis and testing.
 Design validation: Demonstrates that the design meets the specified requirements.
 Future improvements: Identifies potential areas for design enhancement.
13) Laboratory Reports
 To document scientific experiments, including procedures, data collection, analysis, and results.
 Content: Includes experiment objectives, methodology, data presentation, analysis,
conclusions, and recommendations.

14) Research Reports

 Purpose: To present the findings of research conducted on a specific topic.
Several main formats emerge within research reports:

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 Literature review: Provides a comprehensive overview of existing research on the topic.

 Research methodology: Describes the research design, data collection methods, and data
analysis techniques.
 Findings: Presents the results of the research in a clear and organized manner.
 Discussion: Interprets the findings in relation to the research questions and existing
literature.
 Conclusions and recommendations: Summarizes the key findings and suggests directions
for future research.

15)Technical Reports
 Purpose: To convey technical information in a clear and concise manner.
 Content: Includes technical specifications, design details, performance data, and
troubleshooting information.

16) Business Case Reports

 Purpose: To justify a project or initiative based on its potential return on investment and
alignment with organizational goals.
 Content: Includes problem statement, proposed solution, market analysis, financial
projections, and risk assessment.

17) Progress Reports

 It's a report that changes the information regarding your project, especially to determine if it's
meeting the standards established by the schedule and budget. It is important to be precise in your
progress report.
 It indicates the initial plan you prepared along with the stakeholders about a project regarding the
expectations, schedules, cost, deliverables, and scope of it.
 A progress report informs the stakeholders how much progress has been made in the above
directions.
Several main formats emerge within progress reports:
 Focus on timeline and deliverables: Emphasizes the project schedule, completed
milestones, and upcoming tasks.
 Resource allocation: Details the utilization of human, financial, and material resources.
 Risk assessment: Highlights potential risks and mitigation strategies.

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OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

 Issue resolution: Discusses any challenges encountered and steps taken to address them.
 Next steps: Outlines the planned activities for the next reporting period.

2. Explain in details about the key components of a well-defined project report (or)
What are the essential sections of a standard project report? And explain in detail
about how the structure of a project report varies based on its purpose. (or) Explain in
details about the structure of project report.

Project Report
1.Preliminary Page
o Title Page
o Foreword
o Preface
o Abstract
o Table of Contents
o List of Figures and Tables
o Acknowledgements
2.Main Text
o Introduction
o Literature Survey/Review
o Methodology
o Results
o Discussion
o Conclusion
3.End Matter
o References
o Appendices

Key Components of a Well-Defined Project Report

A well-structured project report is essential for effectively communicating project outcomes,
processes, and insights to a target audience.

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OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

It serves as a comprehensive document that details the project's objectives, methodology,

findings, and conclusions. The key components of a well-defined project report include:
1) Preliminary Page
2) Main Text
3) End Matter
1) Preliminary Page
 Title Page: The title page is the initial point of contact for the reader and should provide
essential information about the project. It typically includes the project title, authors' names and
affiliations, date of submission, and any relevant project codes or numbers.
 Foreword: A foreword is usually a short piece of writing found at the beginning of a book
or other piece of literature, before the introduction. This may or may not be written by the primary
author of the work. Often, a foreword will tell of some interaction between the writer of the
foreword and the story, or, the writer of the story. A foreword to later editions of a work often
explains how the new edition differs from previous ones.
 Preface: A preface, by contrast, is written by the author of the book. A preface generally
covers the story of how the book came into being, or how the idea for the book was developed; this
is often followed by thanks and acknowledgments to people who were helpful to the author during
the time of writing. A preface is an introduction to a book or other literary work written by the
work’s author.
 Abstract: A concise and informative summary of the entire report, highlighting the project's
purpose, methodology, key findings, conclusions, and recommendations. It should be self-
contained and provide a clear overview of the project's significance.
 Table of Contents: An outline of the report's structure, including headings, subheadings,
and corresponding page numbers. It acts as a roadmap for the reader, facilitating easy navigation
through the document.
 List of Figures and Tables: A comprehensive list of all figures, tables, and charts included
in the report, along with their respective page numbers. This component aids in locating specific
visual elements within the text.
 Acknowledgements: A section to recognize the contributions of individuals, organizations,
or sponsors who supported the project. It demonstrates professionalism and acknowledges the
assistance received.

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2) Main Text

 Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for the report by providing necessary
background information, clearly defining the problem or research question, outlining the project's
objectives, scope, and significance, and justifying the need for the research.
 Literature Review: A comprehensive summary of existing research relevant to the project,
demonstrating the researcher's understanding of the field. It identifies knowledge gaps and positions
the current research within the broader context.
 Methodology: A detailed description of the research design, data collection methods, data
analysis techniques, and any ethical considerations. It should provide sufficient information for the
reader to understand and potentially replicate the study.
 Results: Presents the findings of the project in a clear, organized, and objective manner. It
includes relevant data, statistics, and visual representations (graphs, charts, tables) to support the
findings.
 Discussion: Interprets the results in the context of the research objectives, compares
findings to previous studies, discusses limitations, and draws conclusions. It should provide insights
into the significance of the findings and their implications.
 Conclusion: Summarizes the key findings of the project, restates the research objectives,
and provides a final assessment of the project's success. It may also include recommendations for
future research or practical applications.
3) End Matter
 References: A comprehensive list of all cited sources formatted according to a specific style
guide (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) to give credit to original authors and allow readers to locate the
cited works.
 Appendices: Includes supplementary materials such as raw data, calculations,
questionnaires, detailed methodology descriptions, or supporting documents that are not essential
for the main text but provide additional context.
By incorporating these components, a well-structured project report effectively communicates the
project's purpose, methodology, findings, and conclusions to its intended audience.

3. Explain more details about the importance of intended audience in project report
writing.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

The Importance of Intended Audience in Project Report Writing

Understanding and considering the intended audience is paramount to the success of a project
report. By tailoring the content, style, and format to the specific needs and expectations of the
audience, the report's effectiveness is significantly enhanced.
Identifying the Intended Audience
Determining the primary audience for a project report is the initial step in the writing process. This
involves identifying the key stakeholders who will be reading and utilizing the report. It is essential
to consider the following:
 Primary Audience: The primary audience consists of individuals or groups who have a
direct interest in the project and its outcomes. They are typically the decision-makers or key
stakeholders.
 Secondary Audience: This encompasses individuals or groups who may have an indirect
interest in the project or require specific information from the report.
 Knowledge Level: Assessing the audience's level of technical expertise is crucial to
determine the appropriate level of detail and complexity of the information presented.
 Expectations: Understanding the audience's expectations regarding the report's content,
format, and level of detail is vital to meeting their needs.
 Decision-Making Role: The audience's role in decision-making processes related to the
project should be considered when structuring and prioritizing information.
Tailoring the Report to the Audience
Once the intended audience has been identified, the report's content, style, and format can be
tailored accordingly. Key considerations include:
 Language and Tone: Using language and tone that resonate with the audience's level of
expertise and familiarity with the subject matter.
 Level of Detail: Providing sufficient detail to satisfy the audience's information needs
without overwhelming them.
 Visual Aids: Incorporating visuals that are appropriate for the audience's understanding and
preferences.
 Organization: Structuring the report in a way that aligns with the audience's expectations
and information needs.
 Key Messages: Emphasizing the information that is most relevant and important to the
audience.

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OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

By carefully considering the intended audience, project report writers can create documents that
effectively communicate the project's outcomes, are well-received, and ultimately lead to desired
actions.

4. Explain the concept of plagiarism in the context of project reports in more depth.
Plagiarism in Project Reports
Plagiarism is the act of presenting someone else's work or ideas as others own without proper
acknowledgment. It is a serious academic and professional offense with significant
consequences.
Causes of Plagiarism
The following are some reasons for Plagiarism
 Desire to get good grades
 Fear of failing
 Poor time management
 Disinterest in the assignment
 Belief they will not get caught
 To reduce workloads
Types of Plagiarism
 Direct Plagiarism: This involves copying text verbatim from a source without providing
proper citation. It is the most obvious form of plagiarism and is considered a severe offense.
 Mosaic Plagiarism: Combining ideas or information from multiple sources without proper
attribution, creating a patchwork of borrowed materials. This form of plagiarism can be more
difficult to detect.
 Paraphrasing Plagiarism: Restating someone else's ideas in our own words without giving
credit to the original source. While it may seem like original work, it is still considered plagiarism
if the source is not cited.
 Self-Plagiarism: Reusing once own previously published work without proper citation.
This can occur when students submit the same or similar work for different courses or when
professionals reuse portions of their work without acknowledging the original source.
 Accidental Plagiarism: This occurs unintentionally due to carelessness or lack of
understanding of citation guidelines. It is essential to properly cite sources to avoid accidental
plagiarism.

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 Patchwork Plagiarism: This occurs when the plagiarizer borrows the "phrases and clauses
from the original source and weaves them into his own writing" without putting the phrases in
quotation marks or citing the author.
 Unintentional Plagiarism: This occurs when the writer incorrectly quotes and/or
incorrectly cites a source they are using.

Consequences of Plagiarism
The consequences of plagiarism can be severe and far-reaching.
 Academic Penalties: Plagiarism can result in a variety of academic penalties, including
grade deductions, academic probation, or even expulsion from the institution.
 Professional Consequences: In the professional world, plagiarism can damage a person's
reputation, lead to job loss, or even legal action.
 Legal Issues: Plagiarism can constitute copyright infringement, which is a legal offense.
Avoiding Plagiarism
To prevent plagiarism, it is crucial to adopt the following practices:
 Proper Citation: Use a consistent citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) to accurately
and completely cite all sources used in the project report.
 Original Thought: Develop our own ideas and analysis based on the information gathered
from various sources.
 Time Management: Allocate sufficient time for research and writing to avoid rushing and
resorting to plagiarism.
 Understanding of Copyright: Learn about copyright laws to avoid infringing on the rights
of others.
 Use of Plagiarism Checking Tools: Utilize plagiarism detection software to identify
potential issues and make necessary corrections. Example: TURNITIN,URKUND

By understanding the different forms of plagiarism and implementing effective strategies to avoid
it, students and professionals can maintain academic and professional integrity.

5. How does a project report differ from other types of reports?

A project report is a distinct document that serves a specific purpose within the broader realm of
reporting. While it shares some similarities with other report types, it possesses unique
characteristics that set it apart.

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OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

Focus on a Specific Project

 Project-Centric: A project report is inherently focused on a particular project, its
objectives, processes, outcomes, and implications. Unlike other reports that may cover a broader
range of topics or activities, a project report is narrowly defined by the project itself.
 Comprehensive Coverage: It provides a comprehensive overview of the entire project
lifecycle, from initiation to completion. This includes planning, execution, monitoring, control, and
closure phases.
 Deliverable-Oriented: The report emphasizes the project's deliverables and how they align
with the project's objectives. It demonstrates the successful completion of project goals and the
value delivered.
Emphasis on Methodology and Results
 Methodological Detail: A project report typically includes a detailed description of the
research design, data collection methods, and analysis techniques employed. This level of detail is
often more extensive than in other report types.
 Data-Driven: The report relies heavily on data and evidence to support findings and
conclusions. It presents data in a clear and organized manner, using visuals and statistical analysis
when appropriate.
 Result Orientation: The primary focus of a project report is on the outcomes of the project,
including achievements, challenges, and lessons learned. It provides a clear picture of the project's
impact and success.
Audience-Specific Tailoring
 Stakeholder Focus: Project reports are often tailored to specific audiences, such as project
sponsors, management, team members, or clients. The content and format of the report are adjusted
to meet the needs and expectations of the target audience.
 Actionable Insights: The report provides actionable recommendations based on the
project's findings and conclusions. It helps stakeholders make informed decisions and take
appropriate actions.
 Clear Communication: Effective communication is essential for project reports. The
information should be presented clearly, concisely, and in a manner that is easily understood by the
target audience.
In contrast to other report types, such as financial reports, progress reports, or technical reports,
project reports offer a more holistic view of a project, encompassing its planning, execution, and

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outcomes. They serve as valuable documentation for decision-making, knowledge sharing, and
accountability.

6. What are the primary differences between laboratory, research, and design
reports?

Primary Differences Between Laboratory, Research, and Design Reports

Laboratory Reports
 Focus on experimental procedures: Provide a detailed, step-by-step account of the
experimental methodology, including equipment, materials, and experimental setup. This ensures
reproducibility and allows for critical evaluation.
 Data collection and analysis: Emphasize the systematic collection of data, its organization,
and the application of appropriate statistical or analytical techniques. Data visualization through
graphs, tables, or charts is essential for effective communication.
 Results and discussion: Clearly present the experimental findings, interpret their
significance, and compare them to theoretical expectations or previous studies. Discuss potential
sources of error, limitations, and implications for future research.
 Limited scope: Typically confined to a specific experiment or set of experiments, with a
well-defined objective and a clear focus on the immediate outcomes.
 Audience: Primarily intended for instructors, lab partners, or other researchers within the
same field who have a specialized knowledge of the subject matter.
Research Reports
 Broader scope: Address a more extensive research question or problem, often involving a
comprehensive literature review to establish the research context.
 Theoretical framework: Develop a theoretical foundation for the research, explaining the
underlying concepts and principles that guide the investigation.
 Methodology: Provide a detailed description of the research design, including data
collection methods, sampling techniques, and data analysis procedures.
 Data analysis and interpretation: Conduct in-depth analysis of the collected data, using
appropriate statistical or qualitative methods to draw meaningful conclusions.
 Contribution to knowledge: Demonstrate how the research findings contribute to the
existing body of knowledge in the field, addressing research gaps and advancing understanding.

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 Dissemination: Consider the potential impact of the research and explore opportunities for
sharing findings with a wider audience through publications, presentations, or conferences.
Design Reports
 Problem-solving focus: Clearly define the problem or need that the design aims to address,
outlining the design objectives and constraints.
 Design process: Document the design process, including concept generation, design
development, and evaluation of alternatives.
 Technical specifications: Provide detailed information about the design, including
materials, dimensions, tolerances, and performance requirements.
 Design validation: Demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of the design through
testing, prototyping, and analysis.
 Economic and environmental considerations: Evaluate the design's impact on cost,
sustainability, and other relevant factors.
 Documentation: Create clear and comprehensive documentation of the design for
manufacturing, assembly, and maintenance purposes.
By understanding the distinct characteristics of each report type, it can be tailored the writing style,
content, and structure to effectively communicate the findings and meet the expectations of the
audience.

7. Explain how project reports contribute to knowledge dissemination. What role do

project reports play in decision-making processes?

How Project Reports Contribute to Knowledge Dissemination

Project reports serve as crucial conduits for sharing knowledge, insights, and innovations generated
through research, development, and implementation efforts. By documenting project processes,
findings, and outcomes, they contribute significantly to the advancement of knowledge in various
fields.
Disseminating New Knowledge
 Original Research Findings: Project reports often present original research findings,
expanding the existing body of knowledge in a particular domain.
 Innovative Methodologies: They may introduce novel approaches, techniques, or tools that
can be adopted by other researchers or practitioners.

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 Best Practices: Successful project methodologies and strategies can be shared through
project reports, serving as a benchmark for future endeavors.
Fostering Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing
 Knowledge Exchange: Project reports facilitate the exchange of knowledge and expertise
among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers.
 Building Research Communities: By sharing findings and methodologies, project reports
contribute to the formation of research communities and networks.
 Identifying Knowledge Gaps: Project reports can highlight areas where further research is
needed, stimulating new research initiatives.
Informing Decision Making
 Evidence-Based Decision Making: Project reports provide empirical evidence to support
informed decision-making processes.
 Policy Development: They can inform the development of policies, regulations, and
guidelines based on research findings.
 Resource Allocation: Project reports can help justify resource allocation for future research
or development projects.
Enhancing Organizational Learning
 Organizational Knowledge Base: Project reports contribute to the creation of a collective
organizational memory, capturing lessons learned and best practices.
 Continuous Improvement: By documenting project successes and failures, project reports
support organizational learning and improvement efforts.
 Capacity Building: They can be used to develop the skills and knowledge of employees,
fostering a culture of innovation and continuous learning.

Through effective dissemination of project reports, organizations and researchers can contribute to
the advancement of knowledge, inform decision-making, and foster innovation.
Project Reports and Decision Making
Project reports play a pivotal role in informing and influencing decision-making processes within
organizations. By providing comprehensive and actionable information, they empower stakeholders
to make informed choices regarding resource allocation, project continuation, and strategic
direction.
Project Reports as a Decision-Making Tool

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 Information Foundation: Project reports serve as a repository of essential information,

including project objectives, methodologies, results, and recommendations. This comprehensive
dataset provides a solid foundation for informed decision-making.
 Performance Evaluation: By comparing project outcomes to predetermined goals and
benchmarks, reports facilitate the evaluation of project performance and success.
 Risk Assessment and Mitigation: Project reports identify potential risks and challenges
encountered during the project lifecycle, enabling decision-makers to develop strategies for risk
mitigation and contingency planning.
 Resource Optimization: Through detailed analysis of resource utilization and cost-benefit
ratios, reports inform decisions about resource allocation for future projects.
 Strategic Alignment: By demonstrating how project outcomes contribute to organizational
goals and objectives, reports help align project efforts with the overall strategic direction.
 Knowledge Transfer: Project reports capture and disseminate valuable knowledge and
lessons learned, enabling organizational learning and continuous improvement.
Specific Decision-Making Scenarios
 Resource Allocation: Project reports can influence decisions regarding budget allocation
for future projects by demonstrating the return on investment of previous projects.
 Portfolio Management: By providing insights into project performance and risks, reports
help organizations optimize their project portfolios.
 Performance Evaluation: Project reports are essential for evaluating the performance of
project managers, teams, and individual contributors.
 Change Management: Reports can identify the need for organizational changes based on
project outcomes and lessons learned.
 Strategic Planning: Project reports contribute to the development of long-term strategies
by providing data-driven insights into market trends, customer needs, and technological
advancements.
Challenges and Opportunities
While project reports are valuable decision-making tools, their effectiveness depends on several
factors:
 Data Quality: The accuracy and reliability of the information presented in the report
directly impact the quality of decision-making.
 Report Accessibility: Ensuring that the report is accessible to the intended audience is
crucial for its impact.

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 Timeliness: Providing reports in a timely manner allows for timely decision-making.

 Integration with Decision-Making Processes: Aligning the report's content and format
with the organization's decision-making processes is essential for maximizing its value.
By addressing these challenges and effectively utilizing project reports, organizations can enhance
their decision-making capabilities and achieve better outcomes.

8. Explain in detail about identifying the target audience influence the content and
style of a project report. Explain some strategies for tailoring a report to a specific
audience.

How Identifying the Target Audience Influences Project Report Content and Style
Understanding the intended audience is paramount in crafting an effective project report. The target
audience’s knowledge, expectations, and needs significantly influence the content, style, and
overall structure of the report.
Impact on Content
 Level of Detail: The depth of information presented should align with the audience's
technical expertise. For a technical audience, in-depth explanations and data may be necessary,
while a general audience might require a higher-level overview.
 Focus: The content should prioritize information relevant to the audience's interests and
needs. For example, a financial report for executives might emphasize financial performance and
strategic implications, while a report for engineers might focus on technical specifications and
design details.
 Key Messages: The report should clearly communicate the key messages that are most
important to the audience. For instance, a report for senior management might emphasize the
project's impact on the organization's overall goals, while a report for project team members might
focus on lessons learned and recommendations for future projects.
Impact on Style
 Language and Tone: The language and tone of the report should be adjusted to match the
audience's level of familiarity with the subject matter. A technical audience might require precise
and formal language, while a general audience may benefit from a more conversational and
accessible style.

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 Visuals: The use of visuals should be tailored to the audience's preferences and
understanding. For example, complex charts and graphs might be appropriate for a technical
audience, while simple infographics might be more effective for a general audience.
 Organization: The structure of the report should be organized in a way that is easy for the
target audience to follow. For example, a report for executives might prioritize a clear executive
summary and key findings, while a report for technical staff might require more detailed
explanations of methodologies and results.
By carefully considering the target audience, project report writers can ensure that the information
is presented in a clear, concise, and relevant manner, increasing the likelihood that the report will be
understood and acted upon.

Strategies for Tailoring a Report to a Specific Audience

Tailoring a project report to a specific audience is crucial for effective communication and
information dissemination. By understanding the audience's needs, knowledge level, and
expectations, it can created a report that resonates and drives desired actions. Here are some
strategies:
Understanding the Audience
 Identify primary and secondary audiences: Clearly define the primary and secondary
stakeholders who will be reading the report.
 Assess knowledge level: Determine the audience's level of technical expertise and
familiarity with the subject matter.
 Understand information needs: Identify the specific information the audience requires to
make decisions or gain insights.
 Consider communication preferences: Determine the audience's preferred communication
style (formal, informal, visual, textual).
Adapting Content and Style
 Level of detail: Adjust the level of detail based on the audience's technical expertise. Avoid
overwhelming technical audiences with excessive explanations, and provide sufficient context for
non-technical audiences.
 Language and tone: Tailor the language and tone to match the audience's expectations. Use
clear and concise language for technical audiences and more engaging language for general
audiences.

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 Visual aids: Choose appropriate visual aids that resonate with the audience. For example,
use charts and graphs for data-oriented audiences and images or infographics for visual learners.
 Organization: Structure the report to match the audience's reading habits and preferences.
For example, executives may prefer a concise executive summary followed by key findings, while
technical experts may require a detailed methodology section.
 Key messages: Highlight the information most relevant to the audience's needs and
interests. Tailor the report to address specific questions or concerns the audience may have.
Using Audience Feedback
 Seek input: Solicit feedback from the target audience to refine the report.
 Iterative process: Use feedback to make necessary adjustments to the content and style.
 Test readability: Conduct readability tests to ensure the report is easily understood by the
target audience.

9. Explain in detail about report writing in STEM Fields. What are the specific
challenges of writing project reports in STEM disciplines? How does technical writing
differ from general writing in the context of project reports?

Report Writing in STEM Fields

Report writing is a fundamental skill for professionals in Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) fields. It serves as a crucial medium for communicating research findings,
experimental results, design processes, and technical information to a diverse audience.
Key Characteristics of STEM Reports
 Precision and Clarity: STEM reports demand exceptional clarity and precision in
language. Technical terms must be used accurately, and complex ideas should be conveyed in a
straightforward manner.
 Objectivity: Maintaining an objective tone is crucial. Personal opinions and biases should
be minimized, and the focus should be on presenting factual information and data.
 Structure and Organization: A clear and logical structure is essential for effective
communication. The report should follow a consistent format, including an introduction,
methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
 Data-Driven: STEM reports heavily rely on data and evidence to support claims and
conclusions. Visual aids such as graphs, charts, and tables are essential for presenting data
effectively.

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 Visual Communication: The use of visuals is crucial in STEM reports to enhance

understanding. Diagrams, flowcharts, and images can be used to explain complex concepts and
processes.
 Ethical Considerations: Adherence to ethical guidelines is paramount in STEM research.
Reports must acknowledge sources, avoid plagiarism, and maintain data integrity.
Challenges in STEM Report Writing
 Technical Language: Balancing the use of technical jargon with clear explanations for a
general audience can be challenging.
 Data Presentation: Effectively communicating complex data through visual aids requires
strong data visualization skills.
 Structure and Organization: Maintaining a clear and logical flow of information while
adhering to specific formatting guidelines can be demanding.
 Conciseness: Balancing the need for detail with the requirement for brevity can be difficult.
Importance of Effective STEM Report Writing
 Knowledge Dissemination: STEM reports contribute to the advancement of knowledge by
sharing research findings and methodologies with the scientific community.
 Decision Making: Reports provide essential information for decision-makers in industry,
government, and academia.
 Collaboration: Effective communication through reports fosters collaboration among
researchers and practitioners.
 Professional Development: Developing strong report writing skills is essential for career
advancement in STEM fields.
By mastering the art of STEM report writing, professionals can effectively communicate their
work, contribute to scientific progress, and influence decision-making.
Technical Writing vs. General Writing in Project Reports
Technical writing and general writing diverge significantly in the context of project reports,
primarily due to the specific nature of the information being conveyed and the target audience.
Technical Writing in Project Reports
 Focus on precision and clarity: Technical writing in project reports emphasizes accuracy,
clarity, and conciseness in conveying complex information. Jargon is used judiciously and defined
when necessary.
 Data-driven: Technical writing relies heavily on data, statistics, and visual representations
to support findings and conclusions.

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 Objectivity: Maintaining an objective tone is crucial, avoiding personal opinions and

biases. The focus is on presenting facts and evidence.
 Structure and format: Adherence to specific formatting guidelines and report structures
(e.g., IMRAD) is common to ensure consistency and clarity.
 Audience: Often targets a specialized audience with technical expertise, requiring a deeper
understanding of the subject matter.
General Writing in Project Reports
 Audience focus: General writing elements may be incorporated to reach a broader
audience, including stakeholders with limited technical knowledge.
 Narrative elements: Using storytelling techniques to engage the reader and make the report
more accessible.
 Persuasive elements: Employing persuasive language to advocate for specific
recommendations or actions.
 Visual appeal: Incorporating visuals that are not strictly data-driven but enhance the overall
understanding of the report.
 Flexibility in structure: While maintaining a clear structure, general writing elements
allow for more flexibility in presentation style.
In essence, technical writing forms the backbone of a project report, providing the factual
foundation. General writing elements can be strategically used to enhance the report's readability,
engagement, and impact on a broader audience.

10. Explain in detail about Experimentation. What are the essential elements of
documenting an experiment in a project report? How should experimental data be
presented and analysed?

Experimentation: A Cornerstone of Scientific Inquiry

Experimentation is a systematic process of inquiry that involves manipulating one or more
variables to observe and measure their effects on a dependent variable. It is a fundamental tool for
scientific discovery, technological advancement, and problem-solving.

Key Components of Experimentation

 Hypothesis: A proposed explanation for a phenomenon, which is tested through
experimentation.

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 Experimental Design: The plan for conducting the experiment, including sample size, data
collection methods, and statistical analysis.
 Data Collection: The process of gathering information through observation, measurement,
or experimentation.
 Data Analysis: The process of interpreting and drawing conclusions from the collected
data.
 Conclusion: A summary of the experimental findings and their implications for the
hypothesis.

Types of Experiments
 Controlled Experiment: A classic experiment where one variable is manipulated while
others are held constant.
 Natural Experiment: Observations of naturally occurring events or phenomena.
 Field Experiment: Experiments conducted in real-world settings.
 Laboratory Experiment: Experiments conducted in a controlled environment.
 Quasi-Experiment: Experiments where random assignment of participants to groups is not
possible.

Importance of Experimentation
 Knowledge Generation: Experimentation is crucial for expanding our understanding of the
world.
 Problem-Solving: It helps in finding solutions to complex problems.
 Innovation: Experiments drive innovation and technological advancements.
 Testing Theories: Experimentation is essential for validating or refuting scientific
theories.
 Decision Making: It provides evidence-based information for making informed decisions.
Effective experimentation requires careful planning, execution, and analysis. By following sound
experimental design principles, researchers can draw reliable conclusions and contribute to the
advancement of knowledge.

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Essential Elements of Documenting an Experiment in a Project Report

Documenting an experiment meticulously is crucial for ensuring reproducibility, understanding the
research process, and effectively communicating findings. Key elements to include in a project
report are:
Experiment Overview
 Objectives: Clearly state the goals and aims of the experiment.
 Hypothesis: Outline the expected outcomes or relationships between variables.
 Background: Provide relevant theoretical or contextual information.
Experimental Design
 Variables: Define independent, dependent, and controlled variables.
 Methodology: Describe the experimental procedures in detail, including equipment,
materials, and steps involved.
 Data Collection: Explain how data was collected, including measurement techniques and
instruments used.
 Data Analysis: Outline the statistical or analytical methods employed to process the
collected data.
Results
 Data Presentation: Present raw data in tables, graphs, or charts, ensuring clarity and
accuracy.
 Data Analysis: Summarize the analysis performed on the data, including statistical tests
and calculations.
 Findings: Clearly present the key findings of the experiment, relating them back to the
original hypothesis.
Discussion
 Interpretation: Explain the meaning of the results in the context of the research question.
 Comparison: Compare the findings to existing knowledge or theoretical expectations.
 Limitations: Acknowledge any limitations of the experiment that might affect the results.
 Implications: Discuss the implications of the findings for the field of study.
Conclusion
 Summary of Findings: Briefly reiterate the main results of the experiment.
 Acceptance or Rejection of Hypothesis: State whether the hypothesis was supported or
rejected based on the evidence.

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 Recommendations: Suggest potential areas for further research or improvements to the

experimental design.
By following this structure and providing comprehensive details, researchers can effectively
communicate their experimental process, findings, and conclusions to their audience.

Data Presentation and Analysis in Experimental Reports

Effective data presentation and analysis are crucial components of a well-structured experimental
report. They facilitate understanding, interpretation, and communication of research findings.
Data Presentation
 Tables: Used for presenting numerical data in a structured format, allowing for easy
comparison and analysis.
o Include clear headings and units for each column.
o Use consistent formatting for numerical values.
 Graphs: Visual representation of data to reveal patterns and trends.
o Choose appropriate graph types (line, bar, scatter plot, histogram, etc.) based on the
data.
o Label axes clearly, including units of measurement.
o Add a descriptive caption to explain the graph's content.
 Figures: Include diagrams, photographs, or illustrations to complement textual data and
enhance understanding.
o Number and label figures for easy reference.
o Provide clear captions explaining the figure's content.
Data Analysis
 Descriptive Statistics: Summarize data using measures of central tendency (mean, median,
mode) and dispersion (standard deviation, range).
 Inferential Statistics: Use statistical tests to draw conclusions about the population based
on sample data.
o Hypothesis testing: Determine if results are statistically significant.
o Confidence intervals: Estimate the range of values likely to contain the true
population parameter.
 Data Visualization: Create informative graphs and charts to visually represent data patterns
and relationships.

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 Error Analysis: Identify and assess potential sources of error in the experiment and their
impact on the results.
Key Considerations:
 Clarity and Accuracy: Ensure data is presented accurately and without errors.
 Relevance: Only include data that is relevant to the research question.
 Consistency: Maintain consistency in data presentation throughout the report.
 Interpretation: Explain the meaning of the data and its implications for the research.
By effectively presenting and analyzing experimental data, researchers can communicate their
findings clearly and convincingly to their audience.

11. Explain in detail about Statistical Analysis for project report. When is statistical
analysis necessary in a project report? What statistical methods are commonly used in
engineering project reports?
Statistical Analysis for Project Reports
Statistical analysis is a cornerstone of data-driven research and forms an integral part of project
reports, especially in STEM fields. It involves collecting, organizing, analyzing, interpreting, and
presenting data to uncover patterns, trends, and relationships.
Types of Statistical Analysis
 Descriptive Statistics: Summarizes data using numerical measures and visual
representations.
o Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
o Measures of dispersion (standard deviation, variance, range)
o Data visualization (histograms, box plots, scatter plots)
 Inferential Statistics: Draws conclusions about a population based on sample data.
o Hypothesis testing (t-test, ANOVA, chi-square test)
o Correlation analysis (Pearson's correlation coefficient, Spearman's rank correlation)
o Regression analysis (linear regression, multiple regression)
Role of Statistical Analysis in Project Reports
 Data Interpretation: Transforms raw data into meaningful insights and conclusions.
 Hypothesis Testing: Determines whether the results support or reject the research
hypotheses.
 Identifying Relationships: Reveals relationships between variables and their impact on the
outcome.

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 Making Predictions: Develops models to predict future trends or outcomes based on

historical data.
 Supporting Decision Making: Provides quantitative evidence to support informed
decision-making.
Challenges in Statistical Analysis
 Data Quality: Ensuring data accuracy, completeness, and reliability is crucial for valid
analysis.
 Choice of Statistical Tests: Selecting appropriate statistical tests based on data type,
research design, and assumptions can be challenging.
 Interpretation of Results: Drawing correct conclusions from statistical results requires a
solid understanding of statistical concepts.
 Software Proficiency: Using statistical software efficiently and effectively is essential for
complex analyses.
Best Practices for Statistical Analysis
 Clear Research Questions: Define clear research questions to guide data analysis.
 Data Cleaning: Thoroughly clean and preprocess data to remove errors and inconsistencies.
 Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA): Utilize EDA techniques to understand data patterns
before formal analysis.
 Appropriate Statistical Tests: Choose statistical tests based on data type, sample size, and
research design.
 Visualization: Use appropriate graphs and charts to communicate findings effectively.
 Interpretation in Context: Relate statistical findings to the research questions and broader
context.
By effectively utilizing statistical analysis, researchers can extract valuable insights from their data
and strengthen the credibility of their project reports.

When is Statistical Analysis Necessary in a Project Report?

Statistical analysis is crucial when a project involves collecting and analyzing quantitative data. It is
essential for drawing reliable conclusions and making informed decisions based on the evidence.
Here are some key situations where statistical analysis is necessary:
When Dealing with Numerical Data
 Large datasets: When working with extensive amounts of data, statistical analysis helps to
manage, summarize, and extract meaningful information.

