Artificial Intelligence

For naturally intelligent beings

CSE422 Lecture Notes

First Edition

Ipshita Bonhi Upoma

Departmant of Computer Science and Engineering

School of Data and Sciences
 Artificial Intelligence

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 NOTE TO STUDENTS

Welcome to our course on Artificial Intelligence (AI)! This course is designed to explore the
core strategies and foundational concepts that power intelligent systems, solving complex,
real-world problems across various domains. From navigating routes to optimizing industrial
processes, and from playing strategic games to making predictive models, the use of AI is
pivotal in creating efficient and effective solutions.

These lecture notes have been prepared by Ipshita Bonhi Upoma (Lecturer, BRAC Uni-
versity) based on the book "Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach" by Peter Norvig
and Stuart Russell. The credit for the initial typesetting of these notes goes to Arifa Alam.

The purpose of these notes is to provide additional examples to enhance the understand-
ing of how basic AI algorithms work and the types of problems they can solve.

This is a work in progress, and as it is the first time preparing such notes, many parts
need citations and rewriting. Several graphs, algorithms and images are directly borrowed
from Russell and Norvig’s book. The next draft will address these citations.

As this is the first draft, please inform us of any typos, mathematical errors, or other tech-
nical issues so they can be corrected in future versions.

Lecture Plan (Central)

Our Reference book (Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach): https://drive.google.

com/file/d/16pK--SRAKZzkVs8NcxxYCDFfxtvE0pmZ/view?usp=sharing

CSE422 OBE Outline: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1SJFBkfkL0wHUokhqfcBRZLhNqtw6Qhjt/

edit?usp=sharing&ouid=107280348520227181657&rtpof=true&sd=true

CSE422 Tentative Lecture Plan: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1fAsXap2Qjm-QdAgAXKb2J2bAO

edit?usp=sharing&ouid=107280348520227181657&rtpof=true&sd=true

Marks Distribution

• Class Task 5%

• Quiz 10%(4 questions, 3 will be counted)

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 Artificial Intelligence

• Assignment 10% (4 Assignsments, Bonus assignments?)

• Lab 20%

• Mid 25%

• Final 30%

Class rules for Section 13 and 14:

1. Classwork on the lecture will be given after the lecture and attendance will be counted
based on the classwork.

2. Feel free to bring coffee/ light snacks for yourself. Make sure to not cause any noise in
the class.

3. If you are not enjoying the lecture you are free to leave the lecture, but in no way you
should do anything that disturbs me or the other students.

4. If you want me to consider a leave of absence, email with valid reason. Classwork must
be submitted even if leave is considered.

5. 3 of 4 quizzes will be counted.

6. All assignments will be counted. 30% penalty for late submission.

7. Cheating in any form will not be tolerated and will result in a 100% penalty.

8. If bonus assignments are given, the marks of bonus will be added after completion of
all other assessments.

9. Lab marks are totally up to the Lab instructor.

10. No grace marks will be given for any grade bump. Such requests will not be taken
nicely.

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 CONTENTS

Note To Students 3
Contents 5

I 7
1 Introduction: Past, present, future 9
1.1 Some of the earliest problems that were solved using Artificial Intelligence. . 9
1.2 Problems we are trying to solve using these days: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Solving Problems with AI 13
2.1 Solving problems with artificial intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 Searching Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.2 Constraint Satisfaction Problems (CSP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.3 Machine Learning Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Some keywords you will hear every now and then . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Properties of Task Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Types of Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4.1 Learning Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 Problem Formulation and choice of strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 Steps of Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.7 Examples of problem formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3 Informed Search Algorithms 25
3.1 Heruistic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.1.1 Key Characteristics of Heuristics in Search Algorithms . . . . . . . . 26
3.1.2 Why do we use heuristics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Heuristic functions to solve different problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 Greedy Best First Search- Finally an algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3.1 Algorithm: Greedy Best-First Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3.2 Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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CONTENTS Artificial Intelligence

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Part I

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION: PAST, PRESENT,
FUTURE

1.1 Some of the earliest problems that were solved using

Artificial Intelligence.
In the 1950s, the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI) began to take shape as researchers pon-
dered the question: Can machines think? Alan Turing, one of the pioneers in computing,
proposed the Turing Test as a way to measure if a machine could think like a human. This
sparked an interest in developing computers that could simulate human reasoning, laying the
groundwork for AI. Researchers focused on translating human problem-solving abilities into
mathematical rules and algorithms, forming the very foundation of the field.

