Flow in Open Channels

OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW
 Open-channel flow is a flow of liquid (basically
water) in a conduit with a free surface. That is a
surface on which pressure is equal to local
atmospheric pressure.

Free surface
Patm

Patm
Classification of Open-Channel Flows
Open-channel flows are characterized by the presence of a liquid-gas
interface called the free surface.

 Natural flows: rivers, creeks,  Human-made systems: fresh-

floods, etc. water aquaducts, irrigation,
sewers, drainage ditches, etc.

p=patm
 Comparison of OCF and Pipe Flow

1 V12/2g
2 EGL
hf HGL
V12/2g
EGL V22/2g
V22/2g
P1/g
HGL P2/g
y1
y2

Channel bottom
z1
z2 z1 z2
Datum line Datum line

1 Pipe Flow 2
Open-Channel Flow
 Comparison of OCF and Pipe Flow

1) OCF must have a free surface 1) No free surface in pipe flow

2) A free surface is subject to 2) No direct atmospheric pressure,

atmospheric pressure
hydraulic pressure only.

3) The driving force is mainly the

component of gravity along the flow 3) The driving force is mainly the
direction. pressure force along the flow
direction.
4) HGL is coincident with the free
surface. 4) HGL is (usually) above the conduit

5) Flow area is determined by the 5) Flow area is fixed by the pipe

geometry of the channel plus the dimensions The cross section of a
level of free surface, which is likely pipe is usually circular..
to change along the flow direction
and with as well as time.
 Comparision of OCF and Pipe Flow

6) The cross section may be of any

6) The cross section of a pipe is
from circular to irregular forms
usually circular
of natural streams, which may
change along the flow direction
and as well as with time.

7) Relative roughness changes with 7) The relative roughness is a fixed

quantity.
the level of free surface
8) No such dependence.
8) The depth of flow, discharge
and the slopes of channel
bottom and of the free surface
are interdependent.
Energy grade line and hydraulic grade line
 Kinds of Open Channel

 Canal
 Flume
 Chute
 Drop
 Culvert
 Open-Flow Tunnel
 Kinds of Open Channel

 CANAL is usually a long and mild-sloped channel

built in the ground.
 Kinds of Open Channel

 FLUME is a channel usually supported on or above the surface

of the ground to carry water across a depression.
 Kinds of Open Channel

 CHUTE is a channel having steep slopes.

 Kinds of Open Channel

 DROP is similar to a chute, but the change in

elevation is affected in a short distance.
Kinds of Open
Channel
 CULVERT is a covered
channel flowing partly
full, which is installed
to drain water through
highway and railroad
embankments.
 Kinds of Open Channel

 OPEN-FLOW TUNNEL is a
comparatively long covered
channel used to carry
water through a hill or any
obstruction on the ground.
 Channel Geometry
 A channel built with unvarying cross section and
constant bottom slope is called a PRISMATIC
CHANNEL.

 Otherwise, the channel is NONPRISMATIC.

 THE CHANNEL SECTION is the cross section of
a channel taken normal to the direction of the
flow.

The channel section (B-B)

The vertical channel section (A-A)

 THE VERTICAL CHANNEL SECTION is the
vertical section passing through the lowest or
bottom point of the channel section.

The channel section (B-B)

The vertical channel section (A-A)

Geometric Elements of Channel Section

 THE DEPTH OF FLOW, y, is the vertical

distance of the lowest point of a channel section
from the free surface.

y d

h 
z
Datum
Geometric Elements of Channel Section

 THE DEPTH OF FLOW SECTION, d, is the

depth of flow normal to the direction of flow.

is the channel

y d bottom slope
d = ycos.

h 
z
For mild-sloped
Datum
channels y ≈ d.
 Geometric Elements of Channel Section
THE TOP WIDTH, T,
is the width of the channel section at the free
surface.
THE WATER AREA, A,

is the cross-sectional area of the flow normal to

the direction of flow. T
THE WETTED PERIMETER, P,

is the length of the line of intersection of the d

channel wetted surface with a cross-sectional
plane normal to the direction of flow.
THE HYDRAULIC RADIUS, R = A/P, P
is the ratio of the water area to its wetted A = A(d)
perimeter.
THE HYDRAULIC DEPTH, D = A/T,

is the ratio of the water area to the top width.