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 Identifying patterns and trends: Statistical methods can reveal underlying patterns, trends,
or correlations within the data that might not be apparent through simple observation.
 Testing hypotheses: Statistical tests can be used to determine whether observed differences
or relationships between variables are statistically significant.
 Making predictions: Statistical models can be developed to forecast future outcomes based
on historical data.

When Comparing Groups or Conditions

 Comparing means: Statistical tests can be used to determine if there are significant
differences between the means of two or more groups.
 Analyzing variances: Statistical methods can assess the variability within and between
groups.
 Determining relationships: Correlation analysis can be used to measure the strength and
direction of relationships between variables.
When Assessing Uncertainty
 Estimating confidence intervals: Statistical analysis can provide a range of values within
which the true population parameter is likely to fall.
 Hypothesis testing: Statistical tests help determine the likelihood of obtaining the observed
results by chance.
When Evaluating Models
 Model fitting: Statistical techniques can be used to assess how well a model fits the data
 Model comparison: Different models can be compared to determine the best fit for the
data.

It's important to note that statistical analysis is not always required for every project report.
However, when dealing with numerical data, it is a powerful tool for extracting valuable insights
and making informed decisions.
Statistical Methods Commonly Used in Engineering Project Reports
Statistical analysis is an indispensable tool for engineers to extract meaningful insights from data.
Here are some commonly employed statistical methods in engineering project reports:
Descriptive Statistics
 Central tendency: Mean, median, and mode to summarize data distribution.
 Dispersion: Standard deviation, variance, and range to measure data variability.

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 Frequency distributions: Histograms, frequency tables to visualize data patterns.

 Data visualization: Graphs, charts, and plots to represent data effectively.
Inferential Statistics
 Hypothesis testing: T-tests, ANOVA, chi-square test to determine if differences between
groups are statistically significant.
 Correlation analysis: Pearson's correlation coefficient to measure the strength and
direction of relationships between variables.
 Regression analysis: Linear and multiple regression to model the relationship between
variables and make predictions.
 Reliability and validity analysis: Assessing the consistency and accuracy of measurement
instruments.
Specific Engineering Applications

 Design of Experiments (DOE): Factorial designs, response surface methodology to

optimize processes and products.
 Quality Control: Control charts, process capability analysis to monitor and improve
product quality.
 Reliability Analysis: Survival analysis, failure rate analysis to predict product lifespan.
 Simulation and Modeling: Monte Carlo simulation, discrete event simulation to analyze
complex systems.
Considerations for Statistical Analysis
 Data quality: Ensure data accuracy, completeness, and consistency before analysis.
 Appropriate statistical test: Select the correct statistical method based on data type,
research question, and assumptions.
 Interpretation of results: Clearly explain the meaning of statistical findings in the context
of the project.
 Visualization: Use appropriate graphs and charts to enhance understanding of results.
 Software tools: Utilize statistical software packages (e.g., SPSS, R, Python) for efficient
analysis.
By effectively applying statistical methods, engineers can extract valuable insights from data, make
informed decisions, and improve the overall quality of their projects.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

12. How to create a project report from scratch?

Creating project reports is an integral part of evaluating project success. Documenting the lessons
learned and sharing them with a larger team in an organized way can help with future projects. You
can use different tools to put together your project report. Here are 7 basic steps involved in
creating a project report -

1. Set the Objective

When initiating a new project, the first step is to set the objective or goals. Once a company has
identified its objectives, the process of measuring its progress and success simplifies. Take a
moment and list the reasons for creating a project report. Having clear project objectives will
help reduce work redundancy and be on track for everyday tasks.
2. Recognize Your Audience
Your audience plays an essential role in making your project report a success. A formal annual
report differs from a financial report: the language, representation of data, and analysis changes per
your target audience.
3. Data Collection
The chances of you having a solid report is when data supports it. Data plays an essential role in
making people believe in your derivations. Also, support your claims by citing sources such as case
studies, surveys, interviews, etc.
4. Structure the Report
The structure of the report basically talks about the presentation of the report. A project status
report should be prepared in a manner that is comprehensive, consumable, visually
approachable, and easy to understand. A project report is further divided into certain sections.
These 4 are the most common divisions of a project report:
Summary: The summary gives the reader a download of all covered in the project report. Even
though a summary is placed at the beginning of a project report, you can only write it once your
entire report is complete.
Introduction: Mention the outline of the report, give context and mention the scope and
methodologies used in the report.
Body: This is the lengthy section of the report as it contains background details, analysis, data, and
graphics.
Conclusion: This section brings the entire project report together.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

5. Edit and Review

Once your project report is ready, read it multiple times with some time gap. Once the required
edits are made, and the review is done, the report gets a check to move forward.

13. What software to choose to streamline project reporting?

In the digital age, leveraging software solutions is essential to streamlining project reporting,
enhancing collaboration, and ensuring accurate data management.

Here are five groups of software that can help in efficient project reporting:

•Project management software: Smartsheet, Microsoft Planner, and Monday.com offer built-in
reporting features, allowing you to track task progress, assign responsibilities, set deadlines, and
generate reports on project status, team workload, and milestones. Don’t know how to choose from
all these options? We have an article on how to make the right choice.

•Business Intelligence (BI) tools: Power BI, Tableau, and QlikView provide advanced reporting
capabilities to help you create interactive dashboards and visualizations, enabling stakeholders to
easily explore project data and derive insights.

•Time tracking tools: Toggl and Harvest focus on tracking time spent on tasks and resource
allocation. They can generate both individual and team productivity reports, helping you assess
resource utilization and project efficiency.

•Integrated project portfolio management software: PPM Express offers end-to-end solutions
for project and portfolio planning, execution, and reporting. It also consolidates data from various
projects and platforms like Azure DevOps and Jira, enabling high-level portfolio reporting.

•Collaboration and communication platforms: Microsoft Teams, Slack, and Google Workspace
enhance communication and document sharing by facilitating real-time collaboration, making it
easier to gather information for reporting and ensuring everyone stays informed.

14. What is a project report? Why project report is important? State the objectives of
project report.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

A project report is a document that specifies the status of a project and other related information.
In other words, it is a report that includes all the details about a project, navigati ng each step
with great insight. This document helps to ascertain the feasibility of the activities or plans taken
to fulfill a particular project's objectives.

Writing a project report is a valuable process. Here are all the reasons why project reports are
important.

1. Writing a project report helps you understand and discover what it takes to make your
project a success.

2. Project reports offer clarity on your ideas. You should also be able to explain the concept to
others before sharing your strategies and ideas with investors or friends.

3. Planning and creating is worth it if a report helps you avoid making costly mistakes, wasting
time, and losing money.

4. A project report can increase your chances of a successful project by ensuring that the
project manager can record, review and report progress against the baselines and add underlying
data as required.

5. Numerous studies over the years have shown that companies who plan are more likely to
get funding, be successful, and reach their goals than those who don't.

Fig.2.1. Project Report preparation Process

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

Objectives of a Project Report

The main objectives of a project report are as follows:

1. Requesting permission for an investment plan

A final project report is an insightful document that helps to make new investment plans. It allows
the project manager to see and evaluate the expected profits and associated risks in a new project.
Project reports are also important for the purpose of registration and approval.
If the stakeholders are satisfied with the project status report, they may allow project managers to
take up new projects and make investments in new areas.

2. Tracking the progress of the project

A project report is a summary of the entire process and steps that have been taken to complete the
project. It is an effective means of keeping track of the progress of the project. This document helps
to point out the steps that have proven beneficial for a project and what has gone wrong.

Tracking a project is important as it helps to find any deviations from the original plan. The
stakeholders also feel content as they are updated about the project regularly.

3. Locating and mitigating risks

As a project report provides detailed information about the project, identifying risks is easier. It
helps to locate any risks or confusion that is in contrast with the original plan. Additionally, a
project report eliminates the risks by taking connective action so as to avoid any downfall regarding
the project.

4. Deciding on a budget and managing costs

Since a project report shows the details of all the activities, it very well pinpoints the expenses. So
before starting a project, this report helps predict the cost in certain areas so that a proper budget
can be drafted. It also takes into account certain considerations that can cause variations in the
predicted costs. Following a data-driven approach to budgeting, expenditures can be kept under
vigilance leading to profitable project duration.

Hence, a project report establishes the financial stability and viability of a project. It states the
income possibility, degree of risk, list of expenses, and various other relevant factors.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

5. Asking for financial assistance

Whenever an organization needs financial assistance, providing previous project reports is a great
way of attracting funds. When a financial institution will be content that the concerned company is
capable of running successful projects, the financial institution will not hesitate to provide financial
assistance to such companies.

15. What are the characteristics of a project report?

Characteristics of Project Report

A clear definition is essential for any project to be effective, useful, and achieve its full potential.
Clearly defined projects project reports have the following five characteristics:

 Scope
 Resource
 Time
 Quality
 Risk

1. Scope

The project report provides a clear overview of the tasks and goals. The report describes the
project's goals and the activities that will be done to achieve them.

Only a feasible project can be considered meaningful. It is not a good idea to be too ambitious
when planning a project. This could lead to the project not being possible. This could also affect the
team morale. These unhealthy situations can lead to high project costs and delayed delivery dates.

2. Resource

It identifies the resources and means required to achieve the desired scope. The project report is the
blueprint that outlines the direction the business should take to achieve its goals.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

3. Time

It should also be time-bound to make sure that everything is clearly defined. This means that the
project must have a defined timeframe for completion. It should include planning, development,
execution, and fine-tuning.

The project shouldn't take forever to complete. All parties should justify any changes to this
timetable, considering the cost of the project's execution, potential costs, and finance costs.

4. Quality

A well-structured report on a project allows for quick access to pertinent information regardless of
whether it is relevant to the reader. The hierarchy organizes information in a way that makes it easy
to find the most important and useful facts first, and then the technical details are placed in the
subordinate sections.

Executives can gain an instant yet comprehensive understanding of the work done. Managers closer
to the project have a logical method of finding and reviewing relevant information for themselves
and their departments.

5. Risk

Even projects that seem to be moving along smoothly can still have some problems that could cause
trouble later on. Every business face risk and must be monitored. The project report will include
information about all possible risks that could affect the project's completion and the best ways to
recover from the invested money.

16. What are the benefits of a project report?

Benefits of Project Report

The following are some of the most popular benefits of project management reports:

1. Budgeting Can be More Precise: Businesses can accurately predict the cost of each project by
understanding the costs involved in different aspects. Companies can do this to ensure that they

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OHS352 – PROJECT REPORT WRITING - UNIT II

have enough funds in order to finish a project. This helps companies determine if a project is
worthwhile.

2. Create Realistic Schedules: Project reports can help companies decide which projects they
will undertake. A detailed schedule can also aid companies to create realistic budgets and determine
when and where they may encounter problems.

3. Enhance Project Visibility: Project management reports help keep communication open
between project managers, managers, and other stakeholders throughout the project. The reports
increase visibility and allow more people with experience to share their thoughts and suggestions
on increasing project productivity, reducing costs, or any other advice that could help to make the
project a success.

4. Minimize Risks in a Project: Managers can prepare for or even eliminate risks in project
management reports. Potential risks can be reduced, and projects will be completed faster and more
efficiently if you prepare for them.

5. Better Management: Project managers and executives can improve their ability to manage
projects accurately by using all the information in project management reports. They enable project
managers and executives to understand every aspect of a project so they can make adjustments, add
tasks or remove them if necessary, and communicate new expectations to their team.

6. Improvement Made for the Future: Managers can benefit from project management reports
to increase the quality of their future projects. Each report can help you learn what works well in
projects and where there are improvements.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT III

UNIT III

Structure of the Project Report: (Part 1) Framing a Title – Content –

Acknowledgement – Funding Details -Abstract – Introduction – Aim of
the Study – Background - Writing the research question - Need of the
Study/Project Significance, Relevance – Determining the feasibility –
Theoretical Framework
PART –A

1. What is the structure of a project?

A project structure provides the framework within which the development

effort will be accomplished. While simple and high level, it provides guidelines
and flow that cover the topography of the local development landscape.

2. What is the best structure for a project?

Smaller projects work best with functional, weak-matrix, and balanced-matrix

structures. On the other hand, larger or more complex projects fit organizational
structures with project managers who don't do the departmental or project work.

3. How to structure project files?

Best Practices for Folder Structure in Project Management

1. Create a master folder. ...

2. Use subfolders for each project phase. ...
3. Add folders for documents and deliverables. ...
4. Include a folder for meeting notes. ...
5. Create a folder for your project schedule. ...
6. Organize files by date, name, or type.

4. How is a project structured?

There are three areas of competence and responsibility in a project

organizational structure: project leadership, the project team and the project
board. The project leadership is responsible for the management of the project,
and the project team implements the project.

5. Why is the structure of a project important?

By developing a well-defined and grouped structure for a company project, the
project managers can better communicate duties to the appropriate groups. They
can also devise effective strategies for completing the job.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT III

6. How to do a project format?

Break it into sections, including an executive summary, introduction,

methodology, findings, analysis, recommendations, and conclusion. Each section
should address specific aspects of the project. Write the Content: Start writing
each project report section, providing detailed and concise information.

7. How to start project writing?

How to write a project proposal

Step 1: Define the problem. ...

Step 2: Present your solution. ...
Step 3: Define your deliverables and success criteria. ...
Step 4: State your plan or approach. ...
Step 5: Outline your schedule and budget. ...
Step 6: Tie it all together. ...
Step 7: Edit/proofread your proposal.

8. What is framing in structure?

Framing, in construction, is the fitting together of pieces to give a structure

support and shape. Framing materials are usually wood, engineered wood, or
structural steel.

9. What is title structure?

For a job title structure, market and organizational-specific requirements are

taken into account. Ideally, a job title should be structured as below: Rank +
Title + Expertise. Senior + Specialist + Finance.

10. How do you frame a title for a research project?

The title and the abstract are the most important parts of a research paper and
should be pleasant to read. The ―title‖ should be descriptive, direct, accurate,
appropriate, interesting, concise, precise, unique, and should not be misleading.

11. What is project title and examples?

Project Title is a name of the Project. A proper project title describes the whole
assignment in one sentence. It helps the team to refer the Project with the
assigned Name. Project titles make you to understand the main goal of the
Project work and deliverables.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT III

12. How do you introduce a project title?

How to write a project introduction in 12 steps

 Write the project introduction last. ...

 Identify the purpose of the project. ...
 Discuss how you completed the project. ...
 Describe any challenges you faced. ...
 Provide background information. ...
 Include an outline of the project. ...
 Add a thesis statement, if necessary. ...
 Be clear and concise.

13. What is content in a project?

Project content refers to all written material, graphics, and multimedia

components that convey knowledge, ideas, and project objectives. It acts as the
framework, guiding stakeholders through the project's goals, parameters,
methods, and outcomes.

14. What is the structure of content?

Structured content is content that is organized and separated into its individual
component parts. For example, a blog post's headline, byline, publishing date,
snippet, and keyword tags are all separate structured content fields within a CMS
(content management system.)

15. How to use content in a structure? Or what are the most effective
ways to structure your content for maximum impact?

1. Start with a hook.

2. Use headings and subheadings.
3. Follow a logical order.
4. Use transitions and connectors.
5. Add visual elements.
6. End with a call to action.
7. Here's what else to consider.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT III

16. What is called content?

Something that is contained: the contents of a box. the subjects or topics
covered in a book or document. The chapters or other formal divisions of a book
or document: a table of contents.
17. Why use structured content?

Structured content gives you granular control over your information, so you can
Create Once, Publish Everywhere (known as the COPE model), instead of re-
creating similar content for different platforms. Search engines use structured
content to deliver more meaningful descriptions in search results

18. How to create content for a project?

1. Define your objectives. The first step is to define your objectives for your
content project. ...
2. Analyze your audience. ...
3. Audit your existing content. ...
4. Plan your content creation. ...
5. Implement your content delivery. ...
6. Evaluate your content performance. ...
7. Here are what else to consider.

19. What is the acknowledgments structure?

The common acknowledgement structure is based on three moves:

(a) The reflective move;
(b) The thanking move;
(c) The announcing move. You can think of each move as a paragraph within
your Acknowledgments section that communicates something different to the
reader.
20. What is the acknowledgement of a report structure?

The acknowledgements are generally included at the very beginning of your

thesis, directly after the title page and before the abstract.
21. What do you mean by acknowledgement?

The fact of accepting that something is true or right: All I want is some
acknowledgment that his behavior is unreasonable. Synonyms. acceptance.
Recognition (ACCEPTING).

22. What is funding for a project?

Project funding refers to the process of obtaining financial resources for the
purpose of implementing a specific project or initiative. This can come from

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT III

various sources, including government grants, private investors, and loans,

among others.

23. What is the funding structure?

Financial structure defines the composition of a company's capital, representing

the mix of different funding sources used to operate and expand its business.
Imagine you are embarking on a home renovation project that needs funds to
implement your design plans

24. Why is funding important in a project?

Without proper funding, projects will strive to get the right resources and will be
very hard to find the money needed. Because there are so many things that
depend on the decisions made in the finance management of the project, this
must be considered a key area for portfolio and program projects managers.

25. How do you write a project for funding?

Follow the steps below to create a compelling proposal that will help you
win the grant you need.

1. Write a strong cover letter. ...

2. Create an executive summary. ...
3. Introduce your organization. ...
4. Write a direct problem statement. ...
5. State your goals and objectives. ...
6. Choose methods and strategies to achieve your goals.

26. What is an abstract in a project or what is an abstract?

An abstract is a summary of a research project. Abstracts precede papers in

research journals and appear in programs of scholarly conferences.

27. What is the structure of an abstract?

Although the structure may vary slightly depending on your discipline, your
abstract should describe the purpose of your work, the methods you've used,
and the conclusions you've drawn. One common way to structure your abstract is
to use the IMRaD structure.
28. What are the 5 parts of an abstract?

Abstracts commonly have these parts: introduction, purpose, method, result, and
conclusion. Each part has a different communicative goal or specific function.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT III

Most abstracts examined had purpose, method, and result with about half
including a clear introduction and conclusion.

29. What are the 5 steps of an abstract?

The Five Step Process

Step 1: A catchy title. ...

Step 2: A snappy context sentence (or sentences) ...
Step 3: Introduce your argument (don't just copy your thesis statement). ...
Step 4: Add some sentences describing how you make your argument. ...
Step 5: Show the conference organizers or editors that you're a pro.

30. What are the 7 steps to writing an abstract?

Here's how you write an abstract for a research paper:
 PROVIDE CONTEXT TO YOUR RESEARCH TOPIC. ...
 PROVIDE CONTEXT TO YOUR PARTICULAR STUDY. ...
 DESCRIBE THE SPECIFIC PROBLEM YOU SOLVE. ...
 STATE YOUR CENTRAL MESSAGE. ...
 SUMMARISE YOUR RESULTS. ...
 STATE THE BROAD PERSPECTIVE.

31. What is an introduction in a project?

The introduction is the initial paragraph that begins the subsequent process of
the project. Each project, each essay, or any article if it is written, receives an
introductory paragraph that opens the way to successive paragraphs or topics of
the project.

32. What is in an introduction?

An introduction should include three things: a hook to interest the reader, some
background on the topic so the reader can understand it, and a thesis statement
that clearly and quickly summarizes your main point.

33. What is the aim of the study?

The aim is the overall goal or purpose of the study, while objectives are specific
statements that describe the steps or actions needed to achieve the aim.
Objectives provide a clear roadmap for the research, help to clarify the research
question, and ensure that the researcher stays on track.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT III

34. What is an aim for a project?

The aim is about what you hope to do, your overall intention in the project. It
signals what and/or where you aspire to be by the end. It's what you want to
know. It is the point of doing the research. An aim is therefore generally broad.

35. What is full form of AIM?

Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) | Government of India's flagship initiative.

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. SCREEN READER ACCESS Skip to main content.

36. What is the background in a project?

The project background is a one-page section of your project proposal that

explains the problem that your project will solve. You should explain when this
issue started, its current state and how your project will be the ideal solution.

37. What is the background of the study structure?

The background of a study is the first section of the paper and establishes the
context underlying the research. It contains the rationale, the key problem
statement, and a brief overview of research questions that are addressed in the
rest of the paper.

38. What is a research question in project writing?

A research question is the question around which you center your research. It
should be: clear: it provides enough specifics that one's audience can easily
understand its purpose without needing additional explanation. focused: it is
narrow enough that it can be answered thoroughly in the space the writing task
allows.

39. What is the structure of a research question?

There are six steps required to construct a descriptive research question: (1)
choose your starting phrase; (2) identify and name the dependent variable; (3)
identify the group(s) you are interested in; (4) decide whether dependent
variable or group(s) should be included first, last or in two parts; (5) include any

40. What are research questions in project proposal?

A research question is a question that a study or research project, through its

thesis statement, aims to answer. This question often addresses an issue or a
problem, which, through analysis and interpretation of data, is answered in the
study's conclusion.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT III

41. What is a research question and its types?

Types of Research Questions

Research Question
Question Type

What are the causes for C? What does A do to B? What's

Explanatory
causing D?

What is the impact of C? What role does B have? What

Evaluation
are the benefits and drawbacks of A?

Action-Based What can you do to improve X?

42. How to structure a research question?

Developing research questions

 Clear and focused. In other words, the question should clearly state what
the writer needs to do.
 Not too broad and not too narrow. The question should have an
appropriate scope. ...
 Not too easy to answer. ...
 Not too difficult to answer. ...
 Researchable. ...
 Analytical rather than descriptive.

43. What is the significance of the study in a project?

The significance of a study is its importance. It refers to the contribution(s) to

and impact of the study on a research field. The significance also signals who
benefits from the research findings and how.

44. What is needed in significance of the study?

The significance of the study is a written statement that explains why your
research was needed. It's a justification of the importance of your work and
impact it has on your research field, it's contribution to new knowledge and how
others will benefit from it.

45. What is relevance in a project?

Relevance is an important evaluation standard in monitoring and evaluation

practice, as it ensures that programs or projects are designed to meet the needs

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT III

of their intended beneficiaries and that they are aligned with the goals and
objectives of the organizations that fund them.

46. What do you write in relevance of a project?

Project Relevance is a project's abstract which is understandable both to lay

people and advanced professionals. The point of writing a ―Project Relevance‖
statement is to: Provide the readers with a brief explanation of reasons why the
project has been started and why it should keep existing (who and why requires
it);

47. What is the relevance of project objectives?

Project objectives are critical in providing direction, focus, and criteria for project
success. They guide decision-making, facilitate effective planning, and contribute
to the overall effectiveness and efficiency of project execution.

48. What is the theoretical framework of the project?

A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of

interest. It alerts you to examine how those key variables might differ and under
what circumstances.

49. What is feasibility analysis framework?

Feasibility Assessment Framework (FAF): A Systematic and Objective Approach

for Assessing the Viability of a Project.

50. How to construct a theoretical framework?

 Specify research objectives.

 Note the prominent variables under the study.
 Explore and review the literature through keywords identified as prominent
variables.
 Note the theories that contain these variables or the keywords.

51. What is project feasibility?

Project feasibility is the study of a project's various elements to determine if it

has the potential for success. Before a project begins, a company can evaluate
the project's feasibility to identify obstacles, form strategies to overcome them
and ultimately attract investors.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT III

PART- B
1. How to write a structured Project Report explain it.

Over View
 Introduction
 Title page
 Abstract (or Executive Summary in business reports)
 Acknowledgements
 Table of contents
 Introduction
 Background
 Body of report
 Evaluation
 Conclusion/recommendations
 Bibliography
 Appendices
 Program Listings

Introduction

The Project Report

 The project report is an extremely important aspect of the project. It
should be properly structured and also necessary and appropriate
information regarding the project. No data fields are to be exposed in the
project field.
 The aim of the project is to produce a good product and a good report and
that software, hardware, theory etc. that you developed during the
project are merely a means to this end.
 Design document has to be progressively converted to a project report as
and when the various stages of project are completed. Ideally you should
produce the bulk of the report as you go along and use the last week or
two to bring it together into a coherent document.

How to write a Project Report

 A tidy, well laid out and consistently formatted document makes for easier
reading and is suggestive of a careful and professional attitude towards

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its preparation. Remember that quantity does not automatically

guarantee quality.
 A 150 page report is not twice as good as a 75-page one, nor a 10,000
line implementation twice as good as a 5,000 line one. Conciseness,
clarity and elegance are invaluable qualities in report writing, just as they
are in programming, and will be rewarded appropriately.

 Try to ensure that your report contains the following elements (the exact
structure, chapter titles etc. is up to you):

Title page
This should include the project title and the name of the author of the report.
You can also list the name of your supervisor if you wish. IMPORTANT: Before
submission you should assemble a project directory which contains all your
software, READMEs etc. and your project report (source files and pdf or
postscript).

3.1. Title Page Example

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Abstract
The abstract is a very brief summary of the report's contents. It should be
about half a page long. Somebody unfamiliar with your project should have a
good idea of what it's about having read the abstract alone and will know
whether it will be of interest to them.

Acknowledgements
It is usual to thank those individuals who have provided particularly useful
assistance, technical or otherwise, during your project. Your supervisor will
obviously be pleased to be acknowledged as he or she will have invested quite
a lot of time overseeing your progress.

Contents page
This should list the main chapters and (sub)sections of your report. Choose
self-explanatory chapter and section titles and use double spacing for clarity. If
possible you should include page numbers indicating where each
chapter/section begins. Try to avoid too many levels of subheading - three is
sufficient.

Fig.3.2 Table of contents

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Introduction
 This is one of the most important components of the report. It should
begin with a clear statement of what the project is about so that the
nature and scope of the project can be understood by a lay reader.
 It should summarise everything you set out to achieve, provide a clear
summary of the project's background, relevance and main contributions.
 The introduction should set the context for the project and should provide
the reader with a summary of the key things to look out for in the
remainder of the report. When detailing the contributions it is helpful to
provide pointers to the section(s) of the report that provide the relevant
technical details. The introduction itself should be largely non-technical.

 It is useful to state the main objectives of the project as part of the

introduction. However, avoid the temptation to list low-level objectives
one after another in the introduction and then later, in the evaluation
section (see below), say reference to like "All the objectives of the project
have been met...".

Background

 The background section of the report should set the project into context
and give the proposed layout for achieving the project goals.
 The background section can be included as part of the introduction but is
usually better as a separate chapter, especially if the project involved
significant amount of ground work. When referring to other pieces of
work, cite the sources where they are referred to or used, rather than just
listing them at the end.

Body of report

 The central part of the report usually consists of three or four chapters
detailing the technical work undertaken during the project. The structure
of these chapters is highly project dependent.
 They can reflect the chronological development of the project, e.g. design,
implementation, experimentation, optimization, evaluation etc. If you
have built a new piece of software you should describe and justify the
design of your program at some high level, possibly using an approved

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graphical formalism such as UML. It should also document any interesting

problems with, or features of, your implementation.
 Integration and testing are also important to discuss in some cases. You
need to discuss the content of these sections thoroughly with your
supervisor.

Evaluation

 Be warned that many projects fall down through poor evaluation. Simply
building a system and documenting its design and functionality is not
enough to gain top marks.

 It is extremely important that you evaluate what you have done both in
absolute terms and in comparison with existing techniques, software,
hardware etc.

 This might involve quantitative evaluation and qualitative evaluation such

as expressibility, functionality, ease-of-use etc.

Conclusions and Future Work

 The project's conclusions should list the things which have been learnt as
a result of the work you have done. For example, "The use of overloading
in C++ provides a very elegant mechanism for transparent parallelization
of sequential programs".
 Avoid tedious personal reflections like "I learned a lot about C++
programming..." It is common to finish the report by listing ways in
which the project can be taken further.
 This might, for example, be a plan for doing the project better if you had
a chance to do it again, turning the project deliverables into a more
polished end product.

Bibliography

 This consists of a list of all the books, articles, manuals etc. used in the
project and referred to in the report. You should provide enough
information to allow the reader to find the source.

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 In the case of a text book you should quote the name of the publisher as
well as the author(s). A weakness of many reports is inadequate citation
of a source of information.
 It's easy to get this right so there are no excuses. Each entry in the
bibliography should list the author(s) and title of the piece of work and
should give full details of where it can be found.

Appendix

 The appendices contain information which is peripheral to the main body

of the report.

 Information typically included are things like parts of the code, tables, test
cases or any other material which would break up the theme of the text if
it appeared in situ. You should try to bind all your material in a single
volume and create the black book.

Program Listings

 Complete program listings should NOT be part of the report except in

specific cases at the request of your supervisor.

 You are strongly advised to spend some time looking at the reports of
previous project students to get a feel for what's good and bad.

 All reports from the last few years are available in hard copy form in the
CCCF and as soft copy in the student Projects Section. These documents
are accessible only from TIFR IP domain.

2. Discuss the detail about the Framing Title with an example.

Over View
 Introduction
 Steps
 Adding a Research Paper Subtitle
 Example

Introduction

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What is a research paper title and why does it matter?

 A research paper title summarizes the aim and purpose of your research
study. Making a title for your research is one of the most important
decisions when writing an article to publish in journals.

 The research title is the first thing that journal editors and reviewers see
when they look at your paper and the only piece of information that fellow
researchers will see in a database or search engine query.

 Good titles that are concise and contain all the relevant terms have been
shown to increase citation counts and Altmetric scores.
 Therefore, when you title research work, make sure it captures all of the
relevant aspects of your study, including the specific topic and problem
being investigated.

 It also should present these elements in a way that is accessible and will
captivate readers. Follow these steps to learn how to make a good research
title for your work.

Steps

How to Make a Research Paper Title in 5 Steps

 You might wonder how you are supposed to pick a title from all the content
that your manuscript contains—how are you supposed to choose? What will
make your research paper title come up in search engines and what will
make the people in your field read it?

 In a nutshell, your research title should accurately capture what you have
done, it should sound interesting to the people who work on the same or a
similar topic, and it should contain the important title keywords that other
researchers use when looking for literature in databases.

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 To make the title writing process as simple as possible, we have broken it

down into 5 simple steps.

Step 1: Answer some key questions about your research paper

 What does your paper seek to answer and what does it accomplish?
Try to answer these questions as briefly as possible. You can create
these questions by going through each section of your paper and
finding the MOST relevant information to make a research title.

Research question One-sentence answer

―My paper studies how program

―What is my paper about?‖ volume affects outcomes for liver
transplant patients on waiting lists.‖

―What methods/techniques
did I use to perform my ―It‘s a case study.‖
study?

―I studied 60 cases of liver transplant

―What or who was the subject
patients on a waiting list throughout
of my study?‖
the US aged 20-50 years.‖

―My study revealed a positive

correlation between waitlist volume
―What did I find?‖
and negative prognosis of transplant
procedure.‖

Step 2: Identify research study keywords

 Now that you have answers to your research questions, find the most
important parts of these responses and make these your study
keywords. Note that you should only choose the most important

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terms for your keywords–journals usually request anywhere from 3

to 8 keywords maximum.

One-sentence answer Title keywords/phrases

―My paper studies how program -program volume

volume affects outcomes for liver -liver transplant patients
transplant patients on waiting -waiting lists
lists.‖ -outcomes

―This is a case study.‖ -case study

―I studied 60 cases of liver

transplant patients on a waiting list
-US/age 20-50
throughout the US aged 20-50
-60 cases
years.‖

―My study revealed a positive

correlation between waitlist volume -positive correlation between
and negative prognosis of waitlist volume and negative
transplant procedure.‖ outcomes

Step 3: Research title writing: use these keywords

 “We employed a case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the

US aged 20-50 years to assess how waiting list volume affects the
outcomes of liver transplantation in patients; results indicate a
positive correlation between increased waiting list volume and
negative prognosis after the transplant procedure.‖
 The sentence above is clearly much too long for a research paper
title. This is why you will trim and polish your title in the next two
steps.

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Step 4: Create a working research paper title

 To create a working title, remove elements that make it a complete

―sentence‖ but keep everything that is important to what the study is
about. Delete all unnecessary and redundant words that are not
central to the study or that researchers would most likely not use in
a database search.
 “A case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-
50 years assessing the impact of waiting list volume on outcome of
transplantation and showing a positive correlation between increased
waiting list volume and a negative prognosis‖ (Word Count: 38)
 This text is getting closer to what we want in a research title, which
is just the most important information. But note that the word count
for this working title is still 38 words, whereas the average length of
published journal article titles is 16 words or fewer. Therefore, we
should eliminate some words and phrases that are not essential to
this title.

Step 5: Remove any nonessential words and phrases from your title

 The methods used in a study are not usually the most searched-for
keywords in databases and represent additional details that you may
want to remove to make your title leaner. So what is left is:
 “Assessing the impact of waiting list volume on outcome and prognosis
in liver transplantation patients” (Word Count: 15)
 In this final version of the title, one can immediately recognize the
subject and what objectives the study aims to achieve. Note that the
most important terms appear at the beginning and end of the
title: “Assessing,” which is the main action of the study, is placed at the
beginning; and “liver transplantation patients,” the specific subject of
the study, is placed at the end.