AI research quickly pushed forward, especially in Bayesian networks and Markov Decision
Processes, which allowed machines to reason under uncertainty. Games also became a testing
ground for AI. In 1951, Turing designed a theoretical chess program, followed soon by Arthur
Samuel’s checkers program, one of the earliest examples of a machine that could learn from
experience—a major step towards machine learning.

AI wasn’t just about games, though. In 1956, The Logic Theorist program, created by Allen
Newell, Herbert Simon, and Cliff Shaw, was designed to mimic human reasoning, even prov-
ing mathematical theorems from Principia Mathematica. This breakthrough demonstrated
AI’s ability to solve complex logical tasks. Meanwhile, machine translation experiments,
like the Georgetown project in 1954, successfully converted Russian sentences into English,
showcasing AI’s potential for language processing.

Even early speech recognition made strides in this decade, with Bell Labs developing Audrey,
a system that recognized spoken numbers. These advancements in the 1950s laid a strong
foundation for AI’s growth.

In the 1960s, AI research advanced further, focusing on problem-solving algorithms and

early neural networks like Perceptrons. During this time, control theory also became part of

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Introduction: Past, present, future Artificial Intelligence

robotics, helping machines perform tasks efficiently and adaptively.

The 1970s saw AI face skepticism. Reports like the Lighthill Report highlighted AI’s limi-
tations, but this decade also saw graph theory grow in importance, allowing for knowledge
representation in early expert systems.

The 1980s brought significant advances with expert systems that made decisions using rule-
based logic, as well as the backpropagation algorithm, which greatly improved neural net-
works.

In the 1990s, AI reached new heights. IBM’s Deep Blue made history by defeating a world
chess champion, and statistical learning models like Support Vector Machines gained popu-
larity, leading to a data-driven approach in AI.

The 2000s introduced game theory for multi-agent systems, and deep learning brought re-
newed interest in neural networks for complex pattern recognition.

In the 2010s, AI achieved remarkable feats with IBM’s Watson and Google DeepMind’s Al-
phaGo, showcasing AI’s ability to understand language and excel in strategic games, demon-
strating the depth of AI’s problem-solving abilities.

Large Language Models (LLMs) like GPT and BERT are significant developments in natural
language processing. Starting with early neural network foundations in the 2000s, advance-
ments such as Word2Vec laid the groundwork for sophisticated word embeddings. The 2017
introduction of the Transformer architecture revolutionized NLP by efficiently handling long-
range dependencies in text.

In 2018, Google’s BERT and OpenAI’s GPT used the Transformer model to understand
and generate human-like text, with BERT improving context understanding through bidi-
rectional training, and GPT enhancing generative capabilities. Recent iterations like GPT-3
and GPT-4 have scaled up in size and performance, expanding their application range from
content generation to conversational AI.

Today, in the 2020s, AI is focusing on issues like fairness and bias and exploring the po-
tential of quantum computing to revolutionize the field even further.

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Introduction: Past, present, future Artificial Intelligence

1.2 Problems we are trying to solve using these days:

Healthcare—
Disease Diagnosis: AI algorithms analyze medical imaging data to detect and
diagnose diseases early, such as cancer or neurological disorders.

Personalized Medicine: AI helps tailor treatment plans to individual patients

based on their genetic makeup and specific health profiles.

Transportation—
Autonomous Vehicles: AI powers self-driving cars, aiming to reduce human error
in driving and increase road safety.

Traffic Management: AI optimizes traffic flow, reduces congestion, and en-

hances public transport systems through predictive analytics and real-time data
processing.

Finance—
Fraud Detection: AI systems analyze transaction patterns to identify and prevent
fraudulent activities in real time.

Algorithmic Trading: AI uses complex mathematical formulas to make high-

speed trading decisions to maximize investment returns.

Retail—
Customer Personalization: AI enhances customer experience by providing person-
alized recommendations based on past purchases and browsing behaviors.

Inventory Management: AI predicts future product demand, optimizing stock

levels and reducing waste.

