COAL TECHNOLOGIES

M.Sc. Chemical Engineering

Delivered by:
Dr Umair Aslam
[email protected]

Department of Chemical Engineering

University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore
 Coal Processing
• Coal Mining
– Underground Mining
– Surface Mining
• Coal Preparation
• Coal Transportation
• Coal Combustion
 Coal Mining
• The negative aspects of mining operations can lead to confrontations among citizen
groups, governmental agencies, and the mining industry.
– Destruction of the landscape
– Degradation of the visual environment
– Disturbance of surface water and groundwater
– Destruction of agricultural and forest lands
– Damage to recreational lands
– Noise pollution
– Dust
– Truck traffic
– Sedimentation and erosion
– Land subsidence
– Vibration from blasting
• Unsafe working conditions leading to injuries, deaths, and high incidences of
respiratory diseases
• Use of child labor
• Scarred landscapes
• Poor miner living conditions
• Contentious and sometimes extremely violent labor relations

• All these issues have been addressed using following

techniques/procedures/protocols;
– Environmental impact assessment and public inquiries
– Conditions for mining permit approval
– Resource management and land-use planning
– Land reclamation and rehabilitation
– Regulations specifically addressing miner safety and training
 Underground Mining
• Underground mining is used for deep seams.
• Shaft mines, slope mines, and drift mines
• Room and pillar mining (conventional and continuous), pitch
mining, or longwall mining
 Underground Mining
• Health and environmental impacts
– Subsidence
– Generation of Gases
– Liquid Effluents/Acid Mine Drainage
– Hydrologic Impact
– Health Effects/Miner Safety (pneumoconiosis (black lung)
and silicosis)
 Surface Mining
• Strip mining, Auger mining
• Health and environmental impacts
– Surface Disturbance
– Generation of Gases
– Liquid Effluents/Acid Mine Drainage
– Hydrologic Impact
– Solid Waste/Dust
– Health Effects/Miner Safety
 Coal Preparation
• Crushing • Water Contamination from
• Screening Preparation Plants
• Conventional cleaning • Air Contamination from
Preparation Plants
• Deep cleaning
• Refuse Contaminants from
• Blending
Preparation Plants
• Dedusting
• Health and Safety Issues
 Coal Transportation
• Coal transportation is accomplished through rail, truck, water,
slurry pipeline, or conveyor; however, most is performed by
rail.
• Environmental impacts occur during loading, en-route, or
during unloading and affect natural systems, manmade
buildings and installations, and people.
Coal Combustion
 Coal Combustion By-Products (CCB)
• Fly ash
• Bottom ash
• Boiler slag
• FGD (Flue Gas Desulfurization) material
 Chemistry of Sulfur Oxide (SO2/SO3) Formation

❑Sulfur in coal occurs in three forms: as pyrite, organically bound to the

coal, or as sulfates.
❑The distribution between pyritic and organic sulfur is variable with up to
approximately 40% of the sulfur being pyritic.
❑During combustion, the pyritic and organically bound sulfur are oxidized
to SO2 with a small amount of SO3 being formed.
❑The SO2/SO3 ratio is typically 40:1 to 80:1
 Generation of SOx
The overall reaction for the formation of SO2 is:
S + O2 → SO2 ΔHf = -128,560 Btu/lb mole
and the overall reaction for the formation of SO3 is:
SO2 + 1/2O2 ←→ SO3 ΔHf = -170,440 Btu/lb mole
It is proposed that SO is formed early in the reaction zone and is
intermediate product. The major SO2 reactions are:
SO + O2 → SO2 + O
SO + OH → SO2 + H
The reactions involving SO3 are reversible. The reactions for SO3 is the
three-body process:
SO2 + O +M → SO3 +M
where M is a third body that is an energy absorber. The major steps for
removal of SO3 are thought to be :
SO3 + O → SO2 + O2
SO3 + H → SO2 + OH
SO3 +M → SO2 + O +M
 Generation of NOx
• Seven oxides of nitrogen are present in ambient air;
• Nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), NO3, N2O3, N2O4, and N2O5.
• NOx = NO, NO2
• NOy = sum of the reactive oxides of nitrogen and all other compounds that are atmospheric
products of NOx
• NOy includes HNO3, HNO2, NO3, N2O5 and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN). It excludes N2O and NH3
because they are not normally the products of NOx reactions
• The majority of nitrogen oxides emitted from power plants are in the form of nitric oxide (NO),
with only a small fraction as nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O).
• NO originates from the coal-bound nitrogen and nitrogen in the air used in the combustion
process and is produced through three mechanisms:
Thermal NO, Prompt NO, Fuel NO
• The factors that influence NOx emissions in pulverized coal-fired boilers can be generally
categorized as boiler design, boiler operation, and coal properties; however, NOx formation is
complex, and many parameters influence its production.
 Thermal NO
• Thermal NO formation involves the high-temperature (> 2650 °F) reaction of oxygen and
nitrogen from the combustion air.