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 This will aid significantly in your research paper title being found in
search engines and database queries, which means that a lot more
researchers will be able to locate your article once it is published. In
fact, a 2014 review of more than 150,000 papers submitted to the UK‘s
Research Excellence Framework (REF) database found the style of a
paper‘s title impacted the number of citations it would typically receive.
In most disciplines, articles with shorter, more concise titles yielded
more citations.
Adding a Research Paper Subtitle

 If your title might require a subtitle to provide more immediate details

about your methodology or sample, you can do this by adding this
information after a colon:
 “ : a case study of US adult patients ages 20-25”

 If we abide strictly by our word count rule this may not be necessary or
recommended. But every journal has its own standard formatting and
style guidelines for research paper titles, so it is a good idea to be aware
of the specific journal author instructions, not just when you write the
manuscript but also to decide how to create a good title for it.

Research Paper Title Examples

The title examples in the following table illustrate how a title can be interesting
but incomplete, complete by uninteresting, complete and interesting but too
informal in tone, or some other combination of these..

Tips on Formulating a Good Research Paper Title

In addition to the steps given above, there are a few other important things you
want to keep in mind when it comes to how to write a research paper title,
regarding formatting, word count, and content:
 Write the title after you‘ve written your paper and abstract

 Include all of the essential terms in your paper

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 Keep it short and to the point (~16 words or fewer)

 Avoid unnecessary jargon and abbreviations

 Use keywords that capture the content of your paper

 Never include a period at the end—your title is NOT a sentence

3. Explain the Content of the structure of project.

Over View
 Introduction
 Method (Design of Study):
 Results of the Study:
 Discussion:
 Summary or Abstract:
 Reference
 Appendix:

1. Introduction:

 The research report should ordinarily start with a statement of the problem

selected for investigation. The reporter should introduce the background

and nature of the problem under investigation.

 Although quite a few times the study might be posing a simple empirical

question about human behavior or might be directed toward a practical

problem or some policy-issue, the researcher must place the question or

the issue into a larger, theoretical or practical context. This helps the

readers to appreciate why the problem is of a general significance and

theoretic import.

 If the enquiry was planned with a view to making some contribution to

certain aspects of social theory, the reporter should summaries the theory

or conceptual scheme within which the reporter/researcher is working.

Regardless of the nature of the study, it is important that an intelligent but,

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may be, a non-professional person would be able to understand the nature

of problem and appreciate its larger relevance.

 The report should not contain a lot of jargon except when there is no

feasible alternative to it, certain constraints warranting its use. The reader

is not always prepared to intelligibly appreciate the problem of research;

he is often not conversant with the relevant theoretic structure.

 Hence, it is important that the general reader is gradually led up to the

formal theoretic statement of the problem. Intelligible examples are

necessary for illustrating theoretic ideas and the technical terms.

 It is extremely desirable that a summary of the current state of knowledge

in the area of investigation is presented, once the problem of the study is

explained. The summary should comprise allusions to the previous

researches conducted in the problem-area, and pertinent theories relating

to the phenomena (if any).

 A researcher must have familiarized himself with the previous work in the
field before designing the study. Most of the literature search should have
been done by the time the researcher is ready to write the report.

 If the researcher was required to recast his study in a somewhat different

framework than his initial problem would warrant, he would need to give
references he had not previously consulted.

 That is, he will be obliged to go back to the literature which in the light of

the above shift has become relevant. Review of previous work should

comprise only the pertinent findings and insights relating to the issue the
researcher are dealing with.

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 If such a review article already exists, the researcher will do well to simply

address his readers to the review article and present only the bare

highlights in the report. Books and articles need to be cited with the
author‘s last name and year of publication.

 Towards the end of the section on introduction, it is desirable that the

researcher introduces his own study in a brief overview. This affords a

smooth transition into the method section which follows the introductory
section.

2. Method (Design of Study):

 The readers of the report do like to know in detail how the research was

carried out and what its basic design was like. Suppose the research

involved experimentation, the readers would like to know the nature of

experimental manipulation; the method and points at which measurements

were taken and so on.

 The readers also need to know, in case of the descriptive and exploratory

studies, how the data were collected, the nature of questions asked, the

strategies adopted by interviewers during the collection of data, the

training they had and the recording procedure adopted for recording of
responses.

 The readers also need to know how the observations or replies to questions

were translated into measures of the variables with which the enquiry was

concerned, in the main, e.g., what questions were asked to estimate the
degree of ‗commitment‘ or alienation.

 In regard to the sample covered by the study with a view to arriving at

general conclusions about the population which the sample supposedly

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represents, the readers are expected to be told about the general character

of the subjects, the number of them covered by the sample, mode of

selection etc.

 Information on these points is crucial for understanding the probable limits

of generalizability of the findings, i.e., whether there is any justifiable basis

for extending the sample findings to the population.

 This information can betray the biases of the researcher in selecting the

subjects for the study. Thus, the claim of the researcher as to

generalizability of findings to population at large could be evaluated.

 Although meaningful studies based on a small number of cases barely

representing a specifiable population are possible, nevertheless, the

number of characteristics of the respondent on which the findings are

based must be plainly reported so that readers are enabled to arrive at

their own verdict regarding the applicability of the given findings to other
groups similarly placed in the social structure.

 If the researcher has conducted a complex experiment, the report should

include some description of the study as it was seen from the viewpoint of
the subjects.

 This would involve a description of the subjects, the experimental setting,

and the variables assessed. The sequence of events in a chronological

order also needs to be presented to the reader, who, in a sense, is carried

through the experience as though he was a subject.

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4. Results of the Study:

 The section is closed generally with statement that informs the conclusions
reached as also the qualifications imposed upon them by the conceptual
and practical difficulties faced by the researcher in executing the study-
design in a manner he would ideally have desired.
 But if the researcher wishes to present different kinds of results before he
is able to integrate them or draw any inferences based on them or if he
wants to discuss certain matters in the final discussion then the discussion
section is better presented separately.
 Of course, even here there cannot be a pure results section without an
attendant discussion. Before the researcher can present his main results
there are, in the main, ‗ two preliminary things that must concern him.
Firstly, he needs to present proof that his study has ensured the conditions
for testing the hypotheses and/or for answering the research questions.
 For example, if the study required of the researcher that he produce two
groups radically differing from each other in the character of their
emotions, the report must demonstrate that the ratings on the two groups
were conclusively different and it was not that the difference occasioned as
a matter of chance.
 In case the investigation required observers to record behaviour of the
judges entrusted with rating the responses, the report should present
quantitative proof of reliability of the recordings or ratings.
 The result section should usually begin with a discussion on the safeguards
and strategies adopted by the researcher to negate bias and unreliability in
the course of the study. It is quite possible that some of these matters
would have already found a place in the meth od section.
 It is equally likely that in some studies discussion on these matters is
rightly postponed to the final discussion section, where researcher tries to
adduce alternative explanations of the study results.
 What should be included at the beginning of the results section so that the
readers are satisfied that the stage was successfully set for testing the

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research hypotheses, is a decision which would be governed by an

understanding of the overall state of study results. No hard and fast rules
lead to this decision.
 Secondly, the method of data-analysis is a matter to be dealt with at the
beginning of the results section. The researcher needs to describe the
procedure adopted by him in converting his observations into data that
may be readily analyzed and the procedure adopted for coding and
articulation of different observer‘s ratings.
 The readers must be told next, about the statistical analysis itself. If this
analysis was unconventional or unorthodox and warranted certain
statistical assumptions, a detailed discussion giving out the rationale for it,
is called for. This could be the place in the report to afford the readers an
overview of the results section, if it is fairly complicated.
 The general rule of reporting research findings is to commence with the
central findings and then move on to the more peripheral ones. This rule is
also applicable to the sub-sections and it is advisable that the basic
findings are stated first, followed by elaborations of them, as needed.

If the beginning is made with the most central results, the progress in

reporting should follow the line suggested below:

(1) The researcher should remind the readers in a conceptual mould, about
the question he is asking. For example, is democratic classroom
atmosphere more conducive to learning by students as compared to the
authoritarian atmosphere?
(2) Secondly, the reporter should remind the readers of the actual
operations performed or the actual behaviour measured (which was
assumed to be the empirical referent of learning or democratic
atmosphere, in our example).
(3) The answer to the question which surfaced as a result of the study
should be made known to the readers immediately and unequivocally.
(4) Relevant supporting numbers or figures, substantiating the study result
should be given out. For example, x2 = 11.2, df = 2. This should be

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followed by an elaboration of the overall conclusions. Limitations imposed

upon these conclusions by certain factors which might have operated to
produce results that may not be expected in a larger class of such
situations should be honestly spelt out.
(5) It is necessary that every finding involving a comparison, e.g., between
democratic and authoritarian classroom atmospheres, between certain
groups or relationship between variables should be accompanied by its
statistical level of significance. Failing this, the readers would have no basis
of knowing whether or not the findings may be attributed to the chance
factor.
The inferential statistics though important, do no constitute the core of the
narrative and should be subordinated to the substantive results.
The real purpose of descriptive statistics or indices should be to present to
the readers the behaviour of people as vividly as possible. Effective
reporting aims at giving to the readers a ‗feel‘ of the observed behaviour.
(6) Ordinarily, in a detailed research report intended for a knowledgeable
readership, every finding considered sufficiently important as to merit
some emphasis should be accompanied by a table or graph or figure
showing the relevant data. Thus, the reader is in a position to grasp the
findings by reading the narration or by looking at the tables or figures,
embodying result of interest.
As the writing on the section on results progresses, the reporter should
continually keep summarizing and updating the readers‘ fund of
information lest they should be required to look back time and again, to
keep in touch with the major points of the researcher‘s thesis.
Towards the end of this section, is demonstrated the statistical reliability of
the results. It is often useful to illustrate how particular individuals covered
by the study behaved. Besides the illustrative function, this adds richness
to the study-findings.

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5. Discussion:

 Especially for the more complex studies having more abstract and

extensive implications, discussion constitutes a separate section. The

section on discussion forms a coherent narration with the introductory

section of the report.

 Concerns of central importance to the researcher in view of his problem

and hence embodied in the introduction section should appear again in the

discussion for the discussion proceeds from the specific matters about the

study through the more abiding and general concerns to the most inclusive

generalization the researcher wishes to make.

 Each of the new statements made in the discussion section should

contribute something fresh to the reader‘s understanding of the problem.

The inferences that may be drawn from the findings should be clearly

presented. These may often be at a high level of abstraction. If this be the

case, the conceptual or theoretic linkages would need to be explicated.

6. Summary or Abstract:

 In a way, the title of research report itself serves as part of the summary

or abstract. Ideally, it conveys the content of the study as accurately and

clearly as possible.

 A potential reader can on this basis decide whether or not to go ahead to

read it. Those titles that mention both the dependent and independent

variables are obviously the most informative ones.

7. References:

 The section on references comprises a list of all books and articles cited in

the text of the research report. These books and articles are arranged

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alphabetically according to the author‘s last name, a format that

corresponds to the way in which they are cited in a book.

 The reference should clearly indicate the name of the author, the title of

the book or article, the journal in which it appears, the publisher, place of

publication and the year of publication.

8. Appendix:

 The appendix to a report consists of copies of materials used in the study,

like questionnaire, attitude scale, stimulus materials, drawings of

apparatuses, etc. This is expected to help a person who would like to

replicate the study.

 A second appendix might contain tables of data which are too extensive

and seemingly too marginal to be included in the body of the report. This is

in the nature of a good turn done to the potential researchers, for this

enables them to explore the researcher‘s data in fine detail and to answer

certain questions about the results that might not have occurred to the

researcher.

4. Explain detail about the acknowledgement for the structure of project.

Step 1: List who directly helped you and how

 The first step is to transparently and accurately list specific external

(non-author) contributions and support necessary to complete your
work. Clearly identifying the source of materials or data is particularly
important for other researchers wishing to repeat or build on your
findings.
 Provide full names of the people or institutions that helped you. Omit
titles of people, such as Mr or Ms, but you may use Dr or Prof (or Dr.
or Prof., depending on whether you‘re following US, UK, or othe r
convention in your report). If possible, include the institution of each

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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person and, if required by a journal, also their job title and specialty
or department.
 Specific support that must normally be acknowledged in both
dissertations and manuscripts include:

o Funding, sponsorship, or fellowship, including the name of the

funding agency and award or grant number, and a statement of
whether the funder was involved in the study and reporting (some
journals require a separate funding section for this declaration)
o People, institutions, or organisations that gave access to facilities or
equipment
o Study participants (e.g., interviewees, patients, staff of an
institution)
o People who supplied special materials, reagents, or samples
o Providers of technical assistance or services (name the specific
method and extent of help received)
o Source and permission to use specific datasets, or copyright
permission to reproduce or adapt illustrations or other material
o People who collected data, transcribed or translated interviews, or
performed data entry, coding, or statistical analysis
o People who discussed, critiqued, or advised on an earlier draft
o People who helped with language (e.g., translation, editing,
proofreading) or artwork during report preparation

 We sincerely thank Dr Alan Pan (Department of Surgery,

ABC University) for assisting with case selection.

 I thank Prof Kate Chang of the University of ABC for

permission to use and reproduce the survey instrument.

 We appreciate the assistance of the staff of the ABC

Division of ABC University, who recruited the volunteers.

 Special thanks go to Mari Beer (ABC Editing Company) for

useful comments on and for editing an earlier draft of this
manuscript.

Step 2: List who else supported you and how

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 Journal manuscripts and dissertations commonly acknowledge indirect

practical assistance and general intellectual support.
 Dissertations allow a wider range of indirect, non-research
acknowledgements written in a more personal style. Examples of
indirect support are given below:

o For journal manuscripts and dissertations:

 Academic or project supervision
 Obtaining research grants
 Academic discussion or training
 General administrative, logistic, or practical help
o For dissertations (especially if for PhD):
 Mentorship and inspirational lecturers, tutors, or other people
 Guidance or support in applying for the studentship
 General training, discussion, or advice (e.g., from teachers, the
research group, support staff, or fellow students)
 Moral or emotional support from peers, friends, family, or even pets
 Spiritual or religious support
 If there is no Dedication page:
 Dedication to a family member, friend, or inspirational person
 Dedication to a community, study participants, readers, or other
group
 Dedication to a deceased supervisor or close acquaintance such as
a family member, friend, or colleague
o In some journals:
 Dedications may go at the start or end of the Acknowledgements
but may be limited to a deceased co-author of the manuscript
 Authors may thank peer reviewers after the review process has
finished, to acknowledge:
 Useful comments, or a specific useful suggestion, from one or
more ‗anonymous reviewers/referees‘
 The typical order for the Acknowledgements is to mention direct then
indirect support. Alternatively, the order can reflect decreasing
importance of contributions regardless of category.
 It‘s best to group similar roles together. Introduce a series of
acknowledgements in a list, followed by a colon. You may need to use
semicolons as ‗super commas‘ to clarify each contribution.

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 For example:

o This article has benefited from the contributions of the following

people: my former primary supervisor, Dr A (ABC University), who
obtained project funding and reviewed multiple drafts; Prof B (DEF
University), who provided useful discussion on theoretical
frameworks; and Dr C (GHI University), who tutored me in
advanced research methods.
 For dissertations, non-technical acknowledgements often use a semi-
formal, expressive style with positive adjectives and adverbs:
o Many thanks go to my supervisor, Prof Jane Wong, for advice,
encouragement, and support throughout my degree. Without her
immensely valuable and motivational feedback at weekly meetings
and on multiple drafts, this dissertation would never have been
completed.

o Last but not least, I am indebted to my family for their unfailing

love and unconditional support. Their strong belief in me kept me
going through both thick and thin in my studies.

o This dissertation is dedicated to my grandparents, Naomi Tanaka

and the late Tom Tanaka. They are my constant guiding light.
 In journal manuscripts, use a formal style. Don‘t thank co-authors,
and thank supervisors only if they don‘t meet the journal‘s authorship
criteria. Examples of non-technical acknowledgements:

o I am grateful to my supervisor, Prof Gladys Cho, for her

encouragement and guidance.

o We thank the two anonymous journal reviewers and the handling

editor, Dr Andy Harris, for helpful comments on an earlier draft.

o This article is dedicated to the memory of Dr Yvonne Koo, the third

co-author, who died during the preparation of this manuscript.
.

Step 3: Take responsibility for your work

 A sentence that is often included near the end of the

Acknowledgements, particularly in the humanities and social sciences,

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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is about accepting sole responsibility for the work, text, content,

interpretations, opinions, or conclusions presented.
 This sentence commonly comes after thanking people who gave
reviewing, editing, or proofreading assistance. It publicly removes
blame from non-authors for any potential problems, deficiencies, or
mistakes in the work and implies they may not necessarily agree with
the content.
 The statement also allows the author/s to explicitly claim that the final
version is their own work.
 For example:

o All opinions, omissions, and errors remain my own.

o The responsibility for the content and any remaining errors

remains exclusively with the authors.

 In addition, authors may be required (e.g., by their funder) to

explicitly say the content is entirely their own. For example:

 The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the
authors and do not necessarily reflect those of their institutions,
employers, or funders.

Step 4: Consider research and publication ethics

 You may be required to include specific additional statements in the

Acknowledgements that are related to research and reporting ethics.
Such declarations may be required in separate itemized sections of a
manuscript or dissertation, but if there are no specific instructions,
they can go in the Acknowledgments.

 The following are some examples:

o Dissertations and journal manuscripts:

 Ethics approval for conducting human or animal studies, and details of
how human participants gave their informed consent
 Prior journal or online publication of the work or presentation at
conferences; also for journal manuscripts: prior presentation in a
dissertation/thesis

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 Authors‘ financial or non-financial conflicts of interest, also called

competing interests (identify specific authors by initials); or say
‗All authors declare they have no competing interests‘
 Conflicts of interest or sources of funding for anyone else who helped in
the research or reporting (e.g., copyeditors paid for by industry
sponsors)
o Journal manuscripts:
 Authors‘ specific contributions to the research and publication. The
contributions may be organised by author (using initials) or by
contribution, for example, according to categories in the Contributor
Roles Taxonomy (CRediT) or authorship criteria of the International
Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE):
 [By contribution] Author contributions. Conceptualisation: A.B.C.;
Methodology: A.B.C.; Investigation: A.B.C., D.E.F.; Formal
analysis: A.B.C., D.E.F., G.H.I.; Writing – original draft: A.B.C.;
Writing – review & editing: D.E.F., G.H.I. All authors read and
approved the final manuscript.

Step 5: Check document guidelines

 Acknowledgments normally go at the front of a dissertation but the

end of a manuscript; however, check relevant guidelines of your
institution or journal for the exact placement. Also check guidelines for
other content and formatting requirements, such as:

o If the Acknowledgements go on a new page, in a separate section,

or in a footnote or endnote
o Types of activity to be acknowledged, or not
o Length of the Acknowledgements
o If only one paragraph is expected, or multiple paragraphs
o If subsections with headings are allowed
o Format of names, titles, institutions
o Whether or not reviewers can be thanked
o Order of support to be thanked (e.g., people before funding
sources)
o Whether dedications are allowed

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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Step 6: Edit and proofread

 Your Acknowledgements are your opportunity to thank non-authors

who helped you in your scholarly work. Acknowledgements follow
certain conventions and patterns, and have academic, ethical, and
social roles that contribute to the credibility of your work and to your
identity as a competent researcher.

 So, remember to carefully edit and proofread your Acknowledgements,

ensuring the following:

o Keep the tone modest, sincere, and professional

o Fact-check names, titles, and current institutions of people you
mention
o Remove any exaggerations or potentially offensive language
o Clarify any possibly ambiguous, misleading, or confusing phrases
o Check spelling, grammar, and punctuation

5. Discuss detail about the Funding details for the structure of project.

 Writing reports for funding received is as important as writing your initial

proposal. Too often we forget that our funders are very dependent upon
written reports to provide accountability for their own activities and
actions.
 It is through the details of these reports that they are able to promote
themselves and convince more people to invest in them, which may result
in more funding for your organization over the long term.
 But there are components that it is important to include in your reports to
your funder that will allow them to use the tools you provide in your report
to their most efficient and effective capabilities. So when you write a
report, include the following:

o Outcome measurement chart- This tool will allow your funder to

see the progression of your plan, activities, and outcomes at a
glance. So make sure you keep it updated throughout the lifetime of
the project to ensure you don‘t miss any valuable lessons learned by
your project.

o Testimonials – Funders love testimonials. So if you can get written

testimonials from clients who have participated in the project and felt

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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their lives were impacted in a positive way, this is probably one of

the greatest marketing tools that you and your funder could have.

o Lessons learned – It‘s vital for a funder to know that their

investment left some kind of a lasting impact. So if you include
lessons learned, it means that you have learned valuable information
that both you and your funder can share with others who may hope
to try to implement the same type of project that you have done.

o Financial Report – Every report to a funder must include a financial

report and in many cases must be accompanied by copies of receipts.
Your financial report becomes a part of your funder‘s accounting
system and is an important piece in them being able to meet their
financial accountabilities to their contributors, government, and
consumers of the grants they provide.

6. Explain the abstract for the structure of project.

Over View
 Write an Abstract

 When to write an abstract

 Steps & Examples

 Keywords

 Tips for writing an abstract

 Check your formatting

How to Write an Abstract

 An abstract is a short summary of a longer work (such as
a thesis, dissertation or research paper). The abstract concisely reports
the aims and outcomes of your research, so that readers know exactly
what your paper is about.
 Although the structure may vary slightly depending on your discipline, your
abstract should describe the purpose of your work, the methods you‘ve
used, and the conclusions you‘ve drawn.
 One common way to structure your abstract is to use the IMRaD structure.
This stands for:

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o Introduction

o Methods

o Results

o Discussion
 Abstracts are usually around 100–300 words, but there‘s often a strict
word limit, so make sure to check the relevant requirements.
 In a dissertation or thesis, include the abstract on a separate page, after
the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents.

When to write an abstract

 You will almost always have to include an abstract when:

o Completing a thesis or dissertation

o Submitting a research paper to an academic journal

o Writing a book or research proposal

o Applying for research grants

 It‘s easiest to write your abstract last, right before the proofreading stage,
because it‘s a summary of the work you‘ve already done. Your abstract
should:

o Be a self-contained text, not an excerpt from your paper

o Be fully understandable on its own

o Reflect the structure of your larger work

Steps and examples

Step 1: Introduction
 Start by clearly defining the purpose of your research. What practical or
theoretical problem does the research respond to, or what research
question did you aim to answer?
 You can include some brief context on the social or academic relevance of
your dissertation topic, but don‘t go into detailed background information.
If your abstract uses specialized terms that would be unfamiliar to the
average academic reader or that have various different meanings, give a
concise definition.
 After identifying the problem, state the objective of your research. Use
verbs like ―investigate,‖ ―test,‖ ―analyze,‖ or ―evaluate‖ to describe exactly
what you set out to do.

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 This part of the abstract can be written in the present or past simple
tense but should never refer to the future, as the research is already
complete.

o This study will investigate the relationship between coffee

consumption and productivity.

o This study investigates the relationship between coffee consumption

and productivity.

Step 2: Methods
 Next, indicate the research methods that you used to answer your
question. This part should be a straightforward description of what you did
in one or two sentences. It is usually written in the past simple tense, as it
refers to completed actions.

o Structured interviews will be conducted with 25 participants.

o Structured interviews were conducted with 25 participants.

 Don‘t evaluate validity or obstacles here—the goal is not to give an account
of the methodology‘s strengths and weaknesses, but to give the reader a
quick insight into the overall approach and procedures you used.

Step 3: Results
 Next, summarize the main research results. This part of the abstract can
be in the present or past simple tense.

o Our analysis has shown a strong correlation between coffee

consumption and productivity.

o Our analysis shows a strong correlation between coffee consumption

and productivity.

o Our analysis showed a strong correlation between coffee consumption

and productivity.
 Depending on how long and complex your research is, you may not be able
to include all results here. Try to highlight only the most important findings
that will allow the reader to understand your conclusions.

Step 4: Discussion
 Finally, you should discuss the main conclusions of your research: what is
your answer to the problem or question? The reader should finish with a
clear understanding of the central point that your research has proved or
argued. Conclusions are usually written in the present simple tense.

o We concluded that coffee consumption increases productivity.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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o We conclude that coffee consumption increases productivity.

 If there are important limitations to your research (for example, related to
your sample size or methods), you should mention them briefly in the
abstract. This allows the reader to accurately assess the credibility
and generalizability of your research.
 If your aim was to solve a practical problem, your discussion might include
recommendations for implementation. If relevant, you can briefly make
suggestions for further research.

Keywords
 If your paper will be published, you might have to add a list of keywords at
the end of the abstract. These keywords should reference the most
important elements of the research to help potential readers find your
paper during their own literature searches.
 Be aware that some publication manuals, such as APA Style, have
specific formatting requirements for these keywords.

Tips for writing an abstract

 It can be a real challenge to condense your whole work into just a couple
of hundred words, but the abstract will be the first (and sometimes only)
part that people read, so it‘s important to get it right. These strategies can
help you get started.

1. Read other abstracts

o The best way to learn the conventions of writing an abstract in your
discipline is to read other people‘s. You probably already read lots of
journal article abstracts while conducting your literature review—try using
them as a framework for structure and style.
o You can also find lots of dissertation abstract examples in thesis and
dissertation databases.

2. Reverse outline
o Not all abstracts will contain precisely the same elements. For longer
works, you can write your abstract through a process of reverse outlining.
o For each chapter or section, list keywords and draft one to two sentences
that summarize the central point or argument. This will give you a
framework of your abstract‘s structure. Next, revise the sentences to make
connections and show how the argument develops.

3. Write clearly and concisely

o A good abstract is short but impactful, so make sure every word counts.
Each sentence should clearly communicate one main point.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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o To keep your abstract or summary short and clear:

 Avoid passive sentences: Passive constructions are often

unnecessarily long. You can easily make them shorter and clearer by
using the active voice.

 Avoid long sentences: Substitute longer expressions for concise

expressions or single words (e.g., ―In order to‖ for ―To‖).

 Avoid obscure jargon: The abstract should be understandable to

readers who are not familiar with your topic.

 Avoid repetition and filler words: Replace nouns with pronouns

when possible and eliminate unnecessary words.

 Avoid detailed descriptions: An abstract is not expected to provide

detailed definitions, background information, or discussions of other
scholars‘ work. Instead, include this information in the body of your
thesis or paper.

Check your formatting

 If you are writing a thesis or dissertation or submitting to a journal, there
are often specific formatting requirements for the abstract—make sure to
check the guidelines and format your work correctly. For APA research
papers you can follow the APA abstract format.

7. Explain detail about the Introduction for the structure of project.

Over View
 First, understand the purpose of your report
 Analyse the target audience
 Elements of a strong introduction
 How to write a report introduction: an academic guide
 Crafting the opening hook
 Providing context for the report
 Formulating a clear thesis statement
 Outlining the report structure

First, Understand The Purpose Of Your Report

 To embark on successful academic writing, it‘s crucial to grasp the essence

of your report‘s purpose. Reports come in various types, including essays,
research papers, case studies, and many more! Each type requires a

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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tailored approach to crafting a report introduction that captivates your

readers.

 Once you have identified the type of report you have got to prepare, the
second most important thing is to understand why you have been given
this report. What is the purpose, and what could be the possible outcome
of completing this report.

Analyse The Target Audience

 Audience engagement is a critical aspect of your report! Let‘s shine a

spotlight on your readers, who are the real heroes, and explore the art of
tailoring your report introduction to captivate them.

 It is really essential to consider the readers‘ background and knowledge.

Are they seasoned professors, fellow students, or professionals in a specific
field? Understanding their perspectives helps you strike the perfect balance
of technicality and simplicity in your introduction.

 Crafting an introduction that speaks directly to your audience is the

key. Inject enthusiasm, sprinkle relatable examples, and address
their pain points. Use audience-savvy techniques, ensuring your
introduction resonates with readers and leaves them eager to explore your
entire report.

Elements of a Strong Introduction

 Before we head directly into how to start a report introduction, we need to

understand some basic elements of the introduction of a report.

 A well-crafted introduction not only piques the interest of the readers but
also sets the tone for the entire document. To achieve this, it should
incorporate the following essential elements:

o Opening Hook or Attention-Grabber

 The first few sentences of your introduction should captivate the

reader‘s attention and compel them to delve further into your report. An
opening hook can take various forms, such as a thought-provoking

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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question, a compelling statistic, a vivid anecdote, or a relevant and

surprising fact.

o Contextualising the Report’s Topic

 Following the attention-grabber, it is essential to provide the necessary

context for your report‘s topic. This contextualization allows readers to
grasp the background, relevance, and significance of the subject under
investigation.

 Incorporate relevant historical, theoretical, or practical information to

situate the report within its broader academic or real-world context.

o Thesis Statement or Main Objective

 The thesis statement, often positioned at the end of the opening

paragraph of the report introduction, concisely articulates the main
objective or central argument of your report. It should be clear, specific,
and focused, guiding readers on what they can expect to explore further
in the document.

 A strong thesis statement sets the direction for the entire report,
providing a roadmap for readers to navigate the subsequent sections
with a clear understanding of the primary purpose.

o Overview of Report Structure and Sections

 To facilitate navigation and comprehension, it is crucial to provide

readers with an overview of the report‘s structure and its key sections.
This section-by-section outline acts as a guide, giving readers a glimpse
of the organization and flow of the report.

 By skillfully incorporating these elements, your introduction will

establish a strong groundwork for your report, fostering engagement
and understanding throughout its entirety. Now we can move on with

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT III

your actual question, how to write an introduction for an academic

report! After reading this guide, if you still find anything difficult, you
can always contact our report writing service for 24/7 assistance.

Crafting the Opening Hook

 The art of crafting an engaging opening hook lies in its ability to seize the
reader‘s attention from the outset. Anecdotes and real-life examples
breathe life into the report, making complex topics relatable and
captivating for your readers.

 As you go on to illustrate the practical implications of the subject matter,

your readers can immediately connect with the content. It will allow you to
foster a sense of curiosity to explore further.

 In addition to anecdotes, you should incorporate relevant statistics or data.

It infuses credibility and significance into the introduction. Numbers
possess a persuasive power, shedding light on the magnitude of an issue
and underscoring the urgency of the report‘s focus. Thought-provoking
questions, on the other hand, spark introspection and stimulate critical
thinking. Coupled with compelling quotes, they entice readers to
contemplate the broader implications of the subject matter.

 An effective opening hook in the report introduction, whether through

anecdotes, statistics, or questions, sets the stage for an intellectually
stimulating journey through the report‘s core ideas. By capturing your
reader‘s imagination, the introduction paves the way for a rewarding
exploration of the report‘s findings and insights.

 Since, students often search for how to write an introduction for a report
example, here is one for you. The opening of the introduction could be like
this:

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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o In the age of digital interconnectedness, social media platforms have

revolutionized the way we communicate, share information, and
interact with others.

o The allure of virtual networks, however, comes hand in hand with

growing concerns about their impact on mental health. As these
platforms become an integral part of our daily lives, it is crucial to
examine the intricate relationship between social media usage and its
potential consequences on individuals’ psychological well-being, a
pressing issue that forms the focal point of this academic report.

Providing Context for the Report

 A well-contextualised introduction is paramount to the comprehension of

the matter of the report. You should first delve into the background and
history of the topic to provide readers with a comprehensive understanding
of its evolution over time. This historical perspective lays the groundwork
for appreciating the report‘s relevance in the present context.

 Moreover, describing the current relevance and significance of the topic

bridges the gap between theory and practice. It highlights the practical
implications and real-world applications, enticing readers to explore
further. In addition to how to write a report introduction, it is essential
to address the previous research or related studies to showcase the
existing body of knowledge and identify gaps that the current report
aims to fill.

 By combining historical context, present-day relevance, and existing

research, the introduction forges a clear pathway for readers to navigate
through the report‘s findings, enriching their understanding and
appreciation of the subject matter.

 Let‘s have a look at an example from the sample report introduction:

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT III

o The exponential rise of social media has transformed the dynamics of

social interactions, communication, and information dissemination,
transcending geographical boundaries. With billions of users actively
engaging on platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and
TikTok, the implications on mental health have garnered significant
attention from researchers, health professionals, and society at large.

o This report endeavours to delve into the multifaceted impacts of social

media on mental health, analysing its effects on emotional well-being,
self-esteem, and psychological distress.

Formulating a Clear Thesis Statement

 As we go on to learn how to write an introduction of a report, we should

know about the thesis statement. A strong thesis statement is like the
backbone of your whole work. It‘s the core purpose and focus of what you
are doing. When you define the main objective and scope in your thesis, it
gives your readers a sneak peek into what you are trying to achieve.

 To make it effective, keep the thesis concise and specific. Avoid any
vagueness or ambiguity. This will help sharpen the direction of the
report and guide your readers to understand the main argument better.

 When your thesis aligns with the objectives of your report, everything flows
more smoothly. It acts as a navigational tool, guiding you and your readers
through all the details and helping everyone grasp the subject matter
better. So, get ready to make your report shine with a killer thesis
statement!