Education—
Adaptive Learning Platforms: AI tailors educational content to the learning styles
and pace of individual students, improving engagement and outcomes.

Automated Grading: AI systems grade student essays and exams, reducing

workload for educators and providing timely feedback.

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Introduction: Past, present, future Artificial Intelligence

Environment—] Climate Change Modeling: AI analyzes environmental data

to predict changes in climate patterns, helping in planning and mitigation strategies.

Wildlife Conservation: AI assists in monitoring and protecting wildlife through

pattern recognition in animal migration and population count.

Manufacturing—] Predictive Maintenance: AI predicts when equipment will

require maintenance, preventing unexpected breakdowns and saving costs.

Quality Control: AI automatically inspects products for defects, ensuring high

quality and reducing human error.

Cybersecurity— Threat Detection: AI monitors network activities to detect

and respond to security threats in real time.

Vulnerability Management: AI predicts which parts of a software system

are vulnerable to attacks and suggests corrective actions.

Entertainment— Content Recommendation: AI algorithms power recom-

mendation systems in streaming services like Netflix and Spotify to suggest movies,
shows, and music based on user preferences.

Game Development: AI is used to create more realistic and intelligent non-

player characters (NPCs) and to enhance gaming environments.

Legal— Document Analysis: AI helps in reviewing large volumes of legal

documents to identify relevant information, reducing the time and effort required for
legal research.

Case Prediction: AI analyzes past legal cases to predict outcomes and pro-
vide guidance on legal strategies.

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 CHAPTER 2
SOLVING PROBLEMS WITH AI

2.1 Solving problems with artificial intelligence

In this course, we explore three distinct strategic domains of artificial intelligence: Searching
Strategies, Constraint Satisfaction Problems (CSP), and Machine Learning.

Solving any problem first requires abstraction/problem formulation of the problem so that
the problem can be tackled using an algorithmic solution. Based on that abstraction we
choose a suitable strategy to solve the problem.

Real-world AI challenges are rarely straightforward. They often need to be broken down
into smaller parts, with each part solved using a different strategy. For example, in creating
an autonomous vehicle, informed search may help us find a route to destination, adversarial
search helps us predict other drivers’ actions, while machine learning helps the vehicle un-
derstand road signs.

Thankfully in this course, we’ll focus on learning each strategy separately. This approach
lets us dive deep into each area without worrying about combining them.

2.1.1 Searching Strategies

Informed Search
Why— Informed search strategies, such as A* and Best-First Search, utilize heuris-
tics (we will come back to this later) to efficiently find solutions, focusing the search
towards more promising paths. These strategies are essential in scenarios like real-time
pathfinding for autonomous vehicles.

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Solving Problems with AI Artificial Intelligence

Local Search
Why— Local search methods are crucial for tackling optimization problems where
finding an optimal solution might be too time-consuming. These methods, which in-
clude Simulated Annealing and Hill Climbing, are invaluable for tasks such as resource
allocation and scheduling where a near-optimal solution is often sufficient.

Adversarial search
Why—Adversarial search techniques are essential for environments where agents com-
pete against each other, such as in board games or market competitions. Understanding
strategies like Minimax and Alpha-Beta Pruning allows one to predict and counter op-
ponents’ moves effectively.

2.1.2 Constraint Satisfaction Problems (CSP)

Constraint Satisfaction Problems (CSP)
Why—CSPs are studied to solve problems where the goal is to assign values to variables
under strict constraints. Techniques like backtracking and constraint propagation are
fundamental for solving puzzles, scheduling problems, and many configuration problems
where all constraints must be satisfied simultaneously.

2.1.3 Machine Learning Techniques

Probabilistic Reasoning
Why—We delve into probabilistic reasoning to equip students with methods for mak-
ing decisions under uncertainty. Techniques such as Bayesian Networks are vital for
applications ranging from diagnostics to automated decision-making systems.

Decision Tree
Why—Decision trees are introduced due to their straightforward approach to solving
classification and regression problems. They split data into increasingly precise subsets
using simple decision rules, making them suitable for tasks from financial forecasting
to clinical decision support.

Gradient Descent
Why—The gradient descent algorithm is essential for optimizing machine learning
models, particularly in training deep neural networks. Its ability to minimize error
functions makes it indispensable for developing applications like voice recognition sys-
tems and personalized recommendation engines.