• The principal reaction governing the formation of NO is the reaction of oxygen atoms
formed from the dissociation of O2 with nitrogen, referred to as the Zeldovich mechanism,

N2 + O• ←→NO +N•
N• + O2 ←→ NO + O•
• These reactions are sensitive to temperature, local stoichiometry, and residence time.
• Thermal NO is of greater significance in the post-flame region than within the flame.
• Consequently, several technologies have been developed for reducing thermal NO by;
• lowering the peak temperature in the flame,
• minimizing the residence time in the region of the highest temperature,
• and controlling the excess air levels.
 Prompt NO
• Prompt NO is produced by the reaction of hydrocarbon fragments and
molecular nitrogen (in air) in the flame front.
• The proposed mechanism is:
CH• +N2 ←→ HCN +N•
HCN + O• ←→NH• + CO
NH• + O• ←→NO• + H•
• The amount of prompt NO generated is proportional to the
concentration of N2 and the number of carbon atoms present in the gas
phase.
• The total amount produced is low in comparison to the total thermal and
fuel NO in coal combustion.
 Fuel NO
• Nitrogen in the coal, which typically ranges from 0.5 to 2.0 wt.%, occurs mainly as
organically-bound heteroatoms in aromatic rings or clusters.
• Pyrrolic (5-membered ring) nitrogen is the most abundant and contributes 50 to 60% of
the total nitrogen.
• Pyridinic (6-membered ring) nitrogen comprises about 20 to 40% of the total nitrogen.
The remaining 0 to 20% nitrogen is thought to be in amine or quaternary nitrogen form.
• Fuel NO is the primary source of NOx in flue gas from coal combustion and is formed
from the gas-phase oxidation of devolatilized nitrogen containing species and the
heterogeneous combustion of nitrogen-containing char in the tail of the flame.
• The tar/char undergoes pyrolysis to convert most of the nitrogen to HCN as well as
some NH3 and NH.
C + NO ←→ 1/2N2 + CO
CH• + NO ←→ HCN + O•
• The partitioning of nitrogen between volatiles and char is important in NOx formation.
• Fuel NO is produced more readily than thermal NO because the N–H
and N–C bonds common in fuel-bound nitrogen are weaker than the
triple bond in molecular nitrogen in the air, which must be dissociated
to produce thermal NO.
 Nitrogen Dioxide and Nitrous Oxide
❑Comprise less than 5% of the total NOx production.
❑The oxygen levels are too low and the residence times are too
short in high temperature coal flames for much of the NO to be
oxidized to NO2.
O• +N2 ←→ N2O
NH• + NO ←→ N2O + H•
NCO• + NO ←→ N2O + CO
 Particulate Matter (PM)
• A mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air
• Some particles are large or dark enough to be seen as soot or smoke,
while others are so small they cannot be seen with the naked eye.
• Fine particles, less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5), result from fuel combustion
from motor vehicles, power generation, industrial facilities, and
residential fireplaces and woodstoves.
• Coarse particles, larger than 2.5 μm but classified as less than 10 μm
(PM10), are generally emitted from sources such as vehicles traveling on
unpaved roads, materials handling, crushing and grinding operations,
and windblown dust.
• Coal generally contains from 5 to 20 weight percent (wt.%) mineral
matter.
 Particulate Matter (PM)
• During combustion, most of the minerals are transformed into dust-sized glassy
particles and, along with some unaltered mineral grains and unburned carbon, are
emitted from smokestacks.
• Particle composition, size and emission levels are complex functions of firing
configuration, boiler operation, and coal properties.
• Environmental Effects
– Reduction in visibility
– Combination of particulate matter and other pollutants such as sulfur dioxide may
affect plant growth
– Dust deposited onto leaf surfaces may reduce gas exchange, increase leaf surface
temperature, and decrease photosynthesis.
• Health Effects
– Heart and lung disease
– Premature death
• Organic Compounds
– Unburned combustibles gaseous compounds (products of incomplete
combustion)
– Environmental and health effects
• Ethylene has adverse effects on plant growth.
• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are carcinogens.
• Carbon Monoxide
– CO can be formed during system startup or upset (product of
incomplete combustion).
– High concentrations of CO can cause physiological and pathological
changes and ultimately death.
• Carbon Dioxide (greenhouse gas)
• Carbon Dioxide (greenhouse gas)
• Carbon Dioxide (greenhouse gas)
• Environmental and health effects
– Effects on agriculture production, forests, water resources, coastal
areas and species
– Warmer temperatures can lead to more intense rainfall and flooding
– Weather-related mortality
– Infectious diseases
– Air-quality respiratory illnesses
– Spread of diseases, such as malaria and dengue fever
– Rise in the number of extreme heat waves
 Sulfur Dioxide Control
• Building tall stacks to disperse the pollutants
• Switching to a lower sulfur fuel
• Cleaning the coal to remove the sulfur-bearing components
such as pyrite
• Installing flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems
 Using Low-Sulfur Fuels
• Natural gas
• Liquefied natural gas
• Low-sulfur fuel oils
• Low-sulfur coals
 Coal Cleaning
• To provide ash removal, energy enhancement, and product
standardization
• Series of operations that remove mineral matter
• Different mechanical operations to perform the separation,
such as size reduction, size classification, cleaning, dewatering
and drying, waste disposal, and pollution control
 Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD)
• Wet scrubbers are the most common FGD method currently in use.
• Sorbents used include calcium-, magnesium-, potassium-, or sodium-
based sorbents, ammonia, or seawater.
• Limestone- and Lime-Based Scrubbers
– Most popular commercial FGD system
– Inherent simplicity
– The availability of an inexpensive sorbent (limestone)
– Production of a usable by-product (gypsum)
– Reliability
– Availability
– High removal efficiencies obtained (which can be as high as 99%)
 Limestone with Forced Oxidation (LSFO)
• A limestone slurry is used in an open spray tower with in situ
oxidation to remove SO2 and form a gypsum sludge.
• Major advantages relative to a conventional limestone FGD
system are
– Easier dewatering of the sludge
– More economical disposal of the scrubber product solids
– Decreased scaling on the tower walls
– It is capable of greater than 90% SO2 removal
 Sodium-Based Scrubbers
• Lime Dual Alkali