 Let‘s have an example of a thesis statement from the introduction of a

report:

o This report aims to explore the complexities of the relationship between

social media usage and mental health, considering both positive and
negative aspects.

o By synthesizing existing research, psychological theories, and empirical

evidence, we seek to shed light on the various mechanisms through
which social media can influence mental health outcomes. Ultimately,

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this examination underscores the importance of promoting digital well-

being and fostering responsible social media use for individuals of all
ages.

Outlining the Report Structure

 An effectively outlined report structure serves as a roadmap for readers. It

gives readers a clear and organised overview of what‘s inside. First off,
listing the major sections or points give them a quick glimpse of how it‘s all
laid out.

 And here‘s the trick: a brief description of each section helps readers know
what to expect. That way, they can read with focus and easily find what
they need later.

 When you highlight the logical progression of the report, it keeps

everything flowing smoothly. Each section builds upon the previous ones,
creating a cohesive narrative. This way, readers can get a comprehensive
understanding of the topic.

 Putting it all together, a well-structured report becomes a valuable guide

for your readers. It leads them through all the details and ensures a
rewarding and informed reading experience.

 these principles to their own reports. By doing so, they can elevate the
impact of their work, leaving a lasting impression on their readers.

 We hope that this guide will help you through the introduction process. You
can further go on to read how to write a conclusion for a report, so that
you can create an excellent report for you.

8. Explain detail about the Aim of the Study for the structure of
project.

 A research aim is what the author or writer hopes to achieve at the end of

the research. It gives an overview of what readers will gain at the end of

the theme. Furthermore, it outlines the focal point of the study.

 The audience wants to find the reason to read your thesis or proposal. The

research aim and objectives serve as glue that ties them to your topic.

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 It serves as a background, and it will give a foundation and structure to

your topic of discussion. Most research aims come with a brief overview of

the promises and benefits of reading the research paper.

 In this article, we will focus on outlining the tips on how to write a gripping

researching aim.

1. Explicitly state the aim and objectives of your research.

 Most researchers often omit the place of clearly stating the research aim.

This omission has given most thesis a directionless motion. Most readers

don‘t prefer reading proposals without first reading the guide.

 Try to define your focus on the proposal.
 Expressly state the variables to be estimated.
 Include the active steps you‘ll take.
 Your studies should have limits, state it.
 Don‘t include unnecessary points in stating your research aim.
 How do I state my research aim and objective?
 In stating your research aim, use action-verb words. Avoid using
slack and dull words. Preferably, your statements should be in verb-
form.

2. Determine the number of aims that should be in your proposal

 Most supervisors prefer to see one predominant research aim and then an
additional subsidiary research aim.
 While there is no hard and fast rule to the number of aims, a thesis should
contain a reasonable number of objectives.

3. Write them with broad terms

 Research aims are to be written with a broad term that captures the whole

essence of the work. While objectives should be concise, as they capture

the small unit of actions to be taken to achieve those aims.

4. Make It Short

 Your research aim and objectives should be very short. The purpose of this

is to make your readers remember your dreams and objectives. It should

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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not be written with complex sentences. Both the aim and objectives of your

proposal should not exceed 500 to 1000 words.

5. Let Them Relate to Each other

 While stating your aims and objectives, let them flow with each other. If

your goals do not relate to each other, then you maim the believability of

your work. The question is, the aims and objectives you stated, can they

be actualized with one factor?

Conclusion

 We have covered the steps to achieving a readable and relatable way of

writing your aim and objectives in your thesis, proposals, project defense,

and your books. It all depends on your being precise.

9. Discuss the brief about background for the structure of project.

Over view

 Introduction

 What is the background of a study?

 How is a background different from the introduction?

 How should one write the background of a research paper?

 Avoid these mistakes while writing the background

Introduction

 The background of a study is one of the most important components of a

research paper. The quality of the background determines whether the
reader will be interested in the rest of the study.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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 Thus, to ensure that the audience is invested in reading the entire research
paper, it is important to write an appealing and effective background.
So, what constitutes the background of a study, and how must it be
written?

What is the background of a study?

 The background of a study is the first section of the paper and establishes
the context underlying the research. It contains the rationale, the key
problem statement, and a brief overview of research questions that are
addressed in the rest of the paper.

 The background forms the crux of the study because it introduces an

unaware audience to the research and its importance in a clear and logical
manner. At times, the background may even explore whether the study
builds on or refutes findings from previous studies.

 Any relevant information that the readers need to know before delving into
the paper should be made available to them in the background.
How is a background different from the introduction?

 The introduction of your research paper is presented before the

background. Let‘s find out what factors differentiate the background from
the introduction.

 The introduction only contains preliminary data about the research topic
and does not state the purpose of the study. On the contrary, the
background clarifies the importance of the study in detail.

 The introduction provides an overview of the research topic from a broader

perspective, while the background provides a detailed understanding of the
topic.

 The introduction should end with the mention of the research questions,
aims, and objectives of the study. In contrast, the background follows no
such format and only provides essential context to the study.

How should one write the background of a research paper?

 The length and detail presented in the background varies for different
research papers, depending on the complexity and novelty of the research
topic. At times, a simple background suffices, even if the study is complex.

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 Before writing and adding details in the background, take a note of these
additional points:

o Start with a strong beginning: Begin the background by defining

the research topic and then identify the target audience.

o Cover key components: Explain all theories, concepts, terms, and

ideas that may feel unfamiliar to the target audience thoroughly.

o Take note of important prerequisites: Go through the relevant

literature in detail. Take notes while reading and cite the sources.

o Maintain a balance: Make sure that the background is focused on

important details, but also appeals to a broader audience.

o Include historical data: Current issues largely originate from

historical events or findings. If the research borrows information from
a historical context, add relevant data in the background.

o Explain novelty: If the research study or methodology is unique or

novel, provide an explanation that helps to understand the research
better.

o Increase engagement: To make the background engaging, build a

story around the central theme of the research

Avoid these mistakes while writing the background

 Ambiguity: Don‘t be ambiguous. While writing, assume that the reader

does not understand any intricate detail about your research.

 Unrelated themes: Steer clear from topics that are not related to the key
aspects of your research topic.

 Poor organization: Do not place information without a structure. Make

sure that the background reads in a chronological manner and organize the
sub-sections so that it flows well.

10. Explain writing the research question for the structure of project
with an example.

Over View

 Introduction
 What is a research question?
 Why is a research question important?
 How to write research questions

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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 Research question examples

Introduction
 One of the most important steps of the research process is developing a
research question.
 A research question directs your investigation and provides a clear goal for
you to focus on. Understanding the characteristics that comprise a
successful research question can help you generate fresh ideas and
discover new methods for your industry.
What is a research question?
 A research question is an inquiry an individual uses as the main focus of an
examination. It addresses a problem or issue the researcher plans to
answer upon completion of their study. Writing a research question is the
first step in a research project, building the foundation for an exploration.

 Individuals use research questions for various types of research studies,

such as experimental, qualitative and observational. Researchers answer
this question by conducting analyses and interpreting data.

 When creating a research question, you can consider several components

to include in your wording.

 Brian Hulley created the FINER model, which stands for the
following characteristics of a research question:

o Feasible: The question is within a researcher's abilities and

resources to examine, collect data and answer.
o Interesting: Keeping in mind peers who review this research
project, researchers create research questions on fascinating topics.
o Novel: A research question provides new insights in the field of
study investigated and may help confirm existing research.
o Ethical: The topic is something review boards and authorities
approve, meaning the recruitment and participation of individuals in
the study follows informed consent rules.
o Relevant: Researchers choose topics related to their industry and
the public's interest, leading to visible changes in society.
Why is a research question important?
 A research question guides the design of a study. It serves two purposes:
determining the type of research and identifying specific objectives.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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 Research questions state the specific issue you are addressing and focus on
outcomes that are important for individuals to learn. This helps break up
the study into manageable steps to complete in order to answer your initial
question.
How to write research questions
Follow these steps when writing a research question:
1. Select a general topic
The first step to writing a research question is to choose a broad topic for your
question. This can be something like "1920s novels" or "effects of technology."
It's helpful to select something you are interested in and want to know more
about, which can make research more enjoyable

2. Conduct preliminary research

Look to see what studies researchers have already done on your general topic to
narrow your focus. Sometimes, you may find a related article that inspires you to
explore part of your topic that researchers have not yet studied. For instance, if
you notice that an article about youth social organizations doesn't mention how it
affects children's work ethic, you may decide to do research
3. Consider your audience
When choosing what to base your research on, consider your readers. For college
papers, the audience is academic. Ask yourself if your audience may be
interested in the topic you are thinking about pursuing. Determining your
audience can also help you refine your research and focus on items that relate to
your defined group.
4. Generate potential questions
Begin asking open-ended "how?" and "why?" questions about your broad topic to
find a more specific research question. Consider gap-spotting, where you identify
research limitations on your topic to create a research project. Also, consider
problematization, where you challenge assumptions made by others, or use
personal experiences to draw on issues in your industry.
5. Review your brainstormed questions
Once you have a few questions to consider, evaluate them to see if they are
effective research questions. When reviewing, go through the FINER model to
see if the question meets all the research question criteria.
6. Construct your research question

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You can use one of two frameworks to structure your question. The first is the
PICOT framework, which stands for:
o Population or problem
o Intervention or indicator being studied
o Comparison group
o Outcome of interest
o Time frame of the study
The second framework you could use is PEO, which stands for:
o Population being studied
o Exposure to preexisting conditions
o Outcome of interest
Both frameworks can help you include the necessary information in your question
and create a focus for your studies.

Research question examples

 Here are some research question examples to help you brainstorm your
own:
o What effect does the daily playing of video games have on the engagement
levels of those under 16 years old?
o What are the long-term effects on the environment of using bamboo
toothbrushes in place of regular plastic toothbrushes?
o How does divorce cause students to perform on standardized tests?

11. Discuss the brief about Need of the study /project significance for
the structure of project.

Over View

 Introduction
 Purpose of writing the significance of a study
 Sections in which the significance of the study is written

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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 Significance vs. other introductory elements of your paper

 How to write the significance of the study

 Example of significance of a study

Introduction

 The significance of a study is its importance. It refers to the

contribution(s) to and impact of the study on a research field. The
significance also signals who benefits from the research findings and how.

Purpose of writing the significance of a study

 A study‘s significance should spark the interest of the reader.

Researchers will be able to appreciate your work better when they
understand the relevance and its (potential) impact. Peer reviewers also
assess the significance of the work, which will influence the decision
made (acceptance/rejection) on the manuscript.

Sections in which the significance of the study is written

1. Introduction
 In the Introduction of your paper, the significance appears where you talk
about the potential importance and impact of the study. It should flow
naturally from the problem, aims and objectives, and rationale.
2.Conclusion
 The significance is described in more detail in the concluding paragraph(s)
of the Discussion or the dedicated Conclusions section. Here, you put the
findings into perspective and outline the contributions of the findings in
terms of implications and applications.
3.Abstract
 The significance may or may not appear in the abstract. When it does, it
is written in the concluding lines of the abstract.

Significance vs. other introductory elements of your paper

In the Introduction

o The problem statement outlines the concern that needs to be

addressed.

o The research aim describes the purpose of the study.

o The objectives indicate how that aim will be achieved.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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o The rationale explains why you are performing the study.

o The significance tells the reader how the findings affect the
topic/broad field. In other words, the significance is about how much
the findings matter.

How to write the significance of the study

 A good significance statement may be written in different ways. The

approach to writing it also depends on the study area. In the arts and
humanities, the significance statement might be longer and more
descriptive. In applied sciences, it might be more direct.
a. Suggested sequence for writing the significance statement
1. Think of the gaps your study is setting out to address.

2. Look at your research from general and specific angles in

terms of its (potential) contribution.

3. Once you have these points ready, start writing

them, connecting them to your study as a whole.
b. Some ways to begin your statement(s) of significance
Here are some opening lines to build on:

o The particular significance of this study lies in the…

o We argue that this study moves the field forward because…

o This study makes some important contributions to…

o Our findings deepen the current understanding about…

c. Don’ts of writing a significance statement
o Don‘t make it too long.

o Don‘t repeat any information that has been presented in other

sections.

o Don‘t overstate or exaggerate the importance; it should match

your actual findings.

Example of significance of a study

 Note the significance statements highlighted in the following fictional study.

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 Significance in the Introduction

o The effects of Miyawaki forests on local biodiversity in urban housing
complexes remain poorly understood. No formal studies on negative
impacts on insect activity, populations or diversity have been
undertaken thus far.
o In this study, we compared the effects that Miyawaki forests in urban
dwellings have on local pollinator activity. The findings of this study will
help improve the design of this afforestation technique in a way that
balances local fauna, particularly pollinators, which are highly sensitive
to microclimatic changes.
 Significance in the Conclusion
o The findings provide valuable insights for guiding and informing
Miyawaki afforestation in urban dwellings. We demonstrate that urban
planning and landscaping policies need to consider potential declines.

12. Explain the relevance for the structure of project.

Over view

 Definition
 table of contents

Definition

 A relevance means that your research will contribute something

worthwhile to your field in a scientific, social, or practical way.
 As you plan out your dissertation process, make sure that you‘re writing
something that is important and interesting to you personally, as well as
appropriate within your field.
 If you‘re a bit stuck on where to begin, consider framing your questions in
terms of their relevance: scientifically to your discipline, socially to the
world at large, or practically to an industry or organization.
table of contents
1. Scientific relevance

2. Social and practical relevance

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 Scientific relevance
o If you are studying hard or social sciences, the scientific relevance of
your dissertation is crucial. Your research should fill a gap in existing
scientific knowledge, something that hasn‘t been extensively studied
before.
o One way to find a relevant topic is to look at the recommendations for
follow-up studies that are made in existing scientific articles and the
works they cite. From there, you can pursue quantitative
research, statistical analyses, or the relevant methodology for the type
of research you choose to undertake.

 Social and practical relevance

o Most theses are required to have social relevance, which basically
means that they help us to better understand society. These can
use ethnographies, interviews, or other types of field work to collect
data
o However, in some disciplines it may be more important that a
dissertation have practical relevance. Research that has practical
relevance adds value. For instance, it could make a recommendation for
a particular industry or suggest ways to improve certain processes
within an organization.

13. Explain the Determining the feasibility for the structure of project.

Over View
 What Is a Feasibility Study?
 Understanding a Feasibility Study
 Benefits of a Feasibility Study
 How to Conduct a Feasibility Study
 Examples of a Feasibility Study
 What Is the Main Objective of a Feasibility Study?
 What Are the Steps in a Feasibility Study?
 Who Conducts a Feasibility Study?
 What Are the 4 Types of Feasibility?

What Is a Feasibility Study?

 A feasibility study is a detailed analysis that considers all of the critical

aspects of a proposed project in order to determine the likelihood of it
succeeding.
 Success in business may be defined primarily by return on investment,
meaning that the project will generate enough profit to justify the
investment. However, many other important factors may be identified on

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the plus or minus side, such as community reaction and environmental

impact.
 Although feasibility studies can help project managers determine the risk
and return of pursuing a plan of action, several steps should be considered
before moving forward.

Understanding a Feasibility Study

 A feasibility study is an assessment of the practicality of a proposed plan

or project. A feasibility study analyzes the viability of a project to
determine whether the project or venture is likely to succeed. The study is
also designed to identify potential issues and problems that could arise
while pursuing the project.
 As part of the feasibility study, project managers must determine whether
they have enough of the right people, financial resources, and technology.
The study must also determine the return on investment, whether this is
measured as a financial gain or a benefit to society, the latter in the case
of a nonprofit project.
 The feasibility study might include a cash flow analysis, measuring the
level of cash generated from revenue vs. the project‘s operating costs.
A risk assessment must also be completed to determine whether the
return is enough to offset the risk of undergoing the venture.
 When doing a feasibility study, it‘s always good to have a contingency plan
that is ready to test as a viable alternative if the first plan fails.

Benefits of a Feasibility Study

 There are several benefits to feasibility studies, including helping project

managers discern the pros and cons of undertaking a project before
investing a significant amount of time and capital into it.
 Feasibility studies can also provide a company‘s management team with
crucial information that could prevent them from entering into
a risky business venture.
 Such studies help companies determine how they will grow. They will
know more about how they will operate, what the potential obstacles are,
who the competition is, and what the market is.
 Feasibility studies also help convince investors and bankers that investing
in a particular project or business is a wise choice.

How to Conduct a Feasibility Study

 The exact format of a feasibility study will depend on the type of
organization that requires it. However, the same factors will be involved
even if their weighting varies.

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o Preliminary Analysis
 Although each project can have unique goals and needs, there are
some best practices for conducting any feasibility study:

 Conduct a preliminary analysis, which involves getting feedback

about the new concept from the appropriate stakeholders.

 Analyze and ask questions about the data obtained in the early
phase of the study to make sure that it‘s solid.

 Conduct a market survey or market research to identify the market

demand and opportunity for pursuing the project or business.

 Write an organizational, operational, or business plan, including

identifying the amount of labor needed, at what cost, and for how
long.

 Prepare a projected income statement, which includes revenue,

operating costs, and profit.

 Prepare an opening day balance sheet.

 Identify obstacles and any potential vulnerabilities, as well as how to

deal with them.

 Make an initial ―go‖ or ―no-go‖ decision about moving ahead with the
plan.

o Suggested Components

 Once the initial due diligence has been completed, the real work begins.
Components that are typically found in a feasibility study include the
following:

 Executive summary: Formulate a narrative describing details of the

project, product, service, plan, or business.

 Technological considerations: Ask what will it take. Do you have it?

If not, can you get it? What will it cost?

 Existing marketplace: Examine the local and broader markets for the
product, service, plan, or business.

 Marketing strategy: Describe it in detail.

 Required staffing: What are the human capital needs for this project?
Draw up an organizational chart.

 Schedule and timeline: Include significant interim markers for the

project‘s completion date.

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 Project financials

 Findings and recommendations: Break down into subsets of

technology, marketing, organization, and financials.

Examples of a Feasibility Study

 A High-Speed Rail Project

o The Washington State Department of Transportation decided to conduct
a feasibility study on a proposal to construct a high-speed rail that
would connect Vancouver, British Columbia, Seattle, Washington, and
Portland, Oregon.
o The goal was to create an environmentally responsible transportation
system to enhance the competitiveness and future prosperity of the
Pacific Northwest.

What Is the Main Objective of a Feasibility Study?

 A feasibility study is designed to help decision makers determine whether

or not a proposed project or investment is likely to be successful. It
identifies both the known costs and the expected benefits.
 In business, ―successful‖ means that the financial return exceeds the cost.
In a nonprofit, success may be measured in other ways. A project‘s benefit
to the community it serves may be worth the cost.

What Are the Steps in a Feasibility Study?

 A feasibility study starts with a preliminary analysis. Stakeholders are

interviewed, market research is conducted, and a business plan is
prepared. All of this information is analyzed to make an initial ―go‖ or ―no-
go‖ decision.
 If it‘s a go, the real study can begin. This includes listing the technological
considerations, studying the marketplace, describing the marketing
strategy, and outlining the necessary human capital, project schedule, and
financing requirements.

Who Conducts a Feasibility Study?

 A feasibility study may be conducted by a team of the organization‘s

senior managers. If they lack the expertise or time to do the work
internally, it may be outsourced to a consultant.

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What Are the 4 Types of Feasibility?

 The study considers the feasibility of four aspects of a project:

 Technical: A list of the hardware and software needed, and the skilled
labor required to make them work
 Financial: An estimate of the cost of the overall project and its expected
return
 Market: An analysis of the market for the product or service, the industry,
competition, consumer demand, sales forecasts, and growth projections
 Organizational: An outline of the business structure and the
management team that will be needed

14. Explain the theoretical framework for the structure of project with
an example.

Over View

 Definition
 Why do you need a theoretical framework?
 How to write a theoretical framework
 Structuring your theoretical framework
 Example of a theoretical framework

Definition

 A theoretical framework is a foundational review of existing theories

that serves as a roadmap for developing the arguments you will use in
your own work.
 Theories are developed by researchers to explain phenomena, draw
connections, and make predictions.
 In a theoretical framework, you explain the existing theories that support
your research, showing that your paper or dissertation topic is relevant and
grounded in established ideas.
 In other words, your theoretical framework justifies and contextualizes
your later research, and it‘s a crucial first step for your research
paper, thesis, or dissertation.
 A well-rounded theoretical framework sets you up for success later on in
your research and writing process.
Why do you need a theoretical framework?

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 Before you start your own research, it‘s crucial to familiarize yourself with
the theories and models that other researchers have already developed.
Your theoretical framework is your opportunity to present and explain what
you‘ve learned, situated within your future research topic.
 There‘s a good chance that many different theories about your topic
already exist, especially if the topic is broad. In your theoretical
framework, you will evaluate, compare, and select the most relevant ones.
 By ―framing‖ your research within a clearly defined field, you make the
reader aware of the assumptions that inform your approach, showing the
rationale behind your choices for later sections,
like methodology and discussion. This part of your dissertation lays the
foundations that will support your analysis, helping you interpret your
results and make broader generalizations.
 Examples: Theoretical frameworks in research. The same research topic
can be approached very differently depending on which theoretical
approach you take, even within the same field. For example:
o In literature, a scholar using postmodernist literary theory would
analyze The Great Gatsby differently than a scholar using Marxist
literary theory.

o In psychology, a behaviorist approach to depression would involve

different research methods and assumptions than a psychoanalytic
approach.

o In economics, wealth inequality would be explained and interpreted

differently based on a classical economics approach than based on a
Keynesian economics one.
 In each of these cases, you would explain the theory you‘re using in order
to support your interpretations and explanations of the data you collected.

How to write a theoretical framework

 To create your own theoretical framework, you can follow these three
steps:

o Identifying your key concepts

o Evaluating and explaining relevant theories

o Showing how your research fits into existing research

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1. Identify your key concepts

o The first step is to pick out the key terms from your problem
statement and research questions. Concepts often have multiple
definitions, so your theoretical framework should also clearly define what
you mean by each term.
o To investigate this problem, you have identified and plan to focus on the
following problem statement, objective, and research questions:
 Problem: Many online customers do not return to make subsequent
purchases.
 Objective: To increase the quantity of return customers.
 Research question: How can the satisfactions of company X‘s online
customers be improved in order to increase the quantity of return
customers?
o The concepts of ―customer loyalty‖ and ―customer satisfaction‖ are clearly
central to this study, along with their relationship to the likelihood that a
customer will return. Your theoretical framework should define these
concepts and discuss theories about the relationship between these
variables.

2. Evaluate and explain relevant theories

o By conducting a thorough literature review, you can determine how other
researchers have defined these key concepts and drawn connections
between them. As you write your theoretical framework, your aim is to
compare and critically evaluate the approaches that different authors have
taken.
o After discussing different models and theories, you can establish
the definitions that best fit your research and justify why. You can even
combine theories from different fields to build your own unique framework
if this better suits your topic.
o Make sure to at least briefly mention each of the most important theories
related to your key concepts. If there is a well-established theory that you
don‘t want to apply to your own research, explain why it isn‘t suitable for
your purposes.
o Note A literature review and a theoretical framework are not the same
thing and cannot be used interchangeably. A theoretical framework
describes the theoretical underpinnings of your work, while a literature
review critically evaluates sources relating to your topic.

3. Show how your research fits into existing research

o Apart from summarizing and discussing existing theories, your theoretical
framework should show how your project will make use of these ideas and
take them a step further.

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o You might aim to do one or more of the following:

 Test whether a theory holds in a specific, previously unexamined

context

 Use an existing theory as a basis for interpreting your results

 Critique or challenge a theory

 Combine different theories in a new or unique way

o Tip As you write your theoretical framework, keep an eye out for
potential hypotheses for your own research.
o Note Generative AI tools like ChatGPT can be useful at various stages of
the writing and research process and can help you to develop your
theoretical framework.
o However, we strongly advise against trying to pass AI-generated text off as
your own work. ChatGPT outputs are not always original and may be
detected by your university‘s plagiarism checker or AI detector.

Structuring your theoretical framework

 A theoretical framework can sometimes be integrated into a literature
review chapter, but it can also be included as its own chapter or section in
your dissertation. As a rule of thumb, if your research involves dealing with
a lot of complex theories, it‘s a good idea to include a separate theoretical
framework chapter.
 There are no fixed rules for structuring your theoretical framework, but it‘s
best to double-check with your department or institution to make sure they
don‘t have any formatting guidelines. The most important thing is to create
a clear, logical structure. There are a few ways to do this:

o Draw on your research questions, structuring each section around a

question or key concept

o Organize by theory cluster

o Organize by date
 It‘s important that the information in your theoretical framework is clear
for your reader. Make sure to ask a friend to read this section for you, or
use a professional proofreading service.
 As in all other parts of your research paper, thesis, or dissertation, make
sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism.

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UNIT IV - Structure of the Project Report

Structure of the Project Report: (Part 2) – Literature Review, Research Design,

Methods of Data Collection - Tools and Procedures - Data Analysis - Interpretation -
Findings –Limitations - Recommendations – Conclusion – Bibliography.

PART A
1. What is included in literature review of a project?
A literature review is a piece of academic writing demonstrating knowledge and understanding of
the academic literature on a specific topic placed in context.
A literature review also includes a critical evaluation of the material; this is why it is called a
literature review rather than a literature report
In a literature review, you demonstrate that you have read and understood previous and current
research in the area.
2. What is the structure of a structured literature review?
In general, literature reviews are structured in a similar way to a standard essay, with an
introduction, a body and a conclusion. These are key structural elements. Additionally, a stand-
alone extended literature review has an abstract.
3. What is the literature review in a project model?
A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses)
related to a specific topic or research question.
It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation, or research paper, in order to situate your work
in relation to existing knowledge.
It documents the state of the art with respect to the subject or topic you are writing about.
4. How to write a literature review?
There are five key steps to writing a literature review:
 Step 1: Search for relevant literature
 Step 2: Evaluate sources
 Step 3: Identify themes, debates, and gaps
 Step 4: Outline the structure
 Step 5: Write your literature review
5. What is the structure of a research design?
Research design refers to the overall plan, structure or strategy that guides a research project,
from its conception to the final analysis of data. Research designs for quantitative studies include
descriptive, correlational, experimental and quasi-experimental designs.

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6. What is research design in a project?

The research design refers to the overall strategy and analytical approach that you have chosen in
order to integrate, in a coherent and logical way, the different components of the study, thus
ensuring that the research problem will be thoroughly investigated.
7. What are the four types of research design?
There are four main types of Quantitative research: Descriptive, Correlational, Causal-
Comparative/Quasi-Experimental, and Experimental Research. Attempts to establish cause- effect
relationships among the variables. These types of design are very similar to true experiments, but
with some key differences.
8. What is the structure design methodology?
Designs are developed using a semiformal notation, usually in terms of either the logical
processes (pseudo-code or structured English) or the data flows (data flow diagrams) within the
system in a top-down hierarchy of modules or processes.
9. What is a research design example?
Example: A study on the different income levels of people who use nutritional supplements
regularly. Correlational research design: Correlation reflects the strength and/or direction of the
relationship among variables. The direction of a correlation can be positive or negative
10. How to identify research design or Research Design Elements?
1. Accurate purpose statement.
2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research.
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details.
4. Type of research methodology.
5. Probable objections to research.
6. Settings for the research study.
7. Timeline.
8. Measurement of analysis.
11. How many research designs are there?
There are four common types of research design — descriptive, correlational, experimental, and
diagnostic designs.

12. What are the qualities of a good research design?

The four main characteristics of a research design to be considered a good research design are-
reliability, validity, neutrality, and generalizability. Good research has all the qualities which are
stated above and much more. The research design lays the foundation for your entire study

13. What are the 5 methods of data collection?

Some common data collection methods include surveys, interviews, observations, focus groups,
experiments, and secondary data analysis. The data collected through these methods can then be

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analyzed to support or refute research hypotheses and draw conclusions about the study's subject
matter.
14. What is a structured method of data collection?
A structured interview is a data collection method that relies on asking questions in a set order to
collect data on a topic. They are often quantitative in nature. Structured interviews are best used
when: You already have a very clear understanding of your topic.
15. What is data collection in a project?
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in
an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
16. What is the structure of structured data?
Structured data is data that has a standardized format for efficient access by software and humans
alike. It is typically tabular with rows and columns that clearly define data attributes. Computers
can effectively process structured data for insights due to its quantitative nature.
17. What are tools of data collection?
Most are based around a core set of basic tools. These include interviews, focus group
discussions, observation, photography, video, surveys, questionnaires and case studies. Data may
also be generated through direct measurement, reviewing secondary data, and informal project /
programme management processes.
18. How to collect data for a project?
How to complete data collection step by step
 Define the Objectives
 Identify Data Sources
 Choose Data Collection Methods
 Develop Data Collection Instruments
 Select a Sample
 Collect Data
 Analyze Data
 Interpret Results
 Report Findings
 Evaluate the Process
19. What are the procedures of a project?
Simply put, procedures are the steps that construct the process that a project requires. Without a
process, there's no clear understanding of how to move your project from start to finish
20. Which tools will you use to complete the project?
Below are some key tools of project management you can use to complete projects successfully:
 Gantt chart. ...
 Network diagram. ...
 Critical path analysis. ...

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 Project evaluation and review technique. ...

 Work breakdown structure. ...
 Project documentation. ...
 Jira. ...
 Asana.
21. What tools are used for project planning?
Project Planning Tools Related Topics
 Arrow Diagram.
 Balanced Scorecard.
 Flowchart.
 Force Field Analysis.
 Gantt Chart.
 Matrix Diagram.
 Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle (PDCA)
 Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC)
22. What are the tools and techniques?
 Tool: a device or implement, especially one held in the hand, used to carry out a particular
function.
 Technique: a way of carrying out a particular task, especially the execution or
performance of an artistic work or a scientific procedure.
23. What are the tools and procedure of technical skills?
Some examples of technical skills are:
 Data analysis.
 Web development.
 Computer programming languages.
 Financial management.
 Bookkeeping.
 UX design.
 Graphic design.
 Writing.
24. What is data analysis in a project work?
Data analysis is the practice of working with data to glean useful information, which can then be
used to make informed decisions. "It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data.
25. What is the structure for analyzing data?
Structured data analysis is the statistical data analysis of structured data. This can arise either in
the form of an a priori structure such as multiple-choice questionnaires or in situations with the
need to search for structure that fits the given data, either exactly or approximately.

26. What are the 7 steps of data analysis?

Step 1: Understanding the business problem. ...
Step 2: Analyze data requirements. ...

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Step 3: Data understanding and collection. ...

Step 4: Data Preparation. ...
Step 5: Data visualization. ...
Step 6: Data analysis. ...
Step 7: Deployment.

27. What are the four types of data analysis?

The kinds of insights you get from your data depends on the type of analysis you perform. In data
analytics and data science, there are four main types of data analysis: Descriptive, diagnostic,
predictive, and prescriptive.
28. How do you interpret organizational structure?
Five elements create an organizational structure: job design, departmentation, delegation, span of
control and chain of command. These elements comprise an organizational chart and create the
organizational structure itself. "Departmentation" refers to the way an organization structures its
jobs to coordinate work.
29. How do you interpret a work breakdown structure?
Some WBSs include a description or overview of the project at the top level if it isn't self-
explanatory. Then each level below breaks down the project into further detail, using the 100%
rule at each level. For instance,if you're creating a WBS for a new website, Level 1 would be ―
Website for New Brand‖.
30. What are the 5 steps of WBS?
 Collect the project requirements. ...
 Establish the significant project phases or deliverables. ...
 Break each project phase or deliverable into smaller tasks. ...
 Assign a time estimate to each task. ...
 Double-check that your tasks are unique. ...
 Share the final WBS with your team and gather feedback.

31. What are the limitations of your findings?

Study limitations are the constraints placed on the ability to generalize from the results, to further
describe applications to practice, and/or related to the utility of findings that are the result of the
ways in which you initially chose to design the study or the method used to establish internal and
external ...
32. How do you write limitation?
Four tips for writing your limitations section
1. Focus on weaknesses in your design and analyses, rather than results.
2. Start with a bold statement: ―This study has some limitations.‖ Don't try to soften it with
less obvious language.
3. Enumerate the limitations, if you can. ...
4. Be direct about what they are.
33. How to identify limitations in research?

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In a typical academic paper, research limitations may relate to:

1. Formulating your goals and objectives. ...
2. Application of your data collection methods in research. ...
3. Sample sizes. ...
4. The absence of previous studies in the field you have chosen.
34. What are your findings in research?
The Results (also sometimes called Findings) section in an empirical research paper describes
what the researcher(s) found when they analyzed their data. Its primary purpose is to use the data
collected to answer the research question(s) posed in the introduction, even if the findings
challenge the hypothesis.
35. What are recommendations in a project?
Recommendations are often included with a report's conclusion, although they serve different
purposes. Whereas a conclusion offers you the opportunity to summarize or review your report's
main ideas, recommendations suggest actions to be taken in response to the findings of a report.
36. What is a good recommendation?
A great letter of recommendation includes specific examples and anecdotes that demonstrate the
applicant's skills and qualifications. It backs up descriptions of your qualifications with examples.
You want your letters of recommendation to demonstrate that you not only possess good qualities
but also apply them.
37. What is an example of recommendation?
As a dedicated and knowledgeable employee and an all-around great person, I know that
[he/she/they] will be a beneficial addition to your organization. Please feel free to contact me at
555-123-4567 if you want to discuss [Name]'s qualifications and experience further. I'd be happy
to expand on my recommendation.