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2.2 Some keywords you will hear every now and then

Agent: In AI, an agent is an entity that perceives its environment through sensors
and acts upon that environment using actuators. It operates within a framework of
objectives, using its perceptions to make decisions that influence its actions.

Rational Agent: A rational agent acts to achieve the best outcome or, when there is
uncertainty, the best expected outcome. It is "rational" in the sense that it maximizes
its performance measure, based on its perceived data from the environment and the
knowledge it has.

Autonomous Agent: An autonomous agent is a type of rational agent that can

learn from its own experiences and actions. It can adjust its behavior based on new
information, making up for any initial gaps or inaccuracies in its knowledge. Essentially,
an autonomous agent operates independently and adapts effectively to changes in its
environment.

Task Environment: In AI, the environment refers to everything external to the agent
that it interacts with or perceives to make decisions and achieve its goals. It includes
all factors, conditions, and entities that can influence or be influenced by the agent’s
actions.

2.3 Properties of Task Environment

Understanding these properties helps in the design and development of AI systems, tailoring
the AI’s architecture, algorithms, and decision-making processes to the specific nature of
the environment it will operate in. This enables more effective, efficient, and appropriate
responses to varying conditions and objectives.

Fully Observable vs. Partially Observable

Fully Observable: In these environments, the agent’s sensors provide access

to the complete state of the environment at all times. This allows the agent to make
decisions with full knowledge of the world. For example, a chess game where the agent
(player) can see the entire board and all the pieces at all times.

Partially Observable: Here, the agent only has partial information about the
environment due to limitations in sensor capabilities or because some information
is inherently hidden. Agents must often infer or guess the missing information to
make decisions.For instance, in a poker game, players cannot see the cards of their
opponents.

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Deterministic vs. Stochastic

Deterministic: The outcome of any action by the agent is completely determined by

the current state and the action taken. There is no uncertainty involved. For exam-
ple, a tic-tac-toe game where each move reliably changes the board in a predictable way.

Stochastic: In these environments, actions have probabilistic outcomes, mean-

ing the same action taken under the same conditions can lead to different results.
Agents must deal with uncertainty and probability. For example, in stock trading,
buying a stock does not guarantee profit due to market volatility.

Episodic vs. Sequential

Episodic: The agent’s experience is divided into distinct episodes, where the
action in each episode does not affect the next. Each episode consists of the agent
perceiving and then performing a single action. An example is image classification
tasks where each image is processed independently.

Sequential: Actions have long-term consequences, and thus the current choice
affects all future decisions. Agents need to consider the overall potential future
outcomes when deciding their actions. Navigation tasks where an agent (like a robot or
self-driving car) must continuously make decisions based on past movements exemplify
this.

Static vs. Dynamic

Static: The environment does not change while the agent is deliberating. This
simplicity allows the agent time to make a decision without worrying about the
environment moving on. An example is a Sudoku puzzle, where the grid waits inertly
as the player strategizes.

Dynamic: The environment can change while the agent is considering its ac-
tions. Agents need to adapt quickly and consider the timing of actions. For example,
in automated trading systems where market conditions can change in the midst of
computations.

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Discrete vs. Continuous

Discrete: Possible states, actions, and outcomes are limited to a set of dis-
tinct, clearly defined values. For example, a chess game has a finite number of possible
moves and positions.

Continuous: The environment may change continuously, and the number of

possible states or actions is infinite. For instance, driving a car involves navigating
through a continuous range of positions and speeds.

Competitive vs. Cooperative

Competitive: Agents operate in environments where other agents might have

conflicting objectives, like in strategic games such as in a game of chess where each
player aims to defeat the other.

Cooperative: Agents work together towards a common goal, which may in-
volve communication and shared tasks. For example, a collaborative robotics setting
where multiple robots work together to assemble a product.

2.4 Types of Agents

In artificial intelligence, agents can be categorized based on their operational complexity and
capabilities.

Simple Reflex Agents

These agents act solely based on the current perception, ignoring the rest of the
perceptual history. They operate on a condition-action rule, meaning if a condition is
met, an action is taken.