– Higher availability because there is less potential for scaling and

plugging of the soluble absorption reagents and reaction products
– Corrosion and erosion are prevented with the use of a relatively high
pH solution
– Maintenance labor and material requirements are low
– Power consumption is lower due to the smaller pump requirements
– There is no process blowdown water discharge stream
 Regenerative Processes
• Wellman–Lord Process
Regenerative Magnesia Scrubbing
 Dry Flue Gas Desulfurization Technology

• Sorbent Injection Processes

– Furnace Sorbent Injection (FSI)
• Simple process
• Dry reagent is injected directly into the flow path of the flue gas in the
furnace, and a separate absorption vessel is not required.
• The injection of lime in a dry form allows for a less complex reagent
handling system, which lowers operating labor and maintenance costs
and eliminates the problems of plugging, scaling, and corrosion found in
slurry handling.
• Power requirements are lower because less equipment is needed.
• Steam is not required for reheat, whereas most LSFO systems require
some form of reheat to prevent corrosion of downstream equipment.
• The sludge dewatering system is eliminated because the FSI process
produces a dry solid, which can be removed by conventional fly ash
removal systems.
 Disadvantages
• Process only removes up to 40 and 80% SO2 when using limestone and
hydrated lime, respectively.
• There is a potential for solids deposition and boiler convective pass
fouling, which occurs during the humidification step due to the impact
of solid droplets on surfaces.
• There is a potential for corrosion at the point of humidification and in
the ESP, downstream ductwork, and stack.
• Plugging can also occur, thereby affecting system pressures.
• The efficiency of an ESP can be reduced by increased particulate loading
• Sintering of the sorbent is a concern if it is injected at too high of a
temperature (e.g., >2300 °F for hydrated lime).
 Dry Flue Gas Desulfurization Technology

• Economizer Injection
 Dry Flue Gas Desulfurization Technology

• Duct Spray Drying

 Dry Flue Gas Desulfurization Technology

• Dry Sorbent Injection

 Dry Flue Gas Desulfurization Technology

• Hybrid Systems
Dry Flue Gas Desulfurization Technology
 NOx Control
• Combustion modifications where the NOx production is
reduced during the combustion process.
• Flue gas treatment, which removes the NOx from flue gas
following its formation.
Prepared by Dr Usman Ali
 References
❑Miller, B. G., Coal Energy Systems. Elsevier, 2005. Chapter 3
and 6