38. What are the three types of recommendations?

The paper discusses three main types of recommendations: Collaborative Sorting, Content-Based
Recommendations, and Integrated Recommendations. The paper discusses three main types of
recommendations: Collaborative Sorting, Content-Based Recommendations, and Integrated
Recommendations.

39. What are the steps of recommendation?

The recommendation process undergoes four primary stages: data collection, analysis, filtering,
and the application of machine learning techniques to produce recommendations.
1. Choose a topic
2. Collect research
3. Write your executive summary
4. Write your problem statement
5. Write your solution paragraphs
6. Include your evaluation criteria

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7. Discuss your final recommendation

8. Compile your works cited
40. What is the conclusion in a project?
A conclusion is the final paragraph of a research paper and serves to help the reader understand
why your research should matter to them. The conclusion of a conclusion should: Restate your
topic and why it is important. Restate your thesis/claim.
41. What is conclusion structure?
Summarise the answer to the essay question, as signaled in the introduction. Refer back to the
essay question to show that it has been answered. ▪ Reinforce the main theme of the essay, which
has been established in the introduction.
42. How do you write a structured conclusion?
In a general way,
1. Restate your topic and why it is important,
2. Restate your thesis/claim,
3. Address opposing viewpoints and explain why readers should align with your position,
4. Call for action or overview future research possibilities.

43. What is a conclusion example?

Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American
education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.
44. What is the type of conclusion?
There are ten varieties of conclusions which appear frequently in expository prose. The ten
present: (1) a summary, (2) a final generalization, (3) a final inference, (4) a striking example, (5)
an analogy, (6) a parting question, (7) a call to action, (8) a forecast, (9) a denouement, or (10)
narrative materials.
45. What is the purpose of research design?
Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection,
Review previously published literature associated with the problem area,
Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the problem selected,
Effectively describe the data which will be necessary for an adequate test of the hypotheses and
explain how such data will be obtained, and
Describe the methods of analysis which will be applied to the data in determining whether or not
the hypotheses are true or false.
46. Differentiate Qualitative research design and Quantitative research design.

Qualitative research Quantitative research

Deals with subjective aspects, e.g.,

Measures different types of variables and
experiences, beliefs, perspectives, and
describes frequencies, averages, correlations, etc.
concepts.

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Tests hypotheses about relationships between

Deals with non-numerical data, such as
variables. Results are presented numerically and
words, images, and observations.
statistically.

In qualitative research design, data are

Quantitative research design is empirical. Data
collected via direct observations,
collection methods involved are experiments,
interviews, focus groups, and naturally
surveys, and observations expressed in numbers.
occurring data. Methods for conducting
The research design categories under this are
qualitative research are grounded theory,
descriptive, experimental, correlational,
thematic analysis, and discourse analysis.
diagnostic, and explanatory.

Data analysis involves interpretation and Data analysis involves statistical analysis and
narrative analysis. hypothesis testing.

The reasoning used to synthesize data is The reasoning used to synthesize data is
inductive. deductive.

Typically used in fields such as sociology, Typically used in fields such as economics,
linguistics, and anthropology. ecology, statistics, and medicine.

Example: Focus group discussions with

Example: Testing the effectiveness of a new treatment
women farmers about climate change
for insomnia.
perception.
47. What are the benefits of collecting data?
Collecting data offers several benefits, including:
• Knowledge and Insight
• Evidence-Based Decision Making
• Problem Identification and Solution
• Validation and Evaluation
• Identifying Trends and Predictions
• Support for Research and Development
• Policy Development
• Quality Improvement
• Personalization and Targeting
• Knowledge Sharing and Collaboration

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PART B

1. What is a Literature Review? How to write a literature review?

DEFINITION:
A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses)
related to a specific topic or research question.
It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation, or research paper, in order to situate your work
in relation to existing knowledge.
It documents the state of the art with respect to the subject or topic you are writing about.
STEPS TO WRITE A LITERATURE REVIEW
There are five key steps to writing a literature review:
 Search for relevant literature
 Evaluate sources
 Identify themes, debates, and gaps
 Outline the structure
 Write your literature review
A good literature review doesn‘t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes, and critically
evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

Fig.4.1 How to write a literature review

Step 1 – Search for relevant literature
Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic.
Literature review research question example
What is the impact of social media on body image among Generation Z?
Make a list of keywords
Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key
concepts or variables you‘re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms.
Keywords example

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Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok

Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth
Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals
and articles include:
University‘s library catalogue, Google Scholar, JSTOR, EBSCO, Project Muse (humanities and
social sciences), Medline (life sciences and biomedicine), EconLit (economics), Inspec (physics,
engineering and computer science).
Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When
you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.
Step 2 – Evaluate and select sources
It will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.
What question or problem is the author addressing?
What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
What are the key theories, models, and methods?
Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
What are the results and conclusions of the study?
How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or
challenge established knowledge?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?
Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and
major theories in your field of research.
It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism. It can be helpful to
make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full citation information and write a
paragraph of summary and analysis for each source.

Step 3 – Identify themes, debates, and gaps

To begin organizing your literature review‘s argument and structure, be sure you understand the
connections and relationships between the sources you‘ve read. Based on your reading and notes,
you can look for:
Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less
popular over time?
Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the
field?
Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?
This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show
how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

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Step 4 – Outline your literature review’s structure

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the
length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your
overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).
Chronological
The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose
this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.
Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field.
Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.
Thematic
If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into
subsections that address different aspects of the topic.
For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key
themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and
economic access.
Methodological
If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research
methods, you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different
approaches. For example:
Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources
Theoretical
A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss
various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.
Step 5 – Write your literature review
Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction, a main body,
and a conclusion. What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.
 Introduction
 Body
 Conclusion
Introduction
The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.
Body
Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into
subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.
Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them
into a coherent whole

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Analyze and interpret: don‘t just paraphrase other researchers—add your own interpretations
where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw
connections, comparisons and contrasts
Conclusion
In the conclusion, summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize
their significance. After finished writing and revising the literature review, proofread thoroughly
before submitting.
2. What are the purposes of literature review? Why write literature review?
There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:
 Demonstrates a familiarity with a body of knowledge and establishes the credibility of
your work;
 Summarizes prior research and says how your project is linked to it;
 Integrates and summarizes what is known about a subject;
 To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
 To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
 To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic
 Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research
and what new insights it will contribute.
Why write a literature review?
A literature review does the following.
 Identifies gaps in current knowledge.
 Avoids reinventing the wheel – i.e. it saves you wasting time researching something that‘s
already been done.
 Allows you to show that you are building on a foundation of existing knowledge and ideas
– i.e. carrying on from where others have already reached.
 Identifies other people working in the same field. Knowing who‘s already working in your
area and getting in touch with them can be an invaluable source of knowledge and
support.
 Demonstrates the depth of your knowledge about your research.
 Identifies the important works in your area and shows that you‘ve read them.
 Provides an intellectual context for your own work, and enables you to position your
project in relation to others in the field.
 Identifies opposing views.
 Puts your own work in perspective – are you doing something completely new, revisiting
an old controversy in the light of new evidence, etc?

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 Demonstrates your research skills – i.e. you not only know about work in your area, you
also know how to access it.
 Identifies information and ideas that may be relevant to your project.
 Identifies methods that may be relevant to your project.
3. Write the structure of a literature review. How to do a literature review?
A literature review should be structured as follows:
 an introduction
 a middle or main body
 a conclusion
Introduction
The introduction should:
 define your topic and provide an appropriate context for reviewing the literature;
 establish your reasons – i.e. point of view – for
 reviewing the literature;
 explain the organization – i.e. sequence – of the review;
 state the scope of the review – i.e. what is included and what isn‘t included.
Main body
The middle or main body should:
 organize the literature according to common themes;
 provide insight into the relation between your chosen topic and the wider subject area e.g.
between obesity in children and obesity in general;
 move from a general, wider view of the literature being reviewed to the specific focus of
your research.
Conclusion
The conclusion should:
 summarizes the important aspects of the existing body of literature;
 evaluate the current state of the literature reviewed;
 identify significant flaws or gaps in existing knowledge;
 outline areas for future study;
 link your research to existing knowledge.
How to do a literature review?
Define your terms: The first thing to do is to define your topic or research project; or, if you
have been given a set question, make sure you understand it. Ask yourself what the key concepts
are. Compile a list of keywords – and synonyms for them – and this will help you to develop a
research strategy.
Search creatively: Identify all the relevant information sources. This may include: libraries,
indexes and electronic databases, and the Internet.
Use the library: Search your institution‘s library that‘s relevant to your topic.

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Journals: Remember that journals are the best place to find the most recently published research.
Newspapers and magazines are a good source for current topical issues, although they are not
always very useful for in-depth analysis.
Don’t limit yourself to obvious sources: For example, libraries contain books and journals but
they also contain unpublished MA and PhD theses that may contain research relevant to your
topic.
Other less obvious sources also include:
Conference papers: These are collections of papers presented at conferences and, like journals,
often contain ‗cutting edge‘ research. These collections are published on the Internet, in special
editions of relevant journals and in one-off books.
National and local Government publications: These include reports, yearbooks, White and
Green papers, policy documents, manuals and statistical surveys.
Publishers’ websites: These sites often contain summaries of recent publications and the full-text
electronic journals. Two sites that have comprehensive online resources are Emerald and
Blackwell Science.
Databases: For many subject areas – particularly sciences and social sciences – there are online
databases listing current articles.

4. What are the types of literature review?

The common types of literature reviews are:

1. Narrative or traditional literature reviews
2. Critically Appraised Topic (CAT)
3. Scoping reviews
4. Systematic literature reviews
5. Annotated bibliographies
REVIEW TYPE DESCRIPTION TIMEFRAME

Traditional Identifies and reviews published literature on a 1 - 4 weeks

(narrative) topic, which may be broad. Typically employs a
literature review narrative approach to reporting the review
findings. Can include a wide range of related
subjects.

Rapid review Assesses what is known about an issue by using 2 - 6 months

a systematic review method to search and
appraise research and determine best practice.

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Scoping review Assesses the potential scope of the research 1 - 4 weeks

literature on a particular topic. Helps determine
gaps in the research.

Systematic Seeks to systematically search for, appraise, and 8 months to 2

review synthesise research evidence so as to aid years
decision-making and determine best practice.
Can vary in approach, and is often specific to the
type of study, which include studies of
effectiveness, qualitative research, economic
evaluation, prevalence, or diagnostic test
accuracy.

Table.No.:4.1 Review Types

Difference between reviews:

 The image below describes common review types in terms of speed, detail, risk of bias,
and comprehensiveness:

Fig.4.2. Difference between reviews

5. Explain in detail about research design and its types.

DEFINITION
A research design is a structure that combines different components of research. It involves the
use of different data collection and data analysis techniques logically to answer the research
questions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH DESIGN:
Validity

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There are many ways to measure the results of research. A good research design helps select the
right measuring tools to gauge results according to the research objective.
Generalised
A good research design draws an outcome that can be applied to a large set of people and is not
limited to sample size or the research group.
Neutrality
At the start of every research, a researcher needs to make some assumptions that will be tested
during the research.
A proper research design ensures that the assumptions are free of bias and neutral. It also provides
that the data collected throughout the research is based on the assumptions made at the beginning
of the research.
THE ELEMENTS OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN:
 Purpose statement
 Data collection methods
 Techniques of data analysis
 Types of research methodologies
 Challenges of the research
 Prerequisites required for study
 Duration of the research study
 Measurement of analysis
THE NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN:
 Reduces inaccuracy
 Increases efficiency and reliability
 Eliminates bias and errors
 Minimises wastage of time
 Helpful in testing the hypothesis
 Provides a direction to the research
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN:
Variable
Variable is a concept that can take on various quantitative values. For instance, weight, height,
etc.
Dependent Variable
A dependent variable is a variable that is tested in an experiment. It is dependent, in some way on
the variation of an independent variable.
Independent Variable
An independent variable in an experiment is considered to stand on its own. For instance, if the
test scores of a class are an outcome of their efforts; efforts are an independent variable, and the
score is a dependent variable.
Hypothesis

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It is defined as the hypothesis that needs to be tested in an experiment.

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design can be divided into following categories:
 Qualitative Quantitative
 Case study Descriptive and correlational
 Ethnography Experimental and Quasi-experimental
 Grounded theory Diagnostic
Explanatory
1. Qualitative research
Qualitative research determines relationships between collected data and observations based on
mathematical calculations. Statistical methods can prove or disprove theories related to a naturally
existing phenomenon. Researchers rely on qualitative observation research methods that conclude
―why‖ a particular theory exists and ―what‖ respondents have to say about it.
2. Quantitative research
Quantitative research is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights are
essential. Numbers provide a better perspective for making critical business decisions.
Quantitative research methods are necessary for the growth of any organization. Insights drawn
from complex numerical data and analysis prove to be highly effective when making decisions
about the business‘s future.
3. Descriptive Research
In a descriptive composition, a researcher is solely interested in describing the situation or case
under their research study.
It is a theory-based design method created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data.
This allows a researcher to provide insights into the why and how of research.
Descriptive design helps others better understand the need for the research. If the problem
statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory research.
Example: A study on the different income levels of people who use nutritional supplements
regularly.

4. Experimental:
Experimental research establishes a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a
causal research design where one observes the impact caused by the independent variable on the
dependent variable.
For example, one monitors the influence of an independent variable such as a price on a
dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is an efficient research
method as it contributes to solving a problem.
The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent
variable. Social sciences often use it to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups.

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Researchers can have participants change their actions and study how the people around them
react to understand social psychology better.

5. Correlational research:
Correlational research is a non-experimental research technique. It helps researchers establish a
relationship between two closely connected variables. There is no assumption while evaluating a
relationship between two other variables, and statistical analysis techniques calculate the
relationship between them. This type of research requires two different groups.
A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables whose values range
between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship
between the variables, and -1 means a negative relationship between the two variables.
Example: An example of correlational research design could be studying the correlation between
time spent watching crime shows and aggressive behavior in teenagers
6. Diagnostic research:
In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the underlying cause of a specific topic
or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about the factors that create troublesome
situations.
This design has three parts of the research:
• Inception of the issue
• Diagnosis of the issue
• Solution for the issue
Example: A researcher analyzing customer feedback and reviews to identify areas where an app
can be improved.
7. Explanatory research:
Explanatory design uses a researcher‘s ideas and thoughts on a subject to further explore their
theories. The study explains unexplored aspects of a subject and details the research questions‘
what, how, and why.
Example: Formulating hypotheses to guide future studies on delaying school start times for better
mental health in teenagers.
8. Quasi-experimental
Used to test causal relationships
Similar to experimental design, but without random assignment
Often involves comparing the outcomes of pre-existing groups
Often conducted in a natural environment (higher ecological validity)
9. Case study
Detailed study of a specific subject (e.g., a place, event, organization, etc).
Data can be collected using a variety of sources and methods.
Focuses on gaining a holistic understanding of the case.
10.Ethnography

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Detailed study of the culture of a specific community or group.

Data is collected by extended immersion and close observation.
Focuses on describing and interpreting beliefs, conventions, social dynamics, etc.
11. Grounded theory
Aims to develop a theory inductively by systematically analyzing qualitative data.
Also referred to as exploratory design, it creates sequential guidelines, offers strategies for
inquiry, and makes data collection and analysis more efficient in qualitative research.
Example: A researcher wants to study how people adopt a certain app. The researcher collects
data through interviews and then analyzes the data to look for patterns. These patterns are used to
develop a theory about how people adopt that app.

6. Explain in details about the process of research design.

DEFINITION
A research design is a structure that combines different components of research. It involves the
use of different data collection and data analysis techniques logically to answer the research
questions.
PROCESS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Fig.No. 4.3.STEPS OF A RESEARCH DESIGN

Step 1: Establish Priorities for Research Design

The research design depends on the researcher‘s priorities and choices because every research has
different priorities. For a complex research study involving multiple methods, you may choose to
have more than one research design.
Multimethodology or multimethod research includes using more than one data collection method
or research in a research study or set of related studies.

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Step 2: Data Type you Need for Research

Decide on the type of data you need for your research. The type of data you need to collect
depends on your research questions or research hypothesis. Two types of research data can be
used to answer the research questions:

Primary Data Vs. Secondary Data

Primary Data: The researcher collects the primary data from first-hand sources with the
help of different data collection methods such as interviews, experiments, surveys, etc. Primary
research data is considered far more authentic and relevant, but it involves additional cost and
time.
Secondary Data: Research on academic references which themselves incorporate primary data
will be regarded as secondary data. There is no need to do a survey or interview with a person
directly, and it is time effective. The researcher should focus on the validity and reliability of the
source.
Qualitative Vs. Quantitative Data
Qualitative Data: This type of data encircles the researcher‘s descriptive experience and
shows the relationship between the observation and collected data. It involves interpretation and
conceptual understanding of the research. There are many theories involved which can approve or
disapprove the mathematical and statistical calculation. For instance, you are searching how to
write a research design proposal. It means you require qualitative data about the mentioned topic.
Quantitative Data: If your research requires statistical and mathematical approaches for
measuring the variable and testing your hypothesis, your objective is to compile quantitative data.
Many businesses and researchers use this type of data with pre-determined data collection
methods and variables for their research design.

Step 3: Data Collection Techniques

It is time to determine your research method to address the research problem. Research methods
involve procedures, techniques, materials, and tools used for the study.
For instance, a dissertation research design includes the different resources and data collection
techniques and helps establish your dissertation‘s structure.

The following table shows the characteristics of the most popularly employed research methods.

Methods What to consider

Surveys The survey planning requires;
Selection of responses and how many responses are required for the
research?
Survey distribution techniques (online, by post, in person, etc.)
Techniques to design the question

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Interviews Criteria to select the interviewee.

Time and location of the interview.
Type of interviews; i.e., structured, semi-structured, or unstructured
Experiments Place of the experiment; laboratory or in the field.
Measuring of the variables
Design of the experiment
Secondary Data Criteria to select the references and source for the data.
The reliability of the references.
The technique used for compiling the data source.

Table.4.2 Research Methods

Step 4: Procedure of Data Analysis
Use of the correct data and statistical analysis technique is necessary for the validity of your
research. Therefore, you need to be certain about the data type that would best address the
research problem. Choosing an appropriate analysis method is the final step for the research
design. It can be split into two main categories;
Quantitative Data Analysis
The quantitative data analysis technique involves analyzing the numerical data with the help of
different applications such as; SPSS, STATA, Excel, origin lab, etc.

This data analysis strategy tests different variables such as spectrum, frequencies, averages, and
more. The research question and the hypothesis must be established to identify the variables for
testing.
Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative data analysis of figures, themes, and words allows for flexibility and the researcher‘s
subjective opinions. This means that the researcher‘s primary focus will be interpreting patterns,
tendencies, and accounts and understanding the implications and social framework.
Step 5: Write your Research Proposal
The research design is an important component of a research proposal because it plans the
project‘s execution. You can share it with the supervisor, who would evaluate the feasibility and
capacity of the results and conclusion.
Read our guidelines to write a research proposal if you have already formulated your research
design. The research proposal is written in the future tense because you are writing your proposal
before conducting research.
The research methodology or research design, on the other hand, is generally written in the past
tense.
How to Write a Research Design – Conclusion
A research design is the plan, structure, strategy of investigation conceived to answer the research
question and test the hypothesis. The dissertation research design can be classified based on the
type of data and the type of analysis.

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7. What is data collection? Explain the types of data collection methods.

DEFINITION
Data collection is the process of collecting and evaluating information or data from multiple
sources to find answers to research problems, answer questions, evaluate outcomes, and forecast
trends and probabilities. It is an essential phase in all types of research, analysis, and decision-
making, including that done in the social sciences, business, and healthcare.
Accurate data collection is necessary to make informed business decisions, ensure quality
assurance, and keep research integrity.
During data collection, the researchers must identify the data types, the sources of data, and what
methods are being used.
The choice of data collection method depends on the research question being addressed, the type
of data needed, and the resources and time available.
Data collection methods can be categorized into
 Primary methods
 Secondary methods

Fig.No.4.4 Data collection methods

Primary data is collected from first-hand experience and is not used in the past. The data
gathered by primary data collection methods are highly accurate and specific to the research‘s
motive.
Primary data collection methods can be divided into two categories: quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative Methods:
Quantitative techniques for market research and demand forecasting usually use statistical tools.
In these techniques, demand is forecasted based on historical data. These methods of primary data

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collection are generally used to make long-term forecasts. Statistical analysis methods are highly
reliable as subjectivity is minimal.
• Time Series Analysis: A time series refers to a sequential order of values of a variable,
known as a trend, at equal time intervals. Using patterns, an organization can predict the demand
for its products and services over a projected time period.
• Smoothing Techniques: Smoothing techniques can be used in cases where the time series
lacks significant trends. They eliminate random variation from the historical demand, helping
identify patterns and demand levels to estimate future demand.
• Barometric Method: Also known as the leading indicators approach, researchers use this
method to speculate future trends based on current developments. When past events are
considered to predict future events, they act as leading indicators.
Pros and cons of quantitative methods
Pros:
• Viewing research through a quantitative lens can help you pinpoint specific results from
your group based on the numbers it yields.
• Quantitative data collection methods empower decision makers by offering exact numbers
and precise measurements. These elements are vital to strategic planning.
• Statistical methods such as this are highly reliable as subjectivity is minimised.
Cons:
• Measurement errors are a potential drawback.
• The challenge with quantitative data, is that it also lacks the key element of context.
Subsequently, this makes it hard to obtain any background insight into the feelings and
motivations of your audience.
Qualitative Methods:
Qualitative data collection methods are especially useful when historical data is unavailable or
when numbers or mathematical calculations are unnecessary.
Qualitative research is closely associated with words, sounds, feelings, emotions, colors, and non-
quantifiable elements. These techniques are based on experience, judgment, intuition, conjecture,
emotion, etc.
Quantitative methods do not provide the motive behind participants‘ responses, often don‘t reach
underrepresented populations, and require long periods of time to collect the data. Hence, it is
best to combine quantitative methods with qualitative methods.
1. Surveys: Surveys collect data from the target audience and gather insights into their
preferences, opinions, choices, and feedback related to their products and services. Most survey
software offers a wide range of question types.
You can also use a ready-made survey template to save time and effort. Online surveys can be
customized to match the business‘s brand by changing the theme, logo, etc. They can be
distributed through several channels, such as email, website, offline app, QR code, social media,
etc.

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You can select the channel based on your audience‘s type and source. Once the data is collected,
survey software can generate various reports and run analytics algorithms to discover hidden
insights.
A survey dashboard can give you statistics related to response rate, completion rate,
demographics-based filters, export and sharing options, etc. Integrating survey builders with
third-party apps can maximize the effort spent on online real-time data collection.
Practical business intelligence relies on the synergy between analytics and reporting, where
analytics uncovers valuable insights, and reporting communicates these findings to stakeholders.
2. Polls: Polls comprise one single or multiple-choice question. They are useful when you need to
get a quick pulse of the audience‘s sentiments. Because they are short, it is easier to get responses
from people.
Like surveys, online polls can be embedded into various platforms. Once the respondents answer
the question, they can also be shown how their responses compare to others‘.
3. Interviews: In face-to-face interviews, the interviewer asks a series of questions to the
interviewee in person and notes down responses. If it is not feasible to meet the person, the
interviewer can go for a telephone interview.
This form of data collection is suitable for only a few respondents. It is too time-consuming and
tedious to repeat the same process if there are many participants.
4. Delphi Technique: In the Delphi method, market experts are provided with the estimates and
assumptions of other industry experts‘ forecasts. Based on this information, experts may
reconsider and revise their estimates and assumptions. The consensus of all experts on demand
forecasts constitutes the final demand forecast.
5. Focus Groups: Focus groups are one example of qualitative data in education. In a focus
group, a small group of people, around 8-10 members, discuss the common areas of the research
problem. Each individual provides his or her insights on the issue concerned.
A moderator regulates the discussion among the group members. At the end of the discussion, the
group reaches a consensus.
6. Questionnaire: A questionnaire is a printed set of open-ended or closed-ended questions that
respondents must answer based on their knowledge and experience with the issue. The
questionnaire is part of the survey, whereas the questionnaire‘s end goal may or may not be a
survey.
Pros and cons of qualitative methods
Pros:
• Qualitative data collection methods utilise non-numerical metrics such as attitudes and
experiences, by studying narrative descriptions instead of statistics.
• With qualitative data, constructive ideas can be developed through identifying interesting
patterns among stories. This helps us discover meaningful trends within our audience.
• This approach also offers a greater insight into why people behave a certain way, which
wouldn‘t be possible from viewing numbers alone.

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Cons:
• Given the subjectivity associated with this approach, it could introduce bias into your
research.
• Since opinions can vary within many groups, careful post analysis must be done in order
to draw informed conclusions.
2. Secondary Data Collection Methods
Secondary data is data that has been used in the past. The researcher can obtain data from the data
sources, both internal and external, to the organizational data.
Internal sources of secondary data:
• Organization‘s health and safety records
• Mission and vision statements
• Financial Statements
• Magazines
• Sales Report
• CRM Software
• Executive summaries
External sources of secondary data:
• Government reports
• Press releases
• Business journals
• Libraries
• Internet

Secondary data collection methods can also involve quantitative and qualitative techniques.
Secondary data is easily available, less time-consuming, and expensive than primary data.
However, the authenticity of the data gathered cannot be verified using these methods.

8. What are the steps in data collection process? List out the tools used for data
collection.
The data collection process typically involves several key steps to ensure the accuracy and
reliability of the data gathered. These steps provide a structured approach to gathering and
analyzing data effectively. Here are the key steps in the data collection process:
• Define the Objectives: Clearly outline the goals of the data collection. What questions are
you trying to answer?
• Identify Data Sources: Determine where the data will come from. This could include
surveys, interviews, existing databases, or observational data.
• Choose Data Collection Methods: Select appropriate methods based on your objectives
and data sources. Common methods include:
 Surveys and questionnaires
 Interviews (structured or unstructured)

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 Focus groups
 Observations
 Document analysis
• Develop Data Collection Instruments: Create or adapt tools for collecting data, such as
questionnaires or interview guides. Ensure they are valid and reliable.
• Select a Sample: If you are not collecting data from the entire population, determine how
to select your sample. Consider sampling methods like random, stratified, or convenience
sampling.
• Collect Data: Execute your data collection plan, following ethical guidelines and
maintaining data integrity.
• Store Data: Organize and store collected data securely, ensuring it‘s easily accessible for
analysis while maintaining confidentiality.
• Analyze Data: After collecting the data, process and analyze it according to your
objectives, using appropriate statistical or qualitative methods.
• Interpret Results: Conclude your analysis, relating them back to your original objectives
and research questions.
• Report Findings: Present your findings clearly and organized, using visuals and
summaries to communicate insights effectively.
• Evaluate the Process: Reflect on the data collection process. Assess what worked well
and what could be improved for future studies.
Recommended Data Collection Tools
Choosing the right data collection tools depends on your specific needs, such as the type of data
you‘re collecting, the scale of your project, and your budget. Here are some widely used tools
across different categories:
Survey Tools
1. QuestionPro: Offers advanced survey features and analytics.
2. SurveyMonkey: User-friendly interface with customizable survey options.
3. Google Forms: Free and easy to use, suitable for simple surveys.
Interview and Focus Group Tools
1. Zoom: Great for virtual interviews and focus group discussions.
2. Microsoft Teams: Offers features for collaboration and recording sessions.
Observation and Field Data Collection
1. Open Data Kit (ODK): This is for mobile data collection in field settings.
2. REDCap: A secure web application for building and managing online surveys.
Mobile Data Collection
1. KoboToolbox: Designed for humanitarian work, useful for field data collection.
2. SurveyCTO: Provides offline data collection capabilities for mobile devices.
Data Analysis Tools
1. Tableau: Powerful data visualization tool to analyze survey results.

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2. SPSS: Widely used for statistical analysis in research.

Qualitative Data Analysis
1. NVivo: For analyzing qualitative data like interviews or open-ended survey responses.
2. Dedoose: Useful for mixed-methods research, combining qualitative and quantitative data.
General Data Collection and Management
1. Airtable: Combines spreadsheet and database functionalities for organizing data.
2. Microsoft Excel: A versatile tool for data entry, analysis, and visualization.

9. What are Common Challenges in Data Collection?

There are some prevalent challenges faced while collecting data, let us explore a few of them to
understand them better and avoid them.
 Data Quality Issues
 Inconsistent Data
 Data Downtime
 Ambiguous Data
 Duplicate Data
 Too Much Data
 Inaccurate Data
 Hidden Data
 Finding Relevant Data
 Deciding the Data to Collect
 Dealing With Big Data
 Low Response and Other Research Issues
Data Quality Issues
The main threat to the broad and successful application of machine learning is poor data quality.
Data quality must be your top priority if you want to make technologies like machine learning
work for you.
Inconsistent Data
When working with various data sources, it's conceivable that the same information will have
discrepancies between sources. The differences could be in formats, units, or occasionally
spellings.
Inconsistencies in data have a tendency to accumulate and reduce the value of data if they are not
continually resolved.
Data Downtime
Data is the driving force behind the decisions and operations of data-driven businesses. However,
there may be brief periods when their data is unreliable or not prepared.
Schema modifications and migration problems are just two examples of the causes of data
downtime.

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Data pipelines can be difficult due to their size and complexity. Data downtime must be
continuously monitored, and it must be reduced through automation.

Ambiguous Data
Even with thorough oversight, some errors can still occur in massive databases or data lakes. For
data streaming at a fast speed, the issue becomes more overwhelming.
Spelling mistakes can go unnoticed, formatting difficulties can occur, and column heads might be
deceptive. This unclear data might cause a number of problems for reporting and analytics.
Duplicate Data
Streaming data, local databases, and cloud data lakes are just a few of the sources of data that
modern enterprises must contend with.
These sources are likely to duplicate and overlap each other quite a bit.
For instance, duplicate contact information has a substantial impact on customer experience.
If certain prospects are ignored while others are engaged repeatedly, marketing campaigns suffer.
The likelihood of biased analytical outcomes increases when duplicate data are present. It can also
result in ML models with biased training data.
Too Much Data
While we emphasize data-driven analytics and its advantages, a data quality problem with
excessive data exists. There is a risk of getting lost in an abundance of data when searching for
information pertinent to your analytical efforts.
Data scientists, data analysts, and business users devote 80% of their work to finding and
organizing the appropriate data.
With an increase in data volume, other problems with data quality become more serious,
particularly when dealing with streaming data and big files or databases.
Inaccurate Data
For highly regulated businesses like healthcare, data accuracy is crucial. Given the current
experience, it is more important than ever to increase the data quality for COVID-19 and later
pandemics.
Inaccurate information does not provide you with a true picture of the situation and cannot be
used to plan the best course of action. Personalized customer experiences and marketing strategies
underperform if your customer data is inaccurate.
Hidden Data
The majority of businesses only utilize a portion of their data, with the remainder sometimes
being lost in data silos or discarded in data graveyards.
For instance, the customer service team might not receive client data from sales, missing an
opportunity to build more precise and comprehensive customer profiles.
Missing out on possibilities to develop novel products, enhance services, and streamline
procedures is caused by hidden data.
Finding Relevant Data

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Finding relevant data is not so easy. There are several factors that we need to consider while
trying to find relevant data, which include -
• Relevant Domain
• Relevant demographics
• Relevant Time period and so many more factors that we need to consider while trying to
find relevant data.

Deciding the Data to Collect

Determining what data to collect is one of the most important factors while collecting data and
should be one of the first factors while collecting data.
We must choose the subjects the data will cover, the sources we will be used to gather it, and the
quantity of information we will require. Our responses to these queries will depend on our aims,
or what we expect to achieve utilizing your data.
Dealing With Big Data
Big data refers to exceedingly massive data sets with more intricate and diversified structures.
Big data refers especially to data sets that are quite enormous or intricate that conventional data
processing tools are insufficient. The overwhelming amount of data, both unstructured and
structured, that a business faces on a daily basis.
The amount of data produced by healthcare applications, the internet, social networking sites
social, sensor networks, and many other businesses are rapidly growing as a result of recent
technological advancements.
Big data refers to the vast volume of data created from numerous sources in a variety of formats at
extremely fast rates. Dealing with this kind of data is one of the many challenges of Data
Collection and is a crucial step toward collecting effective data.
Low Response and Other Research Issues
Poor design and low response rates were shown to be two issues with data collecting, particularly
in health surveys that used questionnaires.
This might lead to an insufficient or inadequate supply of data for the study. Creating an
incentivized data collection program might be beneficial in this case to get more responses.

10. Explain in detail the procedure for writing conclusion and the common mistakes
that should be avoided in a conclusion.
CONCLUSION
The conclusion of a report may be the last section, but it is one of the most important parts. A
well-written conclusion serves as a summary of your report and can leave a lasting impression on
your reader.
Understanding the Importance of a Strong Conclusion
The conclusion of any report is significant as it prompts the reader to take action or to do
something.
Its primary role is to reiterate your report's main points and to highlight its significance.