Example: A room light that turns on when it detects motion. It does not re-
member past movements; it only responds if it detects motion currently.

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Model-Based Reflex Agents

These agents maintain some sort of internal state that depends on the percept
history, allowing them to make decisions in partially observable environments. They
use a model of the world to decide their actions.

Example: A thermostat that controls a heating system. It uses the history of

temperature changes and the current temperature to predict and adjust the heating to
maintain a set temperature.

Goal-Based Agents

These agents act to achieve goals. They consider future actions and evaluate
them based on whether they lead to the achievement of a set goal.

Example: A navigation system in a car that plans routes not only based on the
current location but also on the destination the user wants to reach.

Utility-Based Agents:

These agents aim to maximize their own perceived happiness or satisfaction, ex-
pressed as a utility function. They choose actions based on which outcome provides
the greatest benefit according to this utility.

Example: An investment bot that decides to buy or sell stocks based on an al-
gorithm designed to maximize the expected return on investment, weighing various
financial indicators and market conditions.

2.4.1 Learning Agent

A learning agent in artificial intelligence is an agent that can improve its performance over
time based on experience. This type of agent typically consists of four components: a learn-
ing element that updates knowledge, a performance element that makes decisions, a critic
that assesses how well the agent is doing, and a problem generator that suggests challenging
situations to learn from.

Example: Self-Driving Car

A self-driving car is a learning agent that adapts and improves its driving decisions based on
accumulated driving data and experiences.

Performance Element: This part of the agent controls the car, making real-time driving
decisions such as steering, accelerating, and braking based on current traffic conditions and
sensor inputs.

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Learning Element: It processes the data gathered from various sensors and feedback from
the performance element to improve the decision-making algorithms. For example, it learns
to recognize stop signs better or understand the nuances of merging into heavy traffic.

Critic: It evaluates the driving decisions made by the performance element. For instance, if
a particular maneuver led to a near-miss, the critic would flag this as suboptimal.

Problem Generator: This might simulate challenging driving conditions that are not fre-
quently encountered, such as slippery roads or unexpected obstacles, to prepare the car for
a wider range of scenarios.

Over time, by learning from both successes and failures, a self-driving car improves its ca-
pability to drive safely and efficiently in complex traffic environments, demonstrating how
learning agents adapt and enhance their performance based on experience.

2.5 Problem Formulation and choice of strategies

Problem formulation is introduced at the outset because it sets the stage for all AI strategies.
It involves defining the problem in a way that a computer can process—identifying what the
inputs are, what the desired outputs should be, and the constraints and environment within
which the problem exists. This is crucial for effectively applying any AI technique, as a
well-formulated problem can significantly simplify the solution process. It is foundational in
areas such as robotics, where tasks need to be defined clearly before they can be automated.

2.6 Steps of Problem Formulation

1. Define the Goal
Start by clearly identifying what needs to be achieved. This involves understanding
the desired outcome and what constitutes a solution to the problem. Example: For an
autonomous vacuum cleaner, the goal might be to clean the entire floor space of a house
without retracing any area unnecessarily. For a puzzle this could be the configuration
of the puzzle when solved 2.1.

2. Identify the Initial State

Determine the starting point of the problem.
Example: In a chess game, the initial state is the standard starting position of all pieces
on the chessboard.
For an engineering task, the current measurements of a system.
For a machine learning model, the initial data set from which the model will learn.

3. Determine the Possible Actions

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Figure 2.1: Initial and Goal State of a 8-Puzzle Game (Russel and Norvig, Artificial Intel-
ligence: A Modern Approach)

List out all possible actions that can be taken from any given state.
Example: In an online booking system, actions could include selecting dates, choosing
a room type, and adding guest information.
In a navigation problem, for example, these actions could be the different paths or
turns one can take at an intersection.
For a sorting algorithm, actions might be the comparisons or swaps between elements.

4. Define the Transition Model

Establish how each action affects the state. The transition model describes what the
new state will be after an action is taken from a current state.
Example: In a stock trading app, the transition model would define how buying or
selling stocks affects the portfolio’s state, including changes in cash reserves and stock
quantities.
In a chess game, moving a pawn will change the state of the board.