 Channel
Geometry

 The wetted perimeter does

not include the free
surface.
 Examples of R for common
geometries shown in Figure
at the left.
 Types of Flow

 Criterion: Change in flow depth with respect to

time and space

OCF
Time is a criterion
Steady flow Unsteady flow
(y/t=0) (y/t0)

Space is a criterion

Uniform Flow Varied Flow Uniform Flow Varied Flow

(y/x=0) (y/x=0) (y/x0)
(y/x0)

GVF RVF GVF RVF

 Types of Flow

 Criterion: Change in discharge with respect to

time and space

OCF
Time is a criterion
Steady flow Unsteady flow
(Q/t=0) (Q/t0)

Space is a criterion

Continuous Spatially- Continuous Spatially-Varied

Flow Varied Flow Flow Flow
(Q/x=0) (Q/x0) (Q/x=0) (Q/x0)
Classification of Open-Channel Flows

 Obstructions cause the flow depth to vary.

 Rapidly varied flow (RVF) occurs over a short distance near the
obstacle.
 Gradually varied flow (GVF) occurs over larger distances and usually
connects UF and RVF.
Steady non-uniform flow in a channel.
 State of Flow

 Effect of viscosity:
VR
Re 


Laminar OCF, Re < 500

Transitional OCF, 500 < Re < 1000

OCF

Turbulent OCF, Re > 1000

Note That R in Reynold number is Hydraulic Radius

 Effect of Gravity
 In open-channel flow the driving force, that is the force
causing the motion is the component of gravity along the
channel bottom. Therefore, it is clear that, the effect of
gravity is very important in open-channel flow.
 In an open-channel flow Froude number is defined as:

2
Inertia Force 2 V V
Fr = , and Fr == or Fr =
Gravity Force gD gD

 In an open-channel flow, there are three types of flow

depending on the value of Froude number:

Fr>1 Supercritical Flow

Fr=1 Critical Flow
Fr<1 Subcritical Flow
In wave mechanics, the speed of propagation of a small
amplitude wave is called the celerity, C.
The celerity, C is equal to: C = gy

For a rectangular channel, the hydraulic depth, D=y. Therefore,

Froude number becomes: V V
Fr = =
gy C
If we disturb water, which is not moving, a disturbance wave
occur, and it propagates in all directions with a celerity, C, as:
C C

C C = gy

C C
 Now let us consider propagation of a small amplitude wave in
a supercritical open channel flow:

Fr> 1, i.e; V > C V>C

C C

 Since V > C, it CANNOT propagate upstream it can

propagate only towards downstream with a pattern as
follows:

V Disturbance will be felt

only within this region

 This means the flow at upstream will not be affected.

In other words, there is no hydraulic communication between
upstream and downstream flow.
 Now let us consider propagation of a small amplitude wave in a
subcritical open channel flow:

Fr< 1, i.e; V < C V<C C C

 Since V < C, it CAN propagate both upstream and downstream with a

pattern as follows:

V<C

 This means the flow at upstream and downstream will both be

affected.
 In other words, there is hydraulic communication between upstream
and downstream flow.
Now let us consider propagation of a small amplitude wave
in a critical open channel flow:

Fr= 1, i.e; V = C V=C C C

Since V = C, it can propagate only downstream with a pattern

as follows:

This means the flow at downstream will be affected.