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It is a chance to show how all the various aspects of your report come together and provide a
comprehensive solution to a specific problem.
Additionally, your conclusion could influence the reader's decision-making process significantly,
depending on whether or not they agree with your recommendations.

Why Conclusions Matter

Conclusions are critical components of any report for multiple reasons, including:
 It reminds your reader of your report's main points.
 It presents an opportunity to leave a lasting impression on your reader.
 It provides closure to your report.
It can also highlight the significance of the report and its findings, making it clear to the reader
why the report is important and why they should care about its contents.

Key Elements of an Effective Conclusion

An effective conclusion should include the following elements:
 Restate the report's primary message
 Summarize the report's findings
 Provide recommendations
Restating the report's primary message is essential because it reminds the reader of what the
report is about and what the main point is.
Summarizing the report's findings is also crucial because it helps to reinforce the main points and
provides a concise overview of the report's contents.
Providing recommendations is important because it gives the reader a clear idea of what they
should do next, based on the report's findings.
In conclusion, a strong conclusion is essential for any report. It helps to summarize the key points
and provides a sense of closure to the reader.

It also presents an opportunity to leave a lasting impression on the reader and can influence their
decision-making process. Therefore, it is important to ensure that your conclusion is well-written
and includes all the key elements necessary for an effective conclusion.

Preparing to Write Your Conclusion

Reviewing Your Report's Main Points

Before writing your conclusion, it is crucial to review your report's primary message, objectives,
and supporting points. This review will help you identify the essential elements that need to be
restated in your conclusion. Ensure that you have a clear understanding of your objectives and
that you have achieved them. This can be done by rereading your report and analyzing the data
provided in each section.

Identifying the Report's Purpose and Objectives

Understanding your report's purpose and objectives is the first step to crafting a compelling
conclusion.
Consider the questions your report aims to answer, the problem it seeks to solve, and how your
report has fulfilled its purpose. Ensure that your conclusion aligns with your report's purpose and
objectives.
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Considering Your Target Audience

It is essential to consider your target audience when writing your conclusion. A professional
report written for a corporate audience will differ significantly from one written for academic
purposes. Ensure that your conclusion is tailored to your audience's specific needs and
expectations.

Crafting a Compelling Conclusion

Restating Your Main Findings
Restating your main findings is a crucial aspect of any conclusion. Make sure you highlight the
critical points from each section and summarize them in your conclusion. Use your words to
rephrase your report's message and to emphasize its importance to the reader.
Demonstrating the Significance of Your Work
It's crucial to demonstrate to your reader the significance of your work. Explain how your
findings contribute to the field or how they can be applied to solve specific problems. Discuss the
impact of your recommendations and what they mean for your reader.
Providing Recommendations or Next Steps
Recommendations are an essential part of any report's conclusion. They provide the reader with a
course of action to take based on your findings. Ensure that your recommendations are relevant,
specific, and achievable. Additionally, you can provide next steps, which are measures that the
reader could take to continue their research on the topic.
Using Persuasive Language
Your conclusion is a call to action, so it is crucial to use persuasive language to convince your
reader to take specific steps. Ensure that your language is clear and concise and that your
conclusion resonates with your target audience.
Common Mistakes to Avoid in Your Conclusion

Introducing New Information

Avoid introducing new information in your conclusion. The purpose of a conclusion is to
summarize the report's findings and provide recommendations; it is not a place to present new
ideas or theories. Any new information ought to be included in the main body of your report.
Overgeneralizing Your Findings
Avoid overgeneralizing your findings in your conclusion. Ensure that you provide specific
examples from your research to support your conclusions. Also, ensure that your conclusions are
based on your report's findings and are not personal opinions.
Being Too Repetitive
Avoid being too repetitive in your conclusion. Ensure that you provide a summary of your report
without repeating word for word everything from your introduction.

11. Explain in detail about recommendation and how to write a recommendation

report.
DEFINITION:

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A recommendation report, also referred to as a feasibility report, is a document that discusses

multiple solutions to a problem before then making a recommendation on which solution to
choose.
Recommendation reports are both informative and persuasive documents, and they direct the
reader to come to a certain conclusion regarding the most efficient solution.
The report also discusses the potential solutions to the problem using a consistent set of criteria.
At the conclusion of the recommendation report, the writer recommends which solution to
choose based on the criteria they offer. Professionals use recommendation reports in both
academic and business settings.
Uses of recommendation reports
A recommendation report is useful in any situation in which a consultant or team
member performs research to solve a problem.
This type of a report is common in the product development, information technology, retail and
community development fields.
Additionally, many organizations use recommendation reports to share background information
and solution recommendations with investors or shareholders.
A recommendation report may also function as one part of the project planning process if solving
a problem or challenge is an early stage in the project.

Steps to write a recommendation report

1. Choose a topic
2. Collect research
3. Write your executive summary
4. Write your problem statement
5. Write your solution paragraphs
6. Include your evaluation criteria
7. Discuss your final recommendation
8. Compile your works cited
1. Choose a topic
Choose a topic for your recommendation report. If you are writing a recommendation report in
the workplace, you may already have a problem to solve, which serves as your topic.
If you're writing in an academic setting, you may have more control over your topic, but you'll
want to choose something that relates to your specific field of study.
This is also a good time to evaluate your audience, focusing on what information they want and
what background information they may need.
2. Collect research
Recommendation reports are usually evidence-based. This means that it is important to support
any recommendations you make with reliable data.
It can be helpful to begin your report by collecting sufficient research on the topic through:

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 Case studies
 Demographic information
 Website analytics
 Focus groups
 Customer buying habits
 Surveys
 Interviews
 Public records
The specific method you use when collecting research for a recommendation report may vary
depending on the industry.
For example, you might gather information on customer buying habits and website analytics to
support the arguments you make in a recommendation report for a retail business.
3. Write your executive summary
Begin your recommendation report with your executive summary, which provides the reader with
a synopsis of the document. It includes the writer's purpose and a brief overview of the report's
information. This section also states that the report is a recommendation report and that at the end
of it, you provide the reader with a recommendation.
4. Write your problem statement
The problem statement provides readers with background information on the problem or
challenge that your report addresses. In this paragraph, provide readers with a summary of the
problem and emphasize why finding a solution is important. Try to provide all of the information
that readers require in order to understand the need for a solution and your recommendation.
5. Write your solution paragraphs
After introducing the problem, you can start identifying potential solutions. It is a good idea to
aim for an average of three solutions. However, your report may have fewer or more solutions
depending on the scope of the problem or challenge you're addressing.
Each solution in this section has one or two paragraphs that discuss the solution in detail and
provide evidence to support it. You might also include relevant information about each solution
such as cost, resources, training or any other important factors.
6. Include your evaluation criteria
A recommendation report also lists your process for evaluating each solution, as this helps the
reader understand how you arrived at your recommendation. Include a description of how one
could apply each solution to the problem you're discussing, and then hypothesize about the
results. This process should help you identify for the reader the one solution that works best. You
may also compare and contrast each solution using the evaluation criteria.
7. Discuss your final recommendation
This section discusses your final recommendation using the evaluation criteria and the
comparisons against the other solutions. Here, you can include information that justifies your
reasoning for choosing the solution and elaborates on its implementation.

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For complex problems, it is possible to recommend more than one solution. In this case, however,
it's helpful to discuss the situations in which the reader would apply each solution, as some
solutions may favor certain conditions.
8. Compile your works cited
Compile the research you use throughout the report into a works cited page. Include all journals,
websites, books or publications that you use to support your claims. If your industry prefers a
certain citation style, such as MLA or APA, you can make your report appear more professional
by adhering to your field's chosen format.
Tips for writing an effective recommendation report
Here are a few tips you can use to write an effective recommendation report:
 Use calls to action: Actionable words that tell the reader exactly what you plan to do and
how you plan to do it can help them envision the available options.
 Provide relevant details: Relevant details that provide the reader with more information
allows your audience to evaluate each potential solution more easily.
 Rehearse your report: Whether or not you plan to present your recommendation report
verbally, rehearsing the contents can help you proofread it for clarity. You might also
practice presenting your report in front of a mirror or ask a trusted friend to listen.
 Provide previous case results: You can further support each of the solutions you list by
referring to a corresponding example in the industry. This might include a case study or an
example of a business that used a similar solution.

12. What are the limitations of a research study? Discuss about types of limitations of
research.
The Limitations of a Research Study:
Every research has its limit and these limitations arise due to restrictions in methodology or
research design. This could impact your entire research or the research paper you wish to publish.
Unfortunately, most researchers choose not to discuss their limitations of research fearing it will
affect the value of their article in the eyes of readers.
However, it is very important to discuss your study limitations and show it to your target audience
(other researchers, journal editors, peer reviewers etc.).
It is very important that you provide an explanation of how your research limitations may affect
the conclusions and opinions drawn from your research.
Moreover, when as an author you state the limitations of research, it shows that you have
investigated all the weaknesses of your study and have a deep understanding of the subject.
Being honest could impress your readers and mark your study as a sincere effort in research.
Why and Where Should You Include the Research Limitations?
The main goal of your research is to address your research objectives. Conduct experiments, get
results and explain those results, and finally justify your research question.
It is best to mention the limitations of research in the discussion paragraph of your research
article.

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1. Common Limitations of the Researchers

Limitations that are related to the researcher must be mentioned. This will help you gain
transparency with your readers. Furthermore, you could provide suggestions on decreasing these
limitations in you and your future studies.
2. Limited Access to Information
Your work may involve some institutions and individuals in research, and sometimes you may
have problems accessing these institutions. Therefore, you need to redesign and rewrite your
work. You must explain your readers the reason for limited access.
3. Limited Time
All researchers are bound by their deadlines when it comes to completing their studies.
Sometimes, time constraints can affect your research negatively. However, the best practice is to
acknowledge it and mention a requirement for future study to solve the research problem in a
better way.
4. Conflict over Biased Views and Personal Issues
Biased views can affect the research. In fact, researchers end up choosing only those results and
data that support their main argument, keeping aside the other loose ends of the research.
Types of Limitations of Research
There are different types that researchers may encounter, and they all have unique characteristics,
such as:
1. Research Design Limitations
Certain restrictions on your research or available procedures may affect your final results or
research outputs. You may have formulated research goals and objectives too broadly. However,
this can help you understand how you can narrow down the formulation of research goals and
objectives, thereby increasing the focus of your study.
2. Impact Limitations
Even if your research has excellent statistics and a strong design, it can suffer from the influence
of the following factors:
 Presence of increasing findings as researched
 Being population specific
 A strong regional focus.
3. Data or statistical limitations
In some cases, it is impossible to collect sufficient data for research or very difficult to get access
to the data. This could lead to incomplete conclusion to your study. Moreover, this insufficiency
in data could be the outcome of your study design. The unclear, shabby research outline could
produce more problems in interpreting your findings.
Structure of Research Limitations

There are strict guidelines for narrowing down research questions, wherein you could justify and
explain potential weaknesses of your academic paper. You could go through these basic steps to
get a well-structured clarity of research limitations:
1. Declare that you wish to identify your limitations of research and explain their
importance,
2. Provide the necessary depth, explain their nature, and justify your study choices.
3. Write how you are suggesting that it is possible to overcome them in the future.
In a typical academic paper, research limitations may relate to:

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1. Formulating your goals and objectives

If you formulate goals and objectives too broadly, your work will have some shortcomings. In this
case, specify effective methods or ways to narrow down the formula of goals and aim to increase
your level of study focus.
2. Application of your data collection methods in research
If you do not have experience in primary data collection, there is a risk that there will be flaws in
the implementation of your methods. It is necessary to accept this, and learn and educate yourself
to understand data collection methods.
3. Sample sizes
This depends on the nature of problem you choose. Sample size is of a greater importance in
quantitative studies as opposed to qualitative ones. If your sample size is too small, statistical tests
cannot identify significant relationships or connections within a given data set.
You could point out that other researchers should base the same study on a larger sample size to
get more accurate results.
4. The absence of previous studies in the field you have chosen
Writing a literature review is an important step in any scientific study because it helps researchers
determine the scope of current work in the chosen field. It is a major foundation for any
researcher who must use them to achieve a set of specific goals or objectives.
However, if you are focused on the most current and evolving research problem or a very narrow
research problem, there may be very little prior research on your topic. For example, if you chose
to explore the role of Bitcoin as the currency of the future, you may not find tons of scientific
papers addressing the research problem as Bitcoins are only a new phenomenon.

13. Discuss about findings.

The findings section of a research paper presents the results and outcomes of the study or
investigation. It is a crucial part of the research paper where researchers interpret and analyze the
data collected and draw conclusions based on their findings.

In the findings section, researchers typically present the data clearly and organized. They may use
tables, graphs, charts, or other visual aids to illustrate the patterns, trends, or relationships
observed in the data.

The findings should be presented objectively, without any bias or personal opinions, and should
be accompanied by appropriate statistical analyses or methods to ensure the validity and
reliability of the results.

Organizing the Findings Section

The findings section of the research paper organizes and presents the results obtained from the
study in a clear and logical manner. Here is a suggested structure for organizing the Findings
section:
1) Introduction to the Findings

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Start the section by providing a brief overview of the research objectives and the methodology
employed. Recapitulate the research questions or hypotheses addressed in the study.
2) Descriptive Statistics and Data Presentation
Present the collected data using appropriate descriptive statistics. This may involve using tables,
graphs, charts, or other visual representations to convey the information effectively.
3) Data Analysis and Interpretation
Perform a thorough analysis of the data collected and describe the key findings. Present the
results of statistical analyses or any other relevant methods used to analyze the data.
4) Discussion of Findings
Analyze and interpret the findings in the context of existing literature or theoretical frameworks.
Discuss any patterns, trends, or relationships observed in the data. Compare and contrast the
results with prior studies, highlighting similarities and differences.
5) Limitations and Constraints
Acknowledge and discuss any limitations or constraints that may have influenced the findings.
This could include issues such as sample size, data collection methods, or potential biases.
6) Conclusion
Summarize the main findings of the study and emphasize their significance. Revisit the research
questions or hypotheses and discuss whether they have been supported or refuted by the findings.

Presenting Data in the Findings Section

There are several ways to present data in the findings section of a research paper. Here are some
common methods:
 Tables: Tables are commonly used to present organized and structured data. They are
particularly useful when presenting numerical data with multiple variables or categories.
Tables allow readers to easily compare and interpret the information presented.
Learn how to cite tables in research papers.
 Graphs and Charts: Graphs and charts are effective visual tools for presenting data,
especially when illustrating trends, patterns, or relationships. Common types include bar
graphs, line graphs, scatter plots, pie charts, and histograms. Graphs and charts provide a
visual representation of the data, making it easier for readers to comprehend and interpret.
 Figures and Images: Figures and images can be used to present data that requires visual
representation, such as maps, diagrams, or experimental setups. They can enhance the
understanding of complex data or provide visual evidence to support the research findings.
 Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive statistics provide summary measures of central
tendency (e.g., mean, median, mode) and dispersion (e.g., standard deviation, range) for
numerical data. These statistics can be included in the text or presented in tables or graphs
to provide a concise summary of the data distribution.

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How to Effectively Interpret Results

Interpreting the results is a crucial aspect of the findings section in a research paper. It involves
analyzing the data collected and drawing meaningful conclusions based on the findings.
Following are the guidelines on how to effectively interpret the results.
Step 1 – Begin with a Recap
Start by restating the research questions or hypotheses to provide context for the interpretation.
Remind readers of the specific objectives of the study to help them understand the relevance of
the findings.
Step 2 – Relate Findings to Research Questions
Clearly articulate how the results address the research questions or hypotheses. Discuss each
finding in relation to the original objectives and explain how it contributes to answering the
research questions or supporting/refuting the hypotheses.
Step 3 – Compare with Existing Literature
Compare and contrast the findings with previous studies or existing literature. Highlight
similarities, differences, or discrepancies between your results and those of other researchers.
Discuss any consistencies or contradictions and provide possible explanations for the observed
variations.
Step 4 – Consider Limitations and Alternative Explanations
Acknowledge the limitations of the study and discuss how they may have influenced the results.
Explore alternative explanations or factors that could potentially account for the findings.
Evaluate the robustness of the results in light of the limitations and alternative interpretations.
Step 5 – Discuss Implications and Significance
Highlight any potential applications or areas where further research is needed based on the
outcomes of the study.
Step 6 – Address Inconsistencies and Contradictions
If there are any inconsistencies or contradictions in the findings, address them directly. Discuss
possible reasons for the discrepancies and consider their implications for the overall
interpretation. Be transparent about any uncertainties or unresolved issues.
Step 7 – Be Objective and Data-Driven
Present the interpretation objectively, based on the evidence and data collected. Avoid personal
biases or subjective opinions. Use logical reasoning and sound arguments to support your
interpretations.

Reporting Statistical Significance

When reporting statistical significance in the findings section of a research paper, it is important
to accurately convey the results of statistical analyses and their implications. Here are some
guidelines on how to report statistical significance effectively:

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1. Clearly State the Statistical Test: Begin by clearly stating the specific statistical test or
analysis used to determine statistical significance. For example, you might mention that a
t-test, chi-square test, ANOVA, correlation analysis, or regression analysis was employed.
2. Report the Test Statistic: Provide the value of the test statistic obtained from the
analysis. This could be the t-value, F-value, chi-square value, correlation coefficient, or
any other relevant statistic depending on the test used.
3. State the Degrees of Freedom: Indicate the degrees of freedom associated with the
statistical test. Degrees of freedom represent the number of independent pieces of
information available for estimating a statistic. For example, in a t-test, degrees of
freedom would be mentioned as (df = n1 + n2 – 2) for an independent samples test or (df
= N – 2) for a paired samples test.
4. Report the p-value: The p-value indicates the probability of obtaining results as extreme
or more extreme than the observed results, assuming the null hypothesis is true. Report the
p-value associated with the statistical test. For example, p < 0.05 denotes statistical
significance at the conventional level of α = 0.05.
5. Provide the Conclusion: Based on the p-value obtained, state whether the results are
statistically significant or not. If the p-value is less than the predetermined threshold (e.g.,
p < 0.05), state that the results are statistically significant. If the p-value is greater than the
threshold, state that the results are not statistically significant.
6. Discuss the Interpretation: After reporting statistical significance, discuss the practical
or theoretical implications of the finding. Explain what the significant result means in the
context of your research questions or hypotheses. Address the effect size and practical
significance of the findings, if applicable.
7. Consider Effect Size Measures: Along with statistical significance, it is often important
to report effect size measures. Effect size quantifies the magnitude of the relationship or
difference observed in the data. Common effect size measures include Cohen‘s d, eta-
squared, or Pearson‘s r. Reporting effect size provides additional meaningful information
about the strength of the observed effects.
8. Be Accurate and Transparent: Ensure that the reported statistical significance and
associated values are accurate. Avoid misinterpreting or misrepresenting the results. Be
transparent about the statistical tests conducted, any assumptions made, and potential
limitations or caveats that may impact the interpretation of the significant results.

14. What do you meant by Interpretation? Discuss.

DEFINITION:
It refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical and / or

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experimental study.
It is a search for broader meaning of research findings
It has two important aspects:
i. The effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results
of a given study with those of another.
ii. The establishment of some explanatory concepts.

In one sense, it is concerned with relationships within the collected data, partially
overlapping analysis.
It also extends beyond the data of the study to include the results of other research,
theory and etc
Thus, interpretation is the device through which the factors that seem to explain what
has been observed by researcher in the course of the study can be better understood and
it also provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further
research.
Need for interpretation

It is through interpretation that the researcher can understand the abstract principle that works
beneath his findings. Through this he can link up his findings with those of other studies having
the same abstract principle and thereby can predict about the concrete world of events.
Fresh enquiries can test these predictions later on. This way the continuity in research can be
maintained.
 Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts than can serve as a guide
for further research studies; it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulate
the questfor more knowledge.
 Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are what
theyare and can make others understand the real significance of his research findings.
 The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into
hypothesis for experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the
transition from exploratoryto experimental research.
Techniques of interpretation:

Interpretation requires great skill and dexterity. It is an art that one learns through practice and

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experience.
Steps involved in interpretation:

Researcher must give reasonable explanation of the relation and he must interpret
relationship in terms of the underlying processes. This is the technique of how
generalization should be done and concept be formulated.
Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while
interpreting the final results.
It is advisable to get frank and honest opinion of experts.
All relevant factors must be considered before generalization.

Precautions in interpretation

The researcher must invariably satisfy himself that (a) the data are appropriate,
trustworthy and adequate (b) the data reflect good homogeneity and (c) proper
statistical analysis has been applied.
He must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the process of
interpretation. He should be well equipped with the knowledge of correct use of
statistical measures of drawing inferences concerning the study.
As the task of interpretation is very much intertwined with analysis and cannot be
distinctlyseparated, it must be taken as a special aspect of analysis.
His task is not only to make sensitive observations but also to identify the factors
which were not known initially. Broad generalization should be avoided because the
coverage is restricted to a particular time, a particular area or particular condition.
There should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation
and theoretical conceptions. It is here opportunities for originality and creativity.

15. Write and explain about the steps to write data analysis report.

DATA ANALYSIS REPORT WRITING: 7 STEPS

1. Consider Your Audience

You are writing your report for a certain target audience, and you need to keep them in mind
while writing. Depending on their level of expertise, you‘ll need to adjust your report and ensure
it speaks to them. So, before you go any further, ask yourself

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• Who will be reading this report? How well do they understand the subject?
If the reader isn‘t familiar with these tools and software, you‘ll have to simplify it for them and
provide additional explanations. Based on this determining factor, you'll think about:
• the language and vocabulary you‘re using
• abbreviations and level of technicality
• the depth you‘ll go into to explain something
• the type of visuals you‘ll add
Your readers‘ expertise dictates the tone of your report and you need to consider it before writing
even a single word.

2. Draft Out the Sections

The next thing you need to do is create a draft of your data analysis report. This is just a skeleton
of what your report will be once you finish. But, you need a starting point.
So, think about the sections you'll include and what each section is going to cover. Typically, your
report should be divided into the following sections:
• Introduction
• Body (Data, Methods, Analysis, Results)
• Conclusion
For each section, write down several short bullet points regarding the content to cover. Below,
we'll discuss each section more elaborately.
3. Develop The Body
The body of your report is the most important section. You need to organize it into subsections
and present all the information your readers will be interested in.
We suggest the following subsections.
• Data
Explain what data you used to conduct your analysis. Be specific and explain how you gathered
the data, what your sample was, what tools and resources you‘ve used, and how you‘ve organized
your data. This will give the reader a deeper understanding of your data sample and make your
report more solid.
Also, explain why you choose the specific data for your sample. For instance, you may say ―The
sample only includes data of the customers acquired during 2021, in the peak of the pandemic.‖
• Methods
Next, you need to explain what methods you‘ve used to analyze the data. This simply means you
need to explain why and how you choose specific methods. You also need to explain why these
methods are the best fit for the goals you‘ve set and the results you‘re trying to reach.
Back up your methodology section with background information on each method or tool used.
• Analysis

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After you've explained the data and methods you've used, this next section brings those two
together. The analysis section shows how you've analyzed the specific data using the specific
methods.
This means you‘ll show your calculations, charts, and analyses, step by step. Add descriptions
and explain each of the steps. Try making it as simple as possible so that even the most
inexperienced of your readers understand every word.
• Results
This final section of the body can be considered the most important section of your report. Most
of your clients will skim the rest of the report to reach this section.
So, explain and describe the results using numbers. Then, add a written description of what each
of the numbers stands for and what it means for the entire analysis. Summarize your results and
finalize the report on a strong note.
4. Write the Introduction
This section briefly explains what the report will cover. That‘s why you should write it after
you‘ve finished writing the Body.
In your introduction, explain:
• the question you‘ve raised and answered with the analysis
• context of the analysis and background information
• short outline of the report
Simply put, you‘re telling your audience what to expect.
5. Add a Short Conclusion
Finally, the last section of your paper is a brief conclusion. It only repeats what you described in
the Body, but only points out the most important details.
It should be less than a page long and use straightforward language to deliver the most important
findings. It should also include a paragraph about the implications and importance of those
findings for the client, customer, business, or company that hired you.
6. Include Data Visualization Elements
All the information that your data analysis has found can create a mess in the head of your reader.
So, you should simplify it by using data visualization elements.
Firstly, let‘s define what are the most common and useful data visualization elements you can use
in your report:
• graphs
• charts
• images
• tables
• maps
There are subcategories to each of the elements and you should explore them all to decide what
will do the best job for your specific case. For instance, you'll find different types of charts
including, pie charts, bar charts, area charts, or spider charts.

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For each data visualization element, add a brief description to tell the readers what information it
contains. You can also add a title to each element and create a table of contents for visual
elements only.
7. Proofread & Edit Before Submission
Proofreading and editing will help you eliminate potential mistakes, but also take another
objective look at your report.
First, do the editing part. It includes:
• reading the whole report objectively, like you‘re seeing it for the first time
• leaving an open mind for changes
• adding or removing information
• rearranging sections
• finding better words to say something
You should repeat the editing phase a couple of times until you're completely happy with the
result. Once you're certain the content is all tidied up, you can move on to the proofreading stage.
It includes:
• finding and removing grammar and spelling mistakes
• rethinking vocabulary choices
• improving clarity
• improving readability

You can use an online proofreading tool to make things faster. If you really want professional
help, Grab My Essay is a great choice. Their professional writers can edit and rewrite your entire
report, to make sure it‘s impeccable before submission.
Whatever you choose to do, proofread yourself or get some help with it, make sure your report is
well-organized and completely error-free.

16. Discuss about the benefits of writing well-structured data analysis reports and
tools used for it.

BENEFITS OF WRITING WELL-STRUCTURED DATA ANALYSIS REPORTS

Below are the main benefits a data analysis report brings to the table.
• Improved Collaboration
When you‘re writing a data analysis report, you need to be aware more than one end user is going
to use it. Whether it‘s your employer, customer, or coworker - you need to make sure they‘re all
on the same page. And when you write a data analysis report that is easy to understand and learn
from, you‘re creating a bridge between all these people.

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Simply, all of them are given accurate data they can rely on and you‘re thus removing the
potential misunderstandings that can happen in communication. This improves the overall
collaboration level and makes everyone more open and helpful.
• Increased Efficiency
People who are reading your data analysis report need the information it contains for some
reason. They might use it to do their part of the job, to make decisions, or report further to
someone else. Either way, the better your report, the more efficient it'll be. And, if you rely on
those people as well, you'll benefit from this increased productivity as well.
• KPIs
Data tells a story about a business, project, or venture. It's able to show how well you've
performed, what turned out to be a great move, and what needs to be reimagined. This means that
a data analysis report provides valuable insight and measurable KPIs (key performance
indicators) that you‘re able to use to grow and develop.

• Clear Communication
Information is key regardless of the industry you're in or the type of business you're doing. Data
analysis finds that information and proves its accuracy and importance. But, if those findings and
the information itself aren't communicated clearly, it's like you haven't even found them.
This is why a data analysis report is crucial. It will present the information less technically and
bring it closer to the readers.

REPORTING TOOLS

Reporting or software reporting tools are data-reporting and data-display software programs.
These tools can help you present information in a manner that is easy to comprehend. Most of the
tools generate tables, graphs and other visuals. Project managers, financial analysts and data
analysts are those who often use reporting software.
You can choose from various tools, such as data visualisation software and dashboard programs,
to find the one that meets the organisational requirements.

Here are some software reporting programs you can consider trying, depending on the business
requirements:
1. Whatagraph
Whatagraph is a reporting tool useful for social media and marketing analytics monitoring. The
software can gather data from the company's various marketing channels and generate reports
automatically. It creates visually engaging representations of data and analytics. You can also
enter your marketing key performance indicators (KPIs) and monitor your progress towards
achieving your marketing objectives.

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2. Power BI
Power BI is a tool for data visualisation. The software can assimilate data from multiple channels
and transform it into visually appealing images. This can facilitate your team's comprehension of
business insights. This software can manage huge amounts of data, making it ideal for large or
expanding businesses that wish to monitor business data.
3. Reportei
Reportei is a digital marketing analytics platform that integrates with different social media
platforms and analytic tools. This software quickly generates reports and dashboards from this
information, making it suitable software for digital marketing professionals. Reportei generates
easy-to-understand, client-friendly reports, allowing marketing professionals to spend less time on
report writing.
4. Hive
Hive is a reporting software program for project management that consolidates data from multiple
sources into a single location, allowing you to gain an overview of business operations. You can
use Hive to create interactive dashboards that monitor data in real-time. As is it a cloud-hosted
software, you can access your data from any device with internet access. This software can also
integrate with other common project management software programs, streamlining your data
reporting process.
5. Wrike
Wrike is a data reporting software primarily used for project management. The software can
monitor productivity, metrics and overall project progress and it can also facilitate user
collaboration. In addition, the software is configurable so that an organisation can create its own
dashboards with widgets pertinent to its specific projects. You may also generate reports quickly
with Wrike by selecting a template for project reporting.
6. Octoboard
Businesses and marketing agencies often prefer Octoboard as reporting software. The software
can collect data and generate insights and reports automatically. As the software is cloud-based, it
is accessible from any location, making it convenient to share client reports. Octoboard can
connect to a variety of common social media networks and analytics tools, making it simple to
generate reports from any kind of system.
7. Tableau
Tableau is a data analytics tool capable of transforming raw data into effective visualisations,
such as data dashboards and worksheets. Tableau is primarily helpful for gathering business
analytics. This software is suitable for professionals with little or no coding experience, as it is
user-friendly and does not rely extensively on code. The software can transform structured query
language (SQL) code into data visualisations with minimal programming.
8. ProWorkflow
ProWorkflow is the project management software that includes data reporting capabilities. The
drag-and-drop functionality of this software makes it simple to organise projects and workflows.

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This software is beneficial for creating graphs and enables users to generate quotes, invoices and
other reports quickly.
9. ThoughtSpot
ThoughtSpot is artificial intelligence-driven reporting software for business analytics. The
software can connect to cloud-based databases and report real-time business analytics.
ThoughtSpot is particularly useful for individuals new to data reporting because it requires
minimal coding. This makes it possible for users of all skill levels to explore their business
analytics.
10. Zoho Analytics
Zoho Analytics is an analytics application that allows users to create data dashboards. This
software is useful for sales and marketing because it can compile reports using data from multiple
sources and also has applications for project management. You can generate reports on your
project's metrics and create collaborative progress reports using Zoho Analytics.

17. Write the procedure for writing a project report.

1. Title Page
Include the project title, your name, institutional affiliation, and the date of submission.
2. Abstract
Write a brief summary of the project, including the objectives, methods, results, and conclusions.
Keep it concise, usually within 150-250 words.
3. Table of Contents
List all the sections and sub-sections of the report with corresponding page numbers for easy
navigation.
4. Introduction
Background: Provide context for the project.
Objectives: Clearly state the aims of the project.
Scope: Define the boundaries of the project.
Significance: Explain the importance of the project.
5. Literature Review
Summarize relevant existing research and how it relates to your project.
Highlight gaps in the current knowledge that your project aims to address.
6. Methodology
Research Design: Describe the overall approach (e.g., experimental, survey, case study).
Data Collection: Detail the methods used to collect data (e.g., surveys, interviews, experiments).
Data Analysis: Explain the techniques and tools used to analyze the data.
Materials and Tools: List any specific materials, software, or equipment used.
Procedure: Step-by-step explanation of how the research was conducted.

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7. Data Collection
Primary Data: Describe how primary data was gathered directly from sources.
Secondary Data: Explain how secondary data was obtained from existing sources.
8. Data Analysis
Quantitative Analysis: Include statistical methods, data visualization, and interpretation of
numerical data.
Qualitative Analysis: Discuss coding techniques, theme identification, and interpretation of
textual data.
9. Results
Present the findings of the project clearly and logically.
Use tables, graphs, and charts to illustrate key points.
Ensure that all visual aids are labeled and referenced in the text.
10. Discussion
Interpretation: Discuss the meaning and implications of the results.
Comparison: Compare your findings with previous research.
Limitations: Acknowledge any limitations in your study and their potential impact on the results.
Recommendations: Suggest practical applications or areas for further research.
11. Conclusion
Summary: Summarize the main findings and their significance.
Implications: Discuss the broader impact of your findings.
Future Research: Propose areas for future investigation.
12. References
List all sources cited in the report using the appropriate citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
13. Appendices
Include supplementary material such as raw data, detailed calculations, or additional information
that supports the main text but is too lengthy to include in the main body.
14. Review and Proofreading
Content Review: Ensure all sections are complete and logically organized.
Proofreading: Check for grammatical, typographical, and formatting errors.
Feedback: Seek feedback from peers or mentors and revise accordingly.
15. Final Submission
Formatting: Ensure the report adheres to the required formatting guidelines.
Binding: Prepare the final document in the required format (e.g., printed and bound, digital
submission).
Submission: Submit the report by the specified deadline.

18. Discuss about Bibliography.

Bibliography

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A bibliography is a list of all the sources you consulted while writing your paper. Every book,
article, and even video you used to gather information for your paper needs to be cited in your
bibliography so your instructor (and any others reading your work) can trace the facts, statistics,
and insights back to their original sources.
The purpose of a bibliography
A bibliography is the list of sources a work‘s author used to create the work. It accompanies just
about every type of academic writing, like essays, research papers, and reports.
You might also find a brief, less formal bibliography at the end of a journalistic piece,
presentation, or video when the author feels it‘s necessary to cite their sources. In nearly all
academic instances, a bibliography is required.
Not including a bibliography (or including an incomplete, incorrect, or falsified bibliography) can
be considered an act of plagiarism, which can lead to a failing grade, being dropped from your
course or program, and even being suspended or expelled from your school.
A bibliography accomplishes a few things. These include:
• Showing your instructor that you conducted the necessary research for your assignment
• Crediting your sources‘ authors for the research they conducted
• Making it easy for anybody who reads your work to find the sources you used and conduct
their own research on the same or a similar topic
Additionally, future historians consulting your writing can use your bibliography to identify
primary and secondary sources in your research field. Documenting the course information from
its original source through later academic works can help researchers understand how that
information has been cited and interpreted over time. It can also help them review the information
in the face of competing—and possibly contradictory or revisionary—data.
In nearly all cases, a bibliography is found at the end of a book or paper.
Different kinds of bibliographies
Different types of academic works call for different types of bibliographies. For example, your
computer science professor might require you to submit an annotated bibliography along with
your paper because this type of bibliography explains the why behind each source you chose to
consult.
Analytical bibliography
An analytical bibliography documents a work‘s journey from manuscript to published book or
article. This type of bibliography includes the physical characteristics of each cited source, like
each work‘s number of pages, type of binding used, and illustrations.
Annotated bibliography
An annotated bibliography is a bibliography that includes annotations, which are short notes
explaining why the author chose each of the sources. Generally a few sentences long, these notes
might summarize or reflect on the source.
An annotated bibliography is not the same as a literature review. While a literature review
discusses how you conducted your research and how your work fits into the overall body of

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established research in your field, an annotated bibliography simply explains how each source
you used is relevant to your work.
Enumerative bibliography
An enumerative bibliography is the most basic type of bibliography. It‘s a list of sources used to
conduct research, often ordered according to specific characteristics, like alphabetically by
authors‘ last names or grouped according to topic or language.
Specific types of enumerative bibliographies used for research works include:
National bibliography
A national bibliography groups sources published in a specific region or nation. In many cases,
these bibliographies also group works according to the time period during which they were
published.
Personal bibliography
A personal bibliography lists multiple works by the same individual author or group of authors.
Often, personal bibliographies include works that would be difficult to find elsewhere, like
unpublished works.
Corporate bibliography
In a corporate bibliography, the sources are grouped according to their relation to a specific
organization. The sources can be about an organization, published by that organization, or owned
by that organization.
Subject bibliography
Subject bibliographies group works according to the subjects they cover. Generally, these
bibliographies list primary and secondary sources, whereas other types of enumerative
bibliographies, like personal bibliographies, might not.
Other types of bibliographies
In some cases, it makes sense to use a bibliography format other than those listed here. These
include:
Single-author bibliography
This type of bibliography lists works by a single author. With certain assignments, like an essay
comparing two of an author‘s books, your bibliography is a single-author bibliography by default.
In this case, you can choose how to order the sources, such as by publication date or
alphabetically by title.
Selected bibliography
A selected bibliography is a bibliography that only lists some of the sources you consulted.
Usually, these are the most important sources for your work. You might write a selected
bibliography if you consulted a variety of minor sources that you didn‘t end up citing directly in
your work. A selected bibliography may also be an annotated bibliography.

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Structure of bibliography
Although each style guide has its own formatting rules for bibliographies, all bibliographies
follow a similar structure. Key points to keep in mind when you‘re structuring a bibliography
include:
• Every bibliography page has a header. Format this header according to the style guide
you‘re using.
• Every bibliography has a title, such as ―Works Cited,‖ ―References,‖ or simply
―Bibliography.‖
• Bibliographies are lists. List your sources alphabetically according to their authors‘ last
names or their titles—whichever is applicable according to the style guide you‘re using. The
exception is a single-author bibliography or one that groups sources according to a shared
characteristic.
• Bibliographies are double-spaced.
• Bibliographies should be in legible fonts, typically the same font as the papers they
accompany.
Steps to write a bibliography
The term ―bibliography‖ is a catch-all for any list of sources cited at the end of an academic work.
Certain style guides use different terminology to refer to bibliographies. For example, MLA
format refers to a paper‘s bibliography as its Works Cited page.

APA refers to it as the References page. No matter which style guide you‘re using, the process for
writing a bibliography is generally the same. The primary difference between the different style
guides is how the bibliography is formatted.

The first step in writing a bibliography is organizing all the relevant information about the sources
you used in your research. Relevant information about a source can vary according to the type of
media it is, the type of bibliography you‘re writing, and your style guide.
Determine which information you need to include about each source by consulting the style guide
you‘re using. If you aren‘t sure what to include, or if you‘re not sure which style guide to use, ask
your instructor.
The next step is to format your sources according to the style guide you‘re using. MLA, APA, and
the Chicago Manual of Style are three of the most commonly used style guides in academic
writing.
MLA Works Cited page
In MLA format, the bibliography is known as the Works Cited page. MLA is typically used for
writing in the humanities, like English and History. Because of this, it includes guidelines for
citing sources like plays, videos, and works of visual art—sources you‘d find yourself consulting
for these courses, but probably not in your science and business courses.

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In MLA format, books are cited like this:

• Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. City of Publication, Publisher, Publication
Date.
If the cited book was published prior to 1900, is from a publisher with offices in multiple
countries, or is from a publisher that is largely unknown in the US, include the book‘s city of
publication. Otherwise, this can be left out.

Scholarly articles are cited in this format:

• Author(s). “Title of Article.” Title of Periodical, Day Month Year, pages.

APA References page
In APA format—the format typically used in psychology, nursing, business, and the social
sciences—the bibliography page is titled References. This format includes citation instructions for
technical papers and data-heavy research, the types of sources you‘re likely to consult for
academic writing in these fields.

In APA format, books are cited like this:

• Last name, First initial. (Year of publication). Title of work. Publisher Name.
Digital object identifier (DOI).
Scholarly articles are cited in this format:

• Authors. (Year published). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number

(issue number), article’s page range (i.e., 10-15). URL.
Chicago Manual of Style

The Chicago Manual of Style (CMoS) permits authors to format bibliographies in two different
ways: the notes and bibliography system and the author-date system. The former is generally used
in the humanities, whereas the latter is usually used in the sciences and social sciences.
Both systems include guidelines for citations on a paper‘s body pages as well as a bibliographic
list that follows the paper. This list is titled Bibliography.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT V

UNIT V

Proof reading a report – Avoiding Typographical Errors –

Bibliography in required Format – Font – Spacing – Checking
Tables and Illustrations – Presenting a Report Orally – Techniques.

PART –A

1. What is proof reading of report?

Proofreading is the final stage of the editing process, focusing on surface

errors such as misspellings and mistakes in grammar and punctuation. You
should proofread only after you have finished all of your other editing revisions.

2. How do you write proof reading?

Seven Effective Ways to Proofread Writing

1. Do not rely on spelling and grammar checkers. ...
2. Proofread for one error at a time. ...
3. Read each word slowly. ...
4. Divide the text into manageable chunks. ...
5. Circle punctuation marks. ...
6. Read the writing backwards. ...
7. Note the errors you make on a frequent basis.
3. What are the two types of proof reading?

Proof reading for Print Media/Pre-Print Proof reading. The most common form of
proofreading is print media proofreading, which refers to newspapers, novels,
and other similar publications. ...
 Academic Proofreading. ...
 Translation or Bilingual Proofreading. ...
 Monolingual Proofreading. ...
 Stylistic Proofreading. ...
 Conclusion.
4. What are the steps of proofreading?

Proofreading Techniques
 Read your paper aloud. Sometimes writing sounds different in your head
than it sounds on paper.
 Make a list of errors that you commonly make and keep an eye out for
them.
 Read the text backwards. ...
 Proofread for only one type of error at a time.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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 Double check everything: ...

 Read slowly and carefully.

5. How do you start proof reading or Want to Become a

Proofreader? Here's How to Do It

 Cultivate a love of reading and learning.

 Understand the proofreading role.
 Identify your target proofreading jobs.
 Practice proofreading.
 Market yourself and get connected.
 Be ready to manage your own freelance business.
 Continue to develop your resume.
 Be confident.

6. What are the rules of proofreading?

Plan to read your paper several times – each time for a different
challenge:

 Look for sentence fragments and run-on sentences.

 Check to make sure you have used the correct verb: ...
 Check that you use pronouns correctly: ...
 Check for commonly confused words such as their, there, and they're.

7. What are proofreading mistakes or What are some of the more

common surface errors?

 Spelling.
 Punctuation. Commas. Apostrophes. Periods.
 Verbs.
 Subject-verb agreement.
 Pronouns.
 Other grammatical errors. Sentence fragments. Misplaced or dangling
modifiers.
8. What are the errors of a project report?

Avoid scenarios where your involvement was limited, and the skill or behavior
was actually achieved by your manager or your team. You are being personally
assessed in the Project Report on whether you have achieved competence, so
make sure you explain your actions and the judgments that you made clearly.

Prepared By : E.Indra ASP/CSE, P.R.Jayanthi ASP /CSE, S. Vanakovarayan ASP/CSE 2

 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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9. How to avoid typo errors?

1. Know the rules before you break them. ...

2. Create and follow a content style guide. ...
3. Don't rely on spell check or grammar check. ...
4. Proof a hard copy. ...
5. Minimize distractions.

10. What are typographical error examples?

Short for typographical error, a typo is a mistake made in typed or printed text.
Some quick examples are spelling occurrence with one 'c' or 'r,' or spelling
'receive' as 'receive. ’Even if you are an expert in the 'i before e except after c
rule,' it's easy to type a word as common as 'science' incorrectly.

11. How do we avoid errors?

Here's a step-by-step guide you can follow to avoid making mistakes at
work:

1. Optimize your work environment. ...

2. Get clarity about expectations. ...
3. Review previous work to identify patterns. ...
4. Focus on one task at a time. ...
5. Take regular breaks. ...
6. Start your work before deadlines. ...
7. Use organizational tools. ...
8. Create a workflow schedule.

12. How to avoid errors in work?

How to Make Fewer Mistakes at Work and Boost Productivity

1. Stop trying to multitask. ...

2. Eliminate distractions. ...
3. Use a task tracker or checklists. ...
4. Try automating your task workflows. ...
5. Always clarify and ask questions. ...
6. Carefully review your work. ...
7. Get a second set of eyes. ...
8. Take breaks and refresh with a mental pause.
13. How do you write a bibliography for a project report?

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Collect this information for each Web Site:

 Author name.
 Title of the publication (and the title of the article if it's a magazine or
encyclopedia)
 Date of publication.
 The place of publication of a book.
 The publishing company of a book.
 The volume number of a magazine or printed encyclopedia.
 The page number(s)
14. What is a bibliography in report writing?

A bibliography is a list of works on a subject or by an author that were used or

consulted to write a research paper, book or article. It can also be referred to as
a list of works cited. It is usually found at the end of a book, article or research
paper.

15. What is an example of a bibliography?

Periodical MLA Bibliography Examples

For magazines and journals: Last Name, First Name. ―Title: Subtitle.‖ Name of
Journal, volume number, issue number, Date of Publication, First Page Number–
Last Page Number.

16. What is the best bibliography format?

APA Style is the most popular citation style, widely used in the social and
behavioral sciences. MLA style is the second most popular, used mainly in the
humanities. Chicago notes and bibliography style is also popular in the
humanities, especially history. Chicago author-date style tends to be used in the
sciences.

17. Do you need a bibliography for a report?

You will not always need to include a bibliography with your assignment. Please
check your assignment instructions or check with your subject coordinator if you
are unsure whether a bibliography is required.

18. Why is bibliography important in project report?

They help you keep track of your own research. They can help your readers find
more information on the topic. They prove that the information in your research
came from trustworthy sources. They give credit to the original sources and
authors.

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19. What are the 4 types of bibliography?

Types of Bibliographies

 National Bibliography.
 Personal Bibliography.
 Corporate Bibliography.
 Subject Bibliography.

20. What are the 5 parts of bibliography?

A website is cited similarly to a book or article by including the author, title, and
publisher, date of publication, and URL for the source. The bibliographic entry
style varies depending on the utilization of Chicago, APA, or MLA style, but all of
these elements are always included when available.

21. What is a bibliography pdf?

What is a bibliography? The term bibliography is the term used for a list of
sources (e.g. books, articles, websites) used to write an assignment (e.g. an
essay). It usually includes all the sources consulted even if they not directly cited
(referred to) in the assignment.

22. What is a bibliography in PPT?

A bibliography is an orderly list of sources used in a project. It provides full

reference information for all sources consulted, allowing readers to trace the
sources. There is various bibliography styles like APA, MLA, and CBE used in
different academic fields.

23. What font is used for reports?

Business proposals, reports, and professional letters can use Serif fonts
like Times New Roman and Garamond. Some users who want to be a bit different
from the prime fonts for professional documents choose Baskerville. The size of
the fonts takes into consideration readability as well as space

24. What is the basic font for a report?

Recommended serif fonts include Cambria, Georgia, and Times New Roman.
Sans serif fonts don't have small strokes attached to their letters, giving them a
cleaner and more modern style. Some recommended sans serif fonts include
Arial, Calibri, and Verdana.

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25. What is the format for a project report?

Break it into sections, including an executive summary, introduction,

methodology, findings, analysis, recommendations, and conclusion. Each section
should address specific aspects of the project. Write the Content: Start writing
each project report section, providing detailed and concise information.

26. What is the best font size for reports in Word?

Font size. It is best practice to type word documents in font size 14, and no
smaller than font size 12, to assist readers with visual impairments. Remember
that no one font size will suit everyone.

27. What is a standard font?

However, some commonly used default fonts include Arial, Times New Roman,
Calibri, Helvetica, Verdana, and Tahoma. These fonts are chosen for their
readability and compatibility across various platforms, making them widely
recognized and used.

28. What size font is the final year project?

The basic text should be in ―Times New Romans‖ of font 12 point. However, 10
point font size may be used for footnotes, captions, figures, tables and other
print outside the basic text.

29. What is the paper size for project report?

The dimension of the project report should be in A4 size. The project report
should be bound using flexible cover of the thick white art paper. The cover
should be printed in black letters and the text for printing should be identical.

30 What is the format of writing a project?

A research paper is made up of seven sections: introduction, literature review,

methodology, findings and results, discussion, conclusion, and references. You
need to make sure you are including a list of correctly cited references to avoid
accusations of plagiarism.

31. What is the spacing for project report?

FontsandSpacing

Fonts should be a minimum of 12 point and 1.5 line spacing is recommended

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unless otherwise specified. Titles and headings may be in a bold 'sans serif' font
(such as 'Ariel'). A blank line, but no indentation, is used between paragraphs.

32. What is the spacing for reports?

A typical business report uses the following format and layout:
 Use a clearly legible font and font size (Times New Roman is the most
common font and 12 point is the most common size).
 Set page margins to around 1 inch/2.5cm.
 Use 1.5 or double line-spacing.

33. What is the spacing for paragraphs in a report?

Paragraphs are typically double-spaced, though headings may require triple or

quadruple-spacing.

34. What is the standard spacing?

Designated as the ―1.0‖ for spacing length, single spacing is the standard on
which other types of line spacing are based. Essentially, single spacing puts a
new line of text directly underneath the previous one, with minimal space in
between to separate the letters.

35. What is illustration in report writing?

Illustrations can help support the narrative. They can help you make your points
clearly by visualizing the information and showing information in different forms.
Illustrations can support your narrative by succinctly presenting ideas that may
have required hundreds of words.

36. What are tables in report writing?

Place detailed data/information in categories formatted into rows and columns

for comparison; use when exact figures are important. Label column headings
(box heads) and/or rows (stubs).

37. What is list of illustration in report writing?

A List of Illustrations, which may appear at the front of a book, gives a list of
photographs, drawings, tables, or other types of illustrations used to support the
contents of the book.

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38. Is a table an illustration?

Strictly speaking, figures are illustrations, drawings, photographs, graphs, and

charts. Tables are rows and columns of words and numbers; they are not
considered figures.

39. How to write a list of tables?

How to create a list of figures and tables in Word

 Navigate to the References tab, and click ―Insert Caption,‖ which you can
find in the Captions group.
 Give your caption a name. In the Label list, you can select the label that
best describes your figure or table, or make your own by selecting ―New
Label.‖

40. How to create tables in Word?

For a basic table, click Insert > Table and move the cursor over the grid until you
highlight the number of columns and rows you want. For a larger table, or to
customize a table, select Insert > Table > Insert Table. Tips: If you already have
text separated by tabs, you can quickly convert it to a table.

41. How do I insert tables of tables?

A table of tables in Word is essentially a table of figures configured to only

display tables.
 In your Word template, select References > Insert Table of Figures: Opens
image in full screen Open.
 Configure your table.
 Select Table in the Caption label drop down > OK.

42. How to modify a table in Word?

Click in the table that you want to format. Under Table Tools, click the Design
tab. In the Table Styles group, rest the pointer over each table style until you
find a style that you want to use. Note: To see more styles, click the more arrow.

43. What is oral report in technical writing?

An oral report is simply the oral report of an activity done by a student. It can be
either synchronous or asynchronous and may or may not be accompanied by
slides.

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44. What are the techniques of report writing?

How to write a report in 7 steps

1 Choose a topic based on the assignment.
2 Conduct research.
3 Write a thesis statement.
4 Prepare an outline.
5 Write a rough draft.
6 Revise and edit your report.
7 Proofread and check for mistakes.

45. What are the elements of an oral report?

The standard oral report consists of an introduction ("tell the audience what you
are going to tell them"), a main body ("tell them"), and a conclusion ("tell them
what you have told them"). The introduction should include an overview of the
rest of the talk to help the listener understand what you are going to say.

46. What are the oral elements?

The primary element of oral literature is speech. After speech, important

elements include storytelling, plot, protagonists, antagonists, culture,
morals/lessons, preservation of history and/or lore, legitimization and praise of
rulers, rhetoric, etc.

47. What are the 5 steps in report writing?

How To Write A Report: A Simple Step-By-Step Process

 Consider The Objective Of The Report.

 Figure Out What Your Audience Needs To See.
 Decide What Information You Will Include.
 Collate Your Data & Visuals.
 Draft The Content Of Your Report.
 Review & Edit Your Report.

48.What are the 8 elements of report writing?

Essential Elements Of Report Writing and Format Of Report Writing

 Title page. A good title is informative without being cumbersome. ...

 Table of contents. ...
 Executive summary. ...
 Introduction. ...

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 Discussion. ...
 The ending. ...
 Recommendations.

49. How to structure a report?

Report structures do vary among disciplines, but the most common

structures include the following:
 Title page. ...
 Abstract (or Executive Summary in business reports) ...
 Table of contents. ...
 Introduction. ...
 Methodology. ...
 Discussion. ...
 Conclusion/recommendations. ...
 Appendices.

50. What is the importance of report writing?

Importance of Report Writing

 Evaluation.
 Development of skills.
 Investigation.
 Quick location.
 Decision making tool.
 Neutral presentation of facts.
 A managerial tool.
 Proper control.

Prepared By : E.Indra ASP/CSE, P.R.Jayanthi ASP /CSE, S. Vanakovarayan ASP/CSE 10

 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT V

PART –B

1. Explain the Seven Effective Ways to Proofread Writing.

Over View

 Introduction
 Do not rely on spelling and grammar checkers

 Proofread for one error at a time

 Read each word slowly

 Divide the text into manageable chunks

 Circle punctuation marks

 Read the writing backwards

 Note the errors you make on a frequent basis

Introduction

 Proofreading what you have written can be very dull. There are many
different ways to proofread writing. What works for one person may
constitute a painful process for another.
 Regardless of the method you choose, proofreading is a critical part
of the writing process and should never be overlooked. Here are
some effective methods for proofreading your documents.

1. Do not rely on spelling and grammar checkers

 Spell checkers are great as a first step and will be useful in assisting
you to identify high-level errors. However, automated spelling and
grammar checkers are severely limited. They cannot identify many
common grammatical errors.

 Furthermore, they often make serious mistakes that can mislead

even the most diligent writer. It is important to remember that spell
checkers identify misspelled words only. They do not alert you to
correctly spelled words that are grammatically incorrect.

 Example: There are at least too reasons why students should not rely
on spell check. [Note that the word ―too‖ is incorrect. ―Too‖ means,
also. The correct word is ―two‖ for the number 2.]

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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2. Proofread for one error at a time

 Proofreading really is a meticulous and time-consuming process, but

the more you put into it, the more you get out. If you attempt to
identify and correct all errors within one sitting, you risk losing focus
and you many find that you miss major mistakes.

 Sometimes it is useful to check for spelling mistakes and punctuation

errors separately. This will make it easier to spot issues. You can
then use a variety of proofreading techniques for the different types
of mistakes you find.

3. Read each word slowly

 One technique that the majority of professional proofreaders use is to

read the writing they are proofreading out loud.

 This forces you to voice every single word and involves your auditory
senses in the process, meaning that you can hear how the text
actually sounds when it is read.

 Trying to read something quickly forces your brain to skip some

words and to make unconscious corrections.

4. Divide the text into manageable chunks

 Dividing the text into separate sections provides you with more
manageable tasks. Read each section carefully. Then, take a break
before you progress to the next.

 This will prevent you from feeling overwhelmed by the task ahead
and will allow you to concentrate more effectively on the section of
writing that you are proofreading.

 This technique is especially useful if you are proofreading a very

large document such as a thesis, research paper or practicum
project.

5. Circle punctuation marks

 This method may seem somewhat excessive, but it is one of the

most effective methods used for identifying punctuation mistakes.

 By circling every single punctuation mark, you force yourself to look

at each one in turn and to question if it has been used correctly.

6. Read the writing backwards

 This proofreading method is useful for identifying spelling mistakes

because it forces you to concentrate on each word in isolation. Start

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
OSH352- PROJECT REPORT WRITING – UNIT V

with the last word in your text and follow each one separately until
you reach the beginning of the document.

 While you are doing this, you are not really interested in punctuation
and grammar; you are focusing entirely on how the words have been
spelled. Many proofreaders also recommend reading papers
backwards, sentence by sentence.

 This encourages you to consider each sentence in isolation out of the

context of the rest of the writing and is great for helping you to
identify grammatical errors.

7. Note the errors you make on a frequent basis

 Proofreading your writing on a regular basis can help you identify

your own strengths and weaknesses and understand where you
make mistakes.

 If you are aware of the common errors you make, you can learn to
look for them during the writing process itself. Over a period of time,
will learn to avoid them altogether.

 Keep style guides and grammar rules at hand as you proofread. Look
up any areas of which you are uncertain. Over time, you will develop
your knowledge and your writing skills will improve.

2. Explain the detail about avoiding typographical errors.

Over View

 Know the rules before you break them.

 Create and follow a content style guide
 Don’t rely on spell check or grammar check.
 Proof a hard copy.
Minimize distractions
 Triple-check prices, phone numbers and contact information.
 Ditto for brand names and trademarks
 Proof once backwards
 Proof copy in the final layout.
 Sleep on it

 10 Tips for Proofreading Marketing Content and Advertising Copy

Before you hit ―send‖ or sign off on that final proof next time, consider the
following guidelines.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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1) Know the rules before you break them.

 Obviously, marketing content and advertising copy don’t always follow the
rules of grammar.

 But if you understand the rules, you’ll know when they should and
shouldn’t be broken. The simplest, most indispensable guide for English
style and usage is still The Elements of Style by William Strunk, Jr. and
E.B. White.

2) Create and follow a content style guide.

 Eliminate confusion or debate about what’s correct by creating an editorial

style guide, which includes company standards and deviations from
accepted rules.

 At the very least, designate a style manual that your writers and
proofreaders should follow. AP Stylebook and The Chicago Manual of
Style are two popular choices.

3) Don’t rely on spell check or grammar check.

 Spell check will catch common misspellings, but it won’t know if you
misspelled a proper name or misused a word. Is it ―color pallet‖ or ―color
palette‖? And the grammar check is wrong more often than not.

4) Proof a hard copy.

 Proofreading on screen can be tricky. Proofing a hard copy is easier on

your eyes and also makes it easier to proof changes from version to
version.

5) Minimize distractions.

 Shut your door. Hang a ―do not disturb‖ sign. And unless you can listen to
music without getting lost in it, turn off the iTunes.

6) Triple-check prices, phone numbers and contact information.

 Think about what the omission of one zero in a price could cost you.
Enough said. Your call-to-action is usually the most important thing that
will be read.

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 But how many times have you merely skimmed your phone number, web
address and email? All it takes is one transposed number or letter, and all
your efforts are for naught.

7) Ditto for brand names and trademarks.

 There’s no quicker way to make yourself look bad in front of your boss or
client than by butchering brand names. Follow your company’s or client’s
standards.

8) Proof once backwards.

 Proofing your copy backwards helps you focus on every word and catch
things you may have overlooked, such as duplicate words and misspellings.

9) Proof copy in the final layout.

A whole new set of wrongs can occur after the copy is placed into the design.
Here are a few things to look for:

o Legibility. Your overall goal is to communicate. Is the font size big

enough for your audience? Is reversed type readable?

o Funky spacing. Between letters, words, lines, etc.

o Widows. A paragraph-ending line that falls at the beginning of the

following page/column.

o Orphans. A word, part of a word, or very short line that appears by

itself at the end of a paragraph, or a paragraph-opening line that
appears by itself at the bottom of a page/column.

o Two spaces after periods. In desktop publishing, one space after

punctuation is the rule.

o Missing copy. Even when you make minor changes to copy in a

layout, do a quick proof to make sure nothing shifted or dropped off
the page.

10) Sleep on it

 You lose perspective after reading the same thing again and again,
especially if you wrote it. If possible, come back to your copy the next day
with fresh eyes.

 I hope these tips will help you put a solid proofreading system in place and
avoid some very awkward conversations with your boss or client.

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3. Explain the bibliography in required format for the project report

with an example.

Over view

 Definition
 What is the purpose of a bibliography?
 What are the different kinds of bibliographies?
 Analytical bibliography
 Annotated bibliography
 Enumerative bibliography
 National bibliography
 Personal bibliography
 Corporate bibliography
 Subject bibliography
 Other types of bibliographies
 How is a bibliography structured?
 How do you write a bibliography?
 APA References page

Definition

 Bibliography is a list of all the sources you consulted while writing your
paper. Every book, article, and even video you used to gather information for
your paper needs to be cited in your bibliography so your instructor (and any
others reading your work) can trace the facts, statistics, and insights back to
their original sources.

What is the purpose of a bibliography?

 A bibliography is the list of sources a work’s author used to create the work.
It accompanies just about every type of academic writing,
like essays, research papers, and reports.

 You might also find a brief, less formal bibliography at the end of a
journalistic piece, presentation, or video when the author feels it’s necessary
to cite their sources.

 In nearly all academic instances, a bibliography is required. Not including a

bibliography (or including an incomplete, incorrect, or falsified bibliography)
can be considered an act of plagiarism, which can lead to a failing grade,
being dropped from your course or program, and even being suspended or
expelled from your school.

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 A bibliography accomplishes a few things. These include:

 Showing your instructor that you conducted the necessary research for your
assignment

 Crediting your sources’ authors for the research they conducted

 Making it easy for anybody who reads your work to find the sources you
used and conduct their own research on the same or a similar topic

 Additionally, future historians consulting your writing can use your

bibliography to identify primary and secondary sources in your research field.
Documenting the course information from its original source through later
academic works can help researchers understand how that information has
been cited and interpreted over time. It can also help them review the
information in the face of competing—and possibly contradictory or
revisionary—data.

 In nearly all cases, a bibliography is found at the end of a book or paper.

What are the different kinds of bibliographies?

 Different types of academic works call for different types of bibliographies.
For example, your computer science professor might require you to submit
an annotated bibliography along with your paper because this type of
bibliography explains the why behind each source you chose to consult.

Analytical bibliography

 An analytical bibliography documents a work’s journey from manuscript to

published book or article. This type of bibliography includes the physical
characteristics of each cited source, like each work’s number of pages, type
of binding used, and illustrations.

Annotated bibliography

 An annotated bibliography is a bibliography that includes annotations, which

are short notes explaining why the author chose each of the sources.
Generally a few sentences long, these notes might summarize or reflect on
the source.

 An annotated bibliography is not the same as a literature review. While a

literature review discusses how you conducted your research and how your

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work fits into the overall body of established research in your field, an
annotated bibliography simply explains how each source you used is relevant
to your work.

Enumerative bibliography

 An enumerative bibliography is the most basic type of bibliography. It’s a

list of sources used to conduct research, often ordered according to specific
characteristics, like alphabetically by authors’ last names or grouped
according to topic or language.

 Specific types of enumerative bibliographies used for research works

include:

o National bibliography

 A national bibliography groups sources published in a specific region or

nation. In many cases, these bibliographies also group works according to
the time period during which they were published.

o Personal bibliography

 A personal bibliography lists multiple works by the same individual author

or group of authors. Often, personal bibliographies include works that
would be difficult to find elsewhere, like unpublished works.

o Corporate bibliography

 In a corporate bibliography, the sources are grouped according to their

relation to a specific organization. The sources can be about an
organization, published by that organization, or owned by that
organization.

o Subject bibliography

 Subject bibliographies group works according to the subjects they cover.

Generally, these bibliographies list primary and secondary sources,
whereas other types of enumerative bibliographies, like personal
bibliographies, might not.

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Other types of bibliographies

In some cases, it makes sense to use a bibliography format other than those

listed here. These include:

o Single-author bibliography

 This type of bibliography lists works by a single author. With certain

assignments, like an essay comparing two of an author’s books, your

bibliography is a single-author bibliography by default.

 In this case, you can choose how to order the sources, such as by

publication date or alphabetically by title.

o Selected bibliography

 A selected bibliography is a bibliography that only lists some of the sources

you consulted. Usually, these are the most important sources for your

work.

 You might write a selected bibliography if you consulted a variety of minor

sources that you didn’t end up citing directly in your work. A selected

bibliography may also be an annotated bibliography.

How is a bibliography structured?

Although each style guide has its own formatting rules for bibliographies, all
bibliographies follow a similar structure. Key points to keep in mind when you’re
structuring a bibliography include:

o Every bibliography page has a header. Format this header according to the

style guide you’re using.

o Every bibliography has a title, such as ―Works Cited,‖ ―References,‖ or

simply ―Bibliography.‖

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o Bibliographies are lists. List your sources alphabetically according to their

authors’ last names or their titles—whichever is applicable according to the

style guide you’re using. The exception is a single-author bibliography or

one that groups sources according to a shared characteristic.

o Bibliographies are double-spaced.

o Bibliographies should be in legible fonts, typically the same font as the

papers they accompany.

o As noted above, different kinds of assignments require different kinds of

bibliographies.

o For example, you might write an analytical bibliography for your art
history paper because this type of bibliography gives you space to discuss
how the construction methods used for your sources inform their content
and vice-versa. If you aren’t sure which kind of bibliography to write, ask
your instructor.

How do you write a bibliography?

o The term ―bibliography‖ is a catch-all for any list of sources cited at the
end of an academic work.
o Certain style guides use different terminology to refer to bibliographies. For
example, MLA format refers to a paper’s bibliography as its Works Cited
page. APA refers to it as the References page.
o No matter which style guide you’re using, the process for writing a
bibliography is generally the same. The primary difference between the
different style guides is how the bibliography is formatted.
o The first step in writing a bibliography is organizing all the relevant
information about the sources you used in your research. Relevant
information about a source can vary according to the type of media it is,
the type of bibliography you’re writing, and your style guide.
o Determine which information you need to include about each source by
consulting the style guide you’re using. If you aren’t sure what to include,
or if you’re not sure which style guide to use, ask your instructor.

o The next step is to format your sources according to the style guide you’re
using. MLA, APA, and the Chicago Manual of Style are three of the most
commonly used style guides in academic writing.

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 MLA Works Cited page

o In MLA format, the bibliography is known as the Works Cited page. MLA is
typically used for writing in the humanities, like English and History.
Because of this, it includes guidelines for citing sources like plays, videos,
and works of visual art—sources you’d find yourself consulting for these
courses, but probably not in your science and business courses.

 In MLA format, books are cited like this:

o Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. City of Publication, Publisher,

Publication Date.

o If the cited book was published prior to 1900, is from a publisher with
offices in multiple countries, or is from a publisher that is largely unknown
in the US, include the book’s city of publication. Otherwise, this can be left
out.

 Scholarly articles are cited in this format:

 Author(s). ―Title of Article.‖ Title of Periodical, Day Month Year, pages.

 APA References page

o In APA format—the format typically used in psychology, nursing, business,

and the social sciences—the bibliography page is titled References.

o This format includes citation instructions for technical papers and data-

heavy research, the types of sources you’re likely to consult for academic
writing in these fields.

o In APA format, books are cited like this:

o Last name, First initial. (Year of publication). Title of work. Publisher Name.

o Digital object identifier (DOI).

o Scholarly articles are cited in this format:

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o Authors. (Year published). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume

number

o (issue number), article’s page range (i.e., 10-15). URL.