 State of Flow

 Effect of gravity: V
Fr 
gD

V  gD V  gD V  gD

D in Froude Number is Hydraulic Depth

 It follows that at low flow velocities (Fr < 1), a
small disturbance travels upstream (with a velocity
c − V relative to a stationary observer) and
affects the upstream conditions. This is called
subcritical or tranquil flow.
 But at high flow velocities (Fr > 1), a small
disturbance cannot travel upstream (in fact, the
wave is washed downstream at a velocity of V − c
relative to a stationary observer) and thus the
upstream conditions cannot be influenced by the
downstream conditions. This is called supercritical
or rapid flow, and the flow in this case is
controlled by the upstream conditions.
 Therefore, a surface wave travels upstream when
Fr < 1, is swept downstream when Fr > 1, and
appears frozen on the surface when Fr = 1.
 Also, when the water is shallow compared to the
wavelength of the disturbance, the surface wave
speed increases with flow depth y, and thus a
surface disturbance propagates much faster in
deep channels than it does in shallow ones.
 Pressure Distribution
n

A
yA yA hA
A
P
A
 DA
zA

DATUM 
W

Let us consider a rectangular element, which has a height of dA,

and base area of DA.
∑Fn=0 → PDA-Wcos0
PDA=Wcos, W=gV=gDA.dA  P=gdAcos =gyAcos2
If  is small  P =g y  Hydrostatic Pressure Distribution
 Pressure Distribution

Convex and concave geometries

 Velocity Distribution
The velocity distribution in an open-channel flow is quite nonuniform because of :
•Nonuniform shear stress along the wetted perimeter,
•Presence of free surface on which the shear stress is zero.
 Velocity Profiles

 In order to understand the velocity distribution, it is

customary to plot the isovels, which are the equal velocity
lines at a cross section.

isovel
– Velocity is zero on bottom and sides of channel due to no-slip condition
– the maximum velocity is usually below the free surface.
– It is usually three-dimensional flow.
– However, 1D flow approximation is usually made with good success for
many practical problems.
Velocity Distribution across a vertical line:
y

u
5-25 % of y umax

0.6 y y
uave

 u dA  u DA  u dA  u DA
3 2
3 2

 A
3
, 3
 A

u A u A u2 A u2 A
Equation Of Continuity
  
  u d A  -   d
cs t cv

dy T

Q Q
Q+ Dx y
x
x
 i) Unsteady Flow
     
  u dA  -  d   u dA  - cv
cs t cv cs t
Q  A Q
- Q + (Q + Dx )  - ( A  Dx )  + 0
x t t x
A  A( y ) , y  y ( x, t )
A A y dA
 dA  Tdy T
t y t dy
A y y Q
T T + 0
t t t x
 ii) Steady Flow

y Q
0  0
t x
Q1  Q 2  (U av A )1  (U av A )2
 Total Head at A Cross Section:
 The total head at a cross section is:
P Vav2
H = z+ +α
γ 2g
 Where H=total head
Z=elevation of the channel bottom
P/g = y = the vertical depth of flow (provided that
pressure distribution is hydrostatic)
V2/2g= velocity head

V2/2g EGL

y Q

z
x
Datum
 Energy relationships

p V2 p V2
z + 1+ α 1 z + 2 + α 2 +h
1 γ 1 2g 2 γ 2 2g 

V2 V2 Turbulent flow (α  1)
z + y1 + 1  z + y 2 + 2 + h
1 2g 2 2g  y - depth of flow
Energy Grade Lıne And Hydraulıc Grade Lıne
In Open Channel Flow
Sf :the slope of energy grade line
Sw :the slope of the water surface
So :the slope of the bottom

Sf :the slope of energy grade line

Sw :the slope of the water surface

Uniform Flow in Channels
 Flow in open channels is classified
as being uniform or nonuniform,
depending upon the depth y.