4. Explain the brief about fonts with an example.

Over View

 Choosing the font

 What i was looking for

 Narrowing down

 Making a choice

CHOOSING THE FONT

 How do we go about actually choosing a font for our project? In my web

typography book, I recommend seven things to consider, the key three are
the following:

o The goal of the website and its content

 The goal here is to present my new course and myself as a credible and
capable person to teach about the topic. The website is not about
reading long articles, it needs to get a visitor’s attention quickly.

o Body text or headings

 Are we choosing a font for body text or for headings? Since the goal is
to captivate visitors, I wanted to focus on choosing the right font for the
headings.

o The text

 Reading the text we’re designing for is fundamental—how can you choose a
font for something you have no idea what it’s about? Reading samples of
text should be right at the start of the process. Don’t use Lorem Ipsum, if
you can’t get samples of content, try to find a similar website and ―borrow‖
its content until you do get them.

 For UX Buddy, I already had the title, the value proposition and the name.
So I was good to go.

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WHAT I WAS LOOKING FOR

 At this point, I had some text to work with, I knew what its goal was and I
also knew I was focusing on finding the perfect font for headings. That,
combined with the branding that reflects my personality, led me towards
using a geometric sans serif font, my favourite style. If you don’t know the
basic font styles and how to tell them apart, check out my guide to
recognising font styles. It’s the very first step in making original font
choices.

 I first looked through the fonts of this style on Google Fonts and Adobe
Fonts but couldn’t find a match. For example, I knew I wanted the font to
have single-storey ―a‖ and ―g‖ lowercase letter styles in Fig.5.1.

Fig.5.1. Lowercase letters

 Double-storey ―a‖ and ―g‖ on the left, single-storey ―a‖ and ―g‖ on the right

 I found a couple of great matches

there: Larsseit, Nexa, Axiforma, Mont, Sofia Pro and Gilroy. I also knew I
wanted to use the bold weight as the primary style, to help evoke that
feeling of friendliness. Here they are, already set in the primary colour I
was planning to use in Fig.5.2.

Fig.No.5.2 Fonts
 Note that Larsseit uses the double-storey style for the letter ―a‖ but it’s
possible to switch to the single-storey style with OpenType alternative
styles feature.

 Interestingly, all these fonts came in numerous weights and had good
OpenType and language support. Fonts from myfonts.com can also be
loaded as web fonts straight away so I knew there wouldn’t be any
problems with their size in kilobytes. With those reassurances, I focused on
the styles of the fonts. I went on to set the text I had to work with to each

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of these fonts and examined them closely. I started with the name of the
project Fig.5.3.

Fig.No.5.3 Fonts
 Side note: I knew from the start that I wanted to make the logo extremely
simple as well. So I was aiming at a type-only logo.

 Let’s recall the guidelines I established for the branding of the project:

o Minimalistic but not sterile

o Warm but not unprofessional

o To the point instead of beating around the bush These were great for
the next step of narrowing down and making a choice.

NARROWING DOWN

 Take a look at the UX buddy name set in Larsseit, Nexa and Sofia Pro
below.

Fig.No.5.4 Narrowing Down

 Do you notice a reoccurring pattern in the letter ―y‖?

 Take a closer look at the letter ―y‖. See how abrupt and sharp it seems? It
looks cold and formal. Even sterile maybe, especially when compared to
the other three fonts where the descenders are slightly curled in Fig.5.4.
(Gilroy on the right in the image below).

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Fig.No.5.5 style
 Two styles of descenders: very sharp, abrupt and cold on the left, curled
and thus slightly warmer and more pleasant on the right.

 It didn’t align with the branding I had in mind so I eliminated these three
fonts straight away. Now, I was left with Axiforma, Mont and Gilroy. Let’s
take a look at how the title of the page looks when set with them in
Fig.5.5.

Fig.No.5.6 other fonts

 Do you notice the triangular shape in lowercase letter ―t‖ in Mont? It stands
out too much in Fig.5.6.

 I immediately noticed something interesting about the Mont: the lowercase

letter ―t‖ has a very specific style (take a look at the word ―better‖ in the
image above). So much that it stands out. I didn’t like that so I eliminated
Mont. Axiforma and Gilroy seemed both like really good options so I
examined them even more. I decided to set the one-sentence value
proposition of the course in each of them and make a side-by-side
comparison in Fig.5.7.

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Fig.No.5.7 other fonts

MAKING A CHOICE

 At first, I loved how the lowercase letter ―f‖ in Axiforma aligned with other
letters in words (―Portfolio‖ in the image below). But now it also became
apparent that it looks a bit weird when it’s at the end of a word (―of‖ in the
image below). It looks unbalanced and strange in Fig.5.8.

Fig.No.5.8 making a choice

 The flow of the letters ―rtf‖ but it looks unbalanced in other words.

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 Something else became clear at this point. Some of the descenders in

Axiforma curled upwards which starts to stand out in a longer text like this.
Take a look at the lowercase letters ―j‖ and ―y‖.

Fig.No.5.9 making a choice

 Descenders in Axiforma curl upwards at the very edge while they’re cut off

 somewhat abruptly in Gilroy in Fig.5.10.

 Gilroy isn’t perfect either, I don’t really like the quotation marks and the
comma. The style from Axiforma looks a lot friendlier and warm.

Fig.No.5.10 Quotation Mark

But overall, I love how well-balanced Gilroy looks. It also aligns well with what I
wanted to achieve for the branding of the project so I decided to use it.

I wanted it to stand out on the website so I decided to combine it with a system

font for the body text.

The system font is a perfect companion in this case because what font is more
generic than the font that the user sees everywhere on their computer? Apple’s
San Francisco in Mac OS and Microsoft’s Segoe UI in Windows both look good

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next to Gilroy and these are the fonts most visitors will see. Here’s the final
combination as it looks on Mac OS:

Fig.No.5.11 How to write a paragraph

 This concludes this practical example of choosing a font. I established

branding guidelines from the start and came up with the content I could
work with. From there on, I went looking for suitable fonts and kept
narrowing down until I was left with the best option in Fig.5.11.

 With this approach, I get a font choice that’s well-aligned with the goal of
the project and its branding but also works well with its content. It’s much
better than using a font that just looks good on a website I stumbled upon.

5. How can you improve report readability with line spacing?

Over View

 Why line spacing matters

 How to choose the right line spacing

 How to adjust line spacing in Word

 How to adjust line spacing in Google Docs

 How to check line spacing consistency

 How to test line spacing readability

 Here’s what else to consider

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1.Why line spacing matters

 Line spacing is not just a cosmetic detail. It has a significant impact on how
easy or difficult it is to read and comprehend your report.
 If your line spacing is too tight, your text will look crowded and dense,
making it hard to scan and follow. If your line spacing is too loose, your
text will look sparse and disconnected, making it hard to maintain focus
and coherence. Ideally, your line spacing should be balanced and
consistent, creating a clear and comfortable visual flow for your readers.

2.How to choose the right line spacing

 There is no one-size-fits-all rule for line spacing, as it depends on various

factors such as the font size, typeface, page size, and margin settings of
your document. However, a general guideline is to use a line spacing of 1.5
or 2 times the font size for the body text of your report, and a slightly
smaller line spacing for the headings and subheadings.
 For example, if you use a 12-point font for the body text, you can use a
1.5 or 2 line spacing, and a 1.25 or 1.5 line spacing for the headings and
subheadings. This will create enough white space between the lines to
improve readability and avoid clutter.

3.How to adjust line spacing in Word

 If you use Microsoft Word to create your business report, you can easily
adjust the line spacing of your document using the Paragraph dialog box.
To access it, select the text you want to change, right-click on it, and
choose Paragraph from the menu.
 Alternatively, you can go to the Home tab, click on the Line and Paragraph
Spacing icon, and select Line Spacing Options. In the Paragraph dialog box,
you can choose from various preset options for line spacing, such as
Single, 1.5 lines, or Double, or you can enter a custom value in the At box.
You can also adjust the spacing before and after each paragraph in the
same dialog box.

4.How to adjust line spacing in Google Docs

 If you use Google Docs to create your business report, you can also adjust
the line spacing of your document using the Format menu.
 To access it, select the text you want to change, go to the Format tab, and
choose Line spacing from the menu. You can choose from various preset
options for line spacing, such as 1, 1.15, 1.5, or 2, or you can enter a
custom value in the Custom spacing option.
 You can also adjust the spacing before and after each paragraph in the
same option.

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5.How to check line spacing consistency

 One of the common mistakes that can affect report readability with line
spacing is inconsistency.
 This can happen when you copy and paste text from different sources, or
when you apply different styles and formats to different sections of your
document. To avoid this, you should check the line spacing consistency of
your document before you finalize and submit it.
 You can do this by using the Show/Hide command in Word or Google Docs,
which will display the formatting marks and symbols in your document.
This will help you identify any discrepancies or errors in the line spacing, as
well as other aspects such as indentation, alignment, and punctuation.
 You can then correct them manually or by using the Clear Formatting
command in Word or Google Docs, which will remove any formatting from
the selected text and apply the default style.

6.How to test line spacing readability

 Another way to improve report readability with line spacing is to test it

before you share it with your audience. You can do this by printing a
sample page of your document and reading it from a distance of about 30
cm.
 This will help you evaluate how comfortable and clear your text is to read,
and whether you need to make any adjustments to the line spacing or
other elements.
 You can also ask a colleague or a friend to read your document and give
you feedback on the readability and appearance of your text. This will help
you get a fresh and objective perspective on your report, and identify any
issues or improvements that you might have missed.

7.Here’s what else to consider

 This is a space to share examples, stories, or insights that don’t fit into any
of the previous sections.

6. Explain the checking tables and illustration with an example.

Over View
 Definition of Table
 More about Tables
 Steps to prepare tables in a technical report
 Index
 Steps to Formatting Tables in a Technical Report

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 Guidelines for figures

 Examples

Definition of Table

 A table is a typographical device consisting of rows and columns. We use it

to present in condensed form, many pieces of related information for
comparison, selection or study.

 The entries in tables may be either numbers or words so arranged, that

their relationship is readily apparent.

 Tables play a major role in technical reports and, should be accurate,

complete and economical of space.

 Table Title

 We should ensure that the table title clearly describes the information
contained in it.

 For a special-purpose table, the title should indicate that purpose.

 The biggest problem encountered in composing a title of the table is its

being intolerably long.

 The title should be definite, clear and short. But the utmost important thing
is that it must convey the information clearly even at the cost of being a bit
long.

More about Tables

 Tables permit rapid access to and relatively easy comparison of

information. The tables may also show trend or pattern of an increasing
/decreasing activity, over an extended period.

 Therefore, tables are integral part of a well written technical report.

Steps to prepare tables in a technical report

We should take the following steps to prepare tables in a technical
report.
1. Decide upon the purpose of the table. It is helpful to write this down, so
that you can keep it in mind and use it to check the table, when it is
complete.

2. We should write down the two primary classifications, which we want to

use.

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3. Decide which classification will be placed vertically and which horizontally.

4. Make a detailed outline for each of the primary classifications. Check these
outlines for consistency and logic.

5. Make a preliminary design and fill in the column heads and stub. Insert
enough entries, so that you can test the design for ease of reading and
effectiveness.

6. Consider alternate designs with an open mind. If another design appears

possible, try it out. If any doubt, try the column heads in the stub and see
if this makes the table more effective.

7. When you have decided upon a firm design, insert all of the entries in the
body of the table.

8. Write the footnotes and key them to the proper entries or heads.

9. Write the title. This should be done after the table has been designed
rather than before, so that you can be sure of the contents. If it appears to
be too long, try to shorten it by introducing a subtitle.

10. Write any head notes that may be required.

11. Finally, we should check the table against the purpose for which it
was designed.

 Tables help organize content for easy reading. They’re used extensively
throughout technical documents, so they need to be accurate,
comprehensive, and economic of space.

 Type Size refers to the number of characters in an element’s content.

 There are two types of tables: simple and complex.

 Simple tables have only one row and column structure. They can contain
any combination of text, graphics, images or other objects.

 Complex tables are composed of several rows and columns. The data in
these tables must be properly formatted before they can be used.

Steps to Prepare Tables in a Technical Report

1. Identify and Understand Your Audience

2. Create a Table Template

3. Design Your Table Layout

4. Determine the Number of Columns Required

5. Select Appropriate Cell Borders

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6. Decide on Proper Font Style

7. Add Text Elements

8. Insert Images

9. Format Data

10. Check Spelling & Grammar

11. Proofread

12. Publish

13. Print on Demand

14. Deliver

15. Update

 Most documents use a standard template called a style sheet. A style sheet
defines how the formatting is applied to the entire document. It tells the
computer how to apply paragraph styles, font sizes, margins, and so forth.
File format : Word 2007, 2010, 2013, 2016, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022,
2023, 2024, 2025, etc.

 An example of a report template is shown below:

 Report Title: The Importance of Using Technology in Business

 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 – Introduction

Chapter 2 – What Is Technology?

Chapter 3 – What Are the Benefits of Using Technology?

Chapter 4 – How Technology Impacts the Workplace

Chapter 5 – Why Technology Management Matters Today

Chapter 6 – How Do We Manage Technology?

Chapter 7 – Managing Technology Costs

Chapter 8 – Managing Technology Risk

Chapter 9 – Managing Technology Security

Chapter 10 – Managing Technology Quality

Chapter 11 – Managing Technology Innovation

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List of References

Index

 Individual files contain only one type of content. For example, an individual
file may have text or graphics; however, these types of content cannot be
edited independently. Therefore, if you want to make changes to the text
or graphics, you must edit the entire file.

 In contrast, multiple-page files can hold different kinds of content. For

example,, you can create a two-page document that has text on one side

 Casual readers would like to read and graphics on the other hand . These
pages can be printed out separately and viewed individually.

 Multiple-page files are often used to present tables. For example,, you
could create a three-page document with a table on the left side and a
chart on the right.

 If you’ve ever worked with Microsoft Word, you know that there’s more
than one way to organize a document. Although most people prefer to
work with multiple-page files, some prefer to work with single

 The writing process is similar whether you’re working with multiple-page

files or single-page files. You begin by planning your topic and deciding
what kind of content you want to include. Then you write the introduction
and conclusion. Finally, you write the body of the article.

Steps to Formatting Tables in a Technical Report:

1. Create Table Outline

2. Write Body

3. Proofread

4. Edit

5. Print

6. Submit

7. Publish

 Academic writing refers to any written form of communication intended for

academic purposes. Academic writing includes research papers, term
papers, thesis statements, dissertations, essays, reports, letters, memos,
grant proposals, business plans, and many others.

 When writing an academic paper, you’ll need to follow certain guidelines to

ensure that you get good grades. Some of these guidelines include:

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o Include proper citations. Citing sources helps the reader understand

where ideas come from.

o Use correct grammar and spelling.

Guidelines for figures:

1. Ensure image clarity: Make sure that all the parts of the figure are clear: 18 Use

standard font; check that labels are legible against the figure background; and

ensure that images are sharp.24

2. Use legends to explain the key message:25 Figure legends are pivotal to the

effectiveness of a figure. Use them to draw attention to the central message as

well as to explain abbreviations and symbols.

3. Label all important parts: Label the key sections and parts of schematic

diagrams and photographs, and all axes, curves, and data sets in graphs and

data plots.6,7,16,18

4. Give specifics: Include scale bars in images and maps; specify units wherever

quantities are listed; include legends in maps and schematics; and specify
latitudes and longitudes on maps.7,18

Get help with creating technical artwork as per the guidelines of your target
journal with Editage’s professional artwork services.

Examples of well-prepared tables and figures

 This section presents one example each of a well-prepared table and a

well-designed figure.

 The table below is taken from a dietary study on chick-rearing macaroni

penguins26 and is an example of an effective table for the following

reasons:

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1. The title clearly describes what the table is about.

2. The column heads are descriptive and clearly indicate the nature of the data

presented.

3. The data is divided into categories for clarity.

4. It is self-contained and can be understood quite well even without reference to

the entire paper.

5. Superscript letters and notes are used to offer additional, clarifying

information.

6. Sufficient spacing is present between columns and rows; the layout is clean,

and the font is legible.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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Examples of an effective figure (graph)

The figure below from a paper on the efficacy of oyster reefs as natural

breakwaters27, scores on several counts:

The informative title that immediately tells the reader what to expect in the

graph.

1. The axes are labeled clearly.

2. The key clearly identifies what each element in the graph stands for.

3. A figure legend at the bottom draws the reader’s attention to the graph's
key points.

4. A note at the bottom acknowledges the source.

5. The graph is 2-dimensional, with no clutter.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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7. Explain the Presenting a report orally with an example.

Over View

 Finding and Assembling Material for an Oral Report

 Practicing and Fine-Tuning Your Oral Report
 Giving Your Report with Clarity and Confidence

Finding and Assembling Material for an Oral Report

1.Do some preliminary information gathering.

 Ask yourself: What are you hoping to convey? Your answer to this question
should be the guiding principle for compiling your report. In order to
inform, explain, and maybe even convince your audience, you need to be
well versed in the topic you’re presenting on.[1]
o Initially, you just want to familiarize yourself with the topic.
Most Wikipedia articles do a great job of including both the important facts
and the tantalizing points of interest.
o Keep in mind that many teachers and professors won't accept Wikipedia as
an academic source. These articles are great for familiarizing yourself with
a topic. Once you know the basics, though, you will need to use sources
such as books and journals for citations.

2. Follow-up on interesting and important information.

 Take note of the facts and concepts that interest you or otherwise stand
out. If you ever find yourself surprised by something you read while
researching, make a point of referencing it in your report. Note that the
footnotes of Wikipedia articles can provide you with a slew of citable
sources, making your time spent researching especially fruitful.[2]
o Double check any sources you're unsure of or intend to rely upon
heavily.

3. Use Google Scholar to research points that need strong evidence.

 Ask yourself what more you need to know to make a convincing point. This
will help guide your specific search queries. More specifically, use Google
Scholar to bring in some peer-reviewed, academic and scientific articles.
o Most of the content generated by Google Scholar will be firsthand
research publications, which are the strongest form of reference
there is.
o Don’t fall for the temptation to pepper your audience with as much
info as you can fit into the presentation.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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o Emphasize the one or two key elements of your presentation, and

include further material only insofar as it supports those points.
4. Gear your report to the audience.
 While researching for the specific content you’ll share with your audience,
think about who you’re giving the report to. The audience – whether your
fellow grade school classmates or a few other PhD candidates at your
university – will have backgrounds and knowledge relevant to how you’ll
structure your report.
o In particular, think about what a good entry point to the content of
your report may be, considering your audience.
o Write down three different opening points, based on what will
generate the interest of those you’re speaking to.

5. Include a short, clear introduction.

 It can be tempting to try to win your audience over as soon as you begin
speaking. Instead of leading with your best stuff, save it until after you’ve
gotten everyone listening. To do this, introduce yourself, and the topic of
your report in a few sentences. Articulate your specific objective in giving
the report, and explain to your audience how you’ll achieve this objective.

 For instance: ―Hello, my name is __________, and today I’ll be

talking about __________. My intention is to [share with / inform /
convince] you [about / that] ____________. I will do so by first
_______, then ________, and wrapping up with _________.‖

6.Maintain a logical flow.

 Throughout your report, maintain the logical flow that you outline in your
introduction. In simplest terms, make sure there’s a clear beginning,
middle, and end. Emphasize your key points whenever possible; in fact,
you should rarely, if ever, digress from material that directly contributes to
your objective of driving home one or two main points.
o If you encounter a roadblock when organizing your material, think
about what approach will most likely be understood by your
audience.
o In general, address your simplest and most basic arguments first,
and then move into your more complex arguments.

7. Use your conclusion to convey gratitude and repeat your main point.
 Throughout your report, you’ll address specific supporting material that will
culminate in a convincing presentation of your main points. As you develop
the conclusion, be sure to explicitly restate your main points. Thank the
audience for the their time, and welcome any questions they might have.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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8. Compile your sources into an organized list.

 As you encounter sources you know you’ll use, immediately add them to a
running list, perhaps with its own file. As you put the list together, use
whatever format your teacher or professor prefers. The end of the report is
usually the best place to include your references, and you do not
necessarily need to actually reference your sources out loud.
o You should verbally cite your sources if you followed their reasoning
closely or if your report was based mostly on one or two sources.

Practicing and Fine-Tuning Your Oral Report

1. Make yourself notecards.

 Even if you do not intend to use notecards while giving your report, make
some to help you condense the material you hope to cover and to help you
practice giving your report.

 Paraphrase your key points and write them in bullet format. Reducing your
points into bullet points will ensure you memorize the supporting material
as you practice, and will be able to give the report while looking at your
audience.
o Summarize subsidiary points into one word, if possible. This will
ensure you do not forget them, but will also not be sidetracked by
focusing too much on a tangential point.
o Include hard facts and statistics in your notecards too, especially
numerical data, as it is beneficial to have these on hand for
immediate reference.

2. Default towards brevity.

 Though it may feel as though more material means more support, more
material may also increase the chances that your audience will lose track of
your main point. The more concise you are, the more clear your report will
be. Further, too much material risks running over your allotted time and
increases the chances you lose track of your train of thought while giving
your report.
o Save nuanced dialogue for a question and answer session, if one
will be allowed. Hint at controversial or otherwise commonly
contended points, and anticipate addressing at least one additional
response to such a challenge if it is raised.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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3. Practice, practice, practice!

 If there’s one thing that will improve the quality of your report, it’s plenty
of practice giving the report. A great benchmark to shoot for while
practicing is the ability to give the entire report without looking at your
notes.
o While practicing, stick to the material you’ve included – tangents are
confusing for the audience and will eat your time more quickly than
you realize.

4. Time yourself while practicing.

 Especially if giving oral reports is a new experience for you, timing yourself
can help prevent certain bad habits by reassuring you that you’re on track.
Incorporate any visuals into your practice regimen, in part because they
will help you stay on track and maintain your timing.
o As an example, a 10-minute oral report should be practiced to the
point you can give it in 9 to 9.5 minutes.
o With such a time allotment, spend a maximum of 1 minute on your
introduction, with 7 to 7.5 minutes on the body of your report, and 1
to 1.5 minutes left to conclude.

5. Curate the visual components of your presentation.

 Visuals are an important component of oral reports, since they help your
audience contextualize presentation. Too many slides or visual aids can be
distracting, though.
 Keep the number of visuals you use at or lower than the number of
minutes in your presentation. If, for example, you have a 15-minute
presentation with an accompanying slideshow, aim to have 13-16 well-
curated slides.
o Decide which visuals best suit your presentation based on their
ability to support what you’re saying verbally.
o Try to keep your visuals clean and professional. An overabundance of
colors, font styles, or showy effects and animations can distract from
your presentation.
o In the visuals that you do include, default towards simplicity. If
you’re including a graph, for instance, only plot the data and include
the labels necessary to make your point, along with the source for
the graph or data used.

6. Fine-tune the amount of material you include to your allotted time.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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 While accounting for what your audience can be expected to already be

familiar with, make sure to only cover necessary information. Over-
explaining simple concepts is a sure fire way to lose an audience’s interest,
and this is the stuff that can usually be cut down to size while editing the
amount of content in your report. Further, people’s attention spans are
objectively limited.
o For a scripted oral presentation, know that a 10-minute presentation
will likely run from 900 to 1200 words.

7. Record yourself giving your presentation.

 Record and listen or video record and view yourself giving your report.
This will remind you of anything you may still need to work on. Watch
for opportunities to adjust content, as well as signs of any potential bad
habits – you’ll be better able to break these habits after witnessing
them for yourself.

Giving Your Report with Clarity and Confidence

1.Address the audience directly.

 There are several physical components of giving a great oral report.

Foremost among them, you must look at your audience! Maintain general
eye contact by scanning from person to person. Use hand gestures while
making especially important points, but take care not to wave your hands
around the whole time you’re speaking.
o Make sure your body language reflects engagement and enthusiasm
by standing up straight and holding still, though comfortably so.
o Another benefit of making eye contact is that this allows you to
gauge your audience. If faces are starting to go blank: slow down,
speak more loudly, and give more illustrative examples of the points
you’re making.

2.Fight your nerves.

 Understand that’s totally okay to feel nervous about giving an oral report.
Remind yourself that you’re prepared, rehearsed, and organized – all that’s
left is to share it with the audience. Take a few deep breaths before taking
the podium and picture yourself nailing it as you prepare to begin.
o If you’re nervous, you may wind up speaking too quickly or too softly
without thinking about it. Stay aware of your voice and the speed with
which you’re speaking.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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o Smile. Not only will this help engage your audience, it’ll help calm you
down!

3. Emphasize and reiterate what you want your audience to remember.

 Don’t forget to hammer your key points in the conclusion to drive them
home. A great way to do this is slowing down as you build up to your
closing statements, and pause immediately before and after the key points
– this will allow you to collect yourself, and allow your audience to absorb
the information you’re hoping to convey.

4. Break up the amount of time the audience spends listening to you.

 Keep your audience engaged throughout your report by giving them small
breaks as you speak. You may include a "think-pair-share" activity by
asking your audience a specific question, having them discuss it with the
person next to them, then offering to share their ideas. You can also
include short activities to help your audience solidify their understanding of
your topic.

5. Allow time for questions.

 You can take questions as you give your report, or you can reserve time at
the end of your speech. Either way, your audience should have the chance
to directly address you while you're in front of them.
o Try to prepare for questions in advance. Look over your report and
find points of confusion and possible counter-arguments. Draw up a
few points relevant to your anticipated questions so that you'll have
them ready the day of your presentation.
o If, for example, you're presenting on financial planning to a group of
college students, it's likely that many but not all of them will
understand the difference between a 401(k) and an IRA.

8. Explain the detail about the techniques for the report writing
with an example.
Over View

 Report Writing – An Introduction

 Report Writing Formats
 Research report
 What are the report sections?
 Report Writing Tips

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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Report Writing – An Introduction

 You might have to write a report at university (an academic report) or as

part of your job (a business or technical report).
 There are also different reasons for report writing: to present information
(such as a lab report or financial report); to present research findings; or
to analyse a problem and then recommend a particular action or strategy.
 A report can be long or short, formal or informal. The style and vocabulary
choice will depend on who is going to read your report, and their level of
understanding or expertise.
 Reports should be clear and concise, with the information presented
logically in sections, with headings and (if necessary) sub-headings.

Report Writing Formats

 Reports don’t always follow the same formats or include all the possible,
different sections. If you’re unsure about the correct report writing format
to use, check with your tutor (at university) or find out the preferred layout
that your company uses.

Research report

 As part of your academic course (especially if you’re studying a scientific or

technical subject), you may need to write a research report.

 In it you’ll address a particular situation (saying why it’s worthy of research

and referencing other studies on the subject); describe your research
methods and evaluate the results of your research; then finally make
conclusions or recommendations.

What are the report sections?

o Title page – the title of your report, your name, the date, academic
information (your course and tutor’s name).
o Acknowledgements – if you’ve received help (ie from experts,
academics, libraries).
o Terms of reference (optional)
This gives the scope and limitations of your report – your objective in
writing and who it’s for.
o Summary / Abstract – in brief, the most important points of your report:
your objectives (if you don’t include a terms of reference section), main
findings, conclusions and recommendations.

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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o Table of Contents
All the sections and sub-sections of your report with page references, plus
a list of diagrams or illustrations and appendices.
o Introduction
Why you’re researching the topic, the background and goals of your
research, your research methods, plus your conclusion in brief.
o Methods / Methodology / Procedure (optional – if not included in the
introduction)
How you carried out your research, techniques, equipment or procedures
you used.
o Main body / Discussion (the longest part of your report)
Contains an analysis and interpretation of your findings (often linked to
current theory or previous research) divided into headings and sub-
headings for clarity. You can also include visual information, such as
diagrams, illustrations, charts, etc.
o Results (can also go before the main body of the report)
The findings of your research (also presented in tables, etc) but without
any discussion or interpretation of them.
o Conclusion
What you can say about the results – your deductions, and the most
important findings from your research.
o Recommendations (can also be part of the conclusion section)
Number these if you have more than one.
o Appendices
Extra information which is too long for the main body of your report, such
as tables, questionnaires, etc.
o References
All the sources you refer to in your report.
o Bibliography (optional)
Books, journals, etc which you read or used during your research.
o Glossary (optional)
Technical or jargon words which your reader might not understand.
Report Writing Tips

 These report writing tips will save you time and make sure that what you
write is relevant. There are five writing tips followed by five language tips.

1. Write your executive summary and table of contents at the end

 This means that the section headings and page numbers will be consistent.
The executive summary is much easier to write if you have already written
the rest.

2. Focus on the objective

 Make sure you understand the purpose of your report and who you’re
writing it for. If you’re writing a report as part of your university course,

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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read the brief carefully and refer back to it so that everything you write
and include is relevant.

 If you’re writing a business report, write an objective statement first. This

helps you decide what’s going to be relevant and important for the reader.
You can use the objective as the title of the report, or put it in the
introduction

3. Plan before you start writing

 Gather all your research and relevant information. You might need to
interview people, do some background reading or carry out experiments.
 Decide on a structure for your report. How are you going to organise the
information you have into sections? How can you divide these sections into
headings and sub-headings?
 Plan your structure by writing all your points on a piece of paper, then
grouping these ideas into sections and headings. Alternatively, try a ―mind
map‖. Write a subject word in a box, and then write ideas around this
subject word, drawing lines to connect them to the subject word. Doing
this can help you see where information is related and where it can be
grouped.
 Make sure you keep a note of all your references so you can write the
references section afterwards. As you plan out the structure of your report,
think about how it’s linked to the objective of your report. What
conclusions or recommendations can you make? Is there anything unusual
that you might need to explain?
4. Use a clear layout
 Make your report look more readable and inviting. Here are some ways to
help you do this:
 Use headings and sub-headings to break up the text. Remember to number
these consistently. Here are two alternatives:
Section 1
Sub-section 1(a), 1(b)
Sub-sub-section 1 (a) (i), 1 (a) (ii); 1 (b) (i), 1 (b), (ii)
Or:
Section 1
Sub-section 1.1, 1.2
Sub-sub-section 1.1.1, 1.1.2; 1.2.1, 1.2.2

 Include adequate spacing and margins to make the text look less dense
 Write well-structured paragraphs. Paragraphs shouldn’t be more than five
sentences long. For example, your first sentence is the topic sentence –
the main idea of the paragraph. The second to fourth sentences expand on
this idea, giving supporting or additional information, commenting on the

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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points raised, or referring to other data. The final sentence concludes the
ideas presented, or leads on to the following paragraph.
5. Edit and proof read!
Here’s a check list of what you should ask yourself before submitting your report:

– Is it free of grammatical mistakes, concise and easy to read?

– Do the sections follow on logically from each other?
– Is each point supported with evidence or data?
– Are the conclusions and recommendations persuasive?
– Are all the sources correctly referenced?

 And finally – have you kept to the report objective or brief?

 Report Writing – Language Tips
 Aim to write clearly and concisely. Here are five ways to help you do this:
6. Keep sentences short and simple
 Include only one main idea in each sentence, with extra information in
following sentences, introduced by a appropriate linking word (see below).
Avoid writing long sentences with lots of sub-clauses which will make it
difficult for your reader to follow you. Aim for sentences which are no
longer than 15-20 words.

7. Use linking words

 Words and phrases like ―Therefore‖, ―However‖, ―For this reason‖, etc help
your reader follow your ideas. For a complete list of linking words (and
examples of their use) check out our page on linking words.
8. Use everyday English
 Explain jargon or technical language (if you’re writing for a non-technical
audience) and include these terms in a glossary.

9. Avoid passive forms where possible

 Scientific and technical reports often include passive forms instead of
subject pronouns like ―I‖ and ―you‖, but for business reports you can write
more simply and directly.

 To make your business report sound more objective, you can use the ―third
person‖. For example, ―This report outlines the advantages and
disadvantages of company pension schemes.‖ Other verbs you can use in
the ―third person‖ are:

o analyze
―This section analyzes the differences between the two markets.‖
o describe
―This report describes the procedures commonly used in assessing
insurance claims.‖

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
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o discuss
―This report discusses the implications of the new building regulations.‖
o examine
―This report examines the impact of natural disasters on our production
facilities.‖
o explain
―This section explains the decisions to suspend investment in Europe.‖
o identify
―This report identifies the advantages and disadvantages of relocating our
head office.‖
o illustrate
―This report illustrates the main difficulties in opening new branches in
Asia.‖
o outline
―This section outlines our R&D priorities.‖
o review
―This report reviews our franchising operations.‖
o summarize
―This report summarizes the main points raised at the Shareholders
Meeting.‖
o Keep an eye on punctuation

o Correct punctuation helps your reader move more easily through your

report. If you’re not sure on when to use commas or semi-colons (for

example), check out our punctuation guide.

Prepared By : E.Indra ASP/CSE, P.R.Jayanthi ASP /CSE, S. Vanakovarayan ASP/CSE 48