 Depth in Uniform Flow is called

normal depth yn

 Uniform depth occurs when the

flow depth (and thus the average
flow velocity) remains constant
 Common in long straight runs
 Average flow velocity is called
uniform-flow velocity V0
 Uniform depth is maintained as long as
the slope, cross-section, and surface
roughness of the channel remain
unchanged.
 During uniform flow, the terminal
velocity reached, and the head loss
equals the elevation drop
 Uniform Flow in Channels
V2 V2
z + y1 + 1  z + y 2 + 2 + h
1 2g 2 2g 

velocity head 1
V12 hl  Sf Dx
2g energy
V22
2 grade line
2g
Sf Dx
hydraulic
y1
grade line
y2

So Dx

Dx Sf=Sw =So
Datum
Non-uniform gradually varied flow. Sf≠Sw ≠So

hl  Sf Dx
Sf
 Steady-Uniform Flow: Force Balance
Shear force = oP D x Wetted perimeter = P

Gravitational force = gA Dx sin

V2
gADx sin  - oPDx  0 2g
EGL
HGL
A b
o  g sin
P Dx c

So = sin θ
a
d
o  gR So W cos  

Shear force
W

Hydraulic radius A
R W sin 
P
Relationship between shear and velocity?
Steady-Uniform Flow: Force Balance
Relationship between shear and velocity?

 Resistance Equation 0  kV 2 g
V RSo
k

 Wall-Shear Stress 0  g R S o

g
V  C RSo C
k
Manning Equation for Uniform Flow

1 2/3 1/2 (SI System)

V  R So
n
Discharge: Q  VA

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
Q  AR So
n
 Darcy-Weisbach equation
Chezy equation (1768)
(1840)
L V2 L V2
 Introduced by the French hf  f f
engineer Antoine Chezy in D 2g 4Rh 2g
1768 while designing a canal
L V2
for the water-supply system LS f  f
of Paris 4Rh 2g

V = C Rh S f
V2 8g
R hS f  f  V RhS f
8g f
C = Chezy coefficient
m m
60 < C < 150
s s IMPORTANT:
where 60 is for rough and In Uniform Flow
150 is for smooth Sf=So
also a function of R (like f in
Darcy-Weisbach)
 Manning Equation (1891)

1 2/3 1/2
V  Rh S f (SI System)
n

Notes: The Manning Equation

1) is dimensionally nonhomogeneous
2) is very sensitive to n
Is n only a function of roughness? NO!

Dimensions of n? T /L1/3

1.49 2/3 1/2 (English system)

V Rh S f
n
 Values of Manning n

n  0.031d 1 / 6 d in ft d = median size of bed material

n  0.038d 1 / 6 d in m
Relation between Resistance Coefficient
 Example 3.1

A trapezoidal channel has a

base width b = 6 m and side yo
slopes 1H:1V. The channel
bottom slope is So = yo 1

0.0002 and the Manning 1

roughness coefficient is n =
b=6m
0.014. compute
a) the depth of uniform flow
if Q = 12.1 m3/s
b) the state of flow
c) the average wall-shear
stress along the wetted
perimeter.
 Solution of Exp.3.1
a) Manning’s equation is used for uniform flow;
A 2/3
Q R So
n
A  b.y o + 2.(y o /2)  y o (b + y o )
2

P  b + 2 2 yo  6 + 2 2 yo

Qn  y (6 + y o ) 
2/3
AR 2 / 3   11 .978
So 11.978  y o (6 + y o ) o 
 6 + 2 2 y o 

Y(m) A(m2) P(m) R(m) AR2/3

1 7 8.28 0.84 6.23

1.2 8.64 9.39 0.92 8.17

1.4 10.36 9.96 1.04 10.63

1.5 11.25 10.24 1.098 11.976

by trial & error yo=1.5 m

 Solution of Exp.3.1
b) The state of flow
V
Fr  ave , D  A , T  b + 2 y
gD o
T
A = 1.5 (6+1.5) = 11.25 m2
T = 6+2 x 1.5 =9 m
D = 11.25 / 9 =1.25 m
Q 12 .1
V  
ave
 1.076 m/s
A 11 .25
1.076
Fr   0.307 <1 Subcritical
9.81x1.25

c)    g .R.S o
R = A/P ,
P = 6+2√2 x 1.5 = 10.24 m
R = 11.25 / 10.24 = 1.098 m
   9810 x1.098 x0.0002  2.15 Pa
Graphical Solution