5. Establish the Goal Test

Create a method to determine whether a given state is a goal state. This test checks if
the goal has been achieved.
Example: In a puzzle like Sudoku, the goal test checks if the board is completely filled
without any repeating numbers in any row, column, or grid.
In a maze-solving problem, the goal test would verify whether the current location is
the exit of the maze.

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6. Define the Path Cost

Decide how to measure the cost of a path. The path cost function will calculate the
numerical cost of any given path from the start state to any state at any point. This
is often critical in optimization problems where you want to find not just any solution,
but the most cost-effective one.
Example: For a route optimization problem, the path cost could include factors like
total distance, travel time, and toll costs.

7. Consider Any Constraints

Identify any constraints that must be considered. Constraints are limitations or restric-
tions on the possible solutions. For example, in scheduling, constraints could be the
availability of resources or time slots.
Example: In university class scheduling, constraints include classroom capacities, in-
structor availability, and specific time blocks when certain classes can or cannot be
held.

8. Select the Suitable AI Technique

Based on the problem’s characteristics, such as whether the environment is determinis-
tic or stochastic, static or dynamic, discrete or continuous, select the most appropriate
AI technique. This could range from simple rule-based algorithms to complex machine
learning models.
Example: For a predictive maintenance system in a factory, the suitable AI technique
might involve using machine learning models like decision tree to predict equipment
failures based on historical sensor data. On the other hand, in a game of chess, we
use adversarial search to decide our moves by considering what the opponent might do
next for certain moves.

2.7 Examples of problem formulation

1. City Traffic Navigation (Solved by Informed Search)

◦ Problem Formulation:
• Goal: To find the quickest route from a starting point (origin) to a destination
(end point) while considering current traffic conditions.
• States: Each state represents a geographic location within the city’s road
network.
• Initial State: The specific starting location of the vehicle.
• Actions: From any given state (location), the actions available are the set of
all possible roads that can be taken next.
• Transition Model: Moving from one location to another via a chosen road
or intersection.

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• Goal Test: Determines whether the current location is the destination.

• Path Cost: Each step cost can be a function of travel time, which depends
on factors such as distance and current traffic. The total path cost is the sum
of the step costs, representing the total travel time.
◦ Heuristics Used:
• Time Estimation: An estimate of time from the current location to the
destination, possibly using historical traffic data and real-time conditions.
• Distance: Straight-line distance (Euclidean or Manhattan distance) to the
goal, which helps prioritize closer locations during the search process.

2. Power Plant Operation (Solved by Local Search)

◦ Problem Formulation:
• Goal: To optimize the power output while minimizing fuel usage and adhering
to safety regulations.
• States: Each state represents a specific configuration of the power plant’s
operational settings (e.g., temperature, pressure levels, valve positions).
• Initial State: The current operational settings of the plant.
• Actions: Adjustments to the operational settings such as increasing or de-
creasing temperature, adjusting pressure, and changing the mix of fuel used.
• Transition Model: Changing from one set of operational settings to another.
• Goal Test: A set of operational conditions that meet all efficiency, safety,
and regulatory requirements.
• Path Cost: Typically involves costs related to fuel consumption, wear and
tear on equipment, and potential safety risks. The cost function aims to
minimize these while maximizing output efficiency.
◦ Heuristic Used:
• Efficiency Metrics: Estimations of how changes in operational settings will
affect output efficiency and resource usage. This might include predictive
models based on past performance data.

3. University Class Scheduling (Solved by CSP)

◦ Problem Formulation:
• Goal: To assign time slots and rooms to university classes in a way that no
two classes that share students or instructors overlap, and all other constraints
are satisfied.
• States: Each state represents an assignment of classes to time slots and
rooms.
• Initial State: No courses are assigned to any time slots or rooms.

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• Actions: Assign a class to a specific time slot in a specific room.

• Transition Model: Changing from one assignment to another by placing a
class into an available slot and room.
• Goal Test: All classes are assigned to time slots and rooms without any
conflicts with other classes.
• Path Cost: Path cost is not typically a factor in CSP for scheduling; instead,
the focus is on fulfilling all constraints.
◦ Constraints:
• Room Capacity: Each class must be assigned to a room that can accom-
modate all enrolled students.
• Time Conflicts: No instructor or student can be required to be in more
than one place at the same time.
• Resource Availability: Some classes require specific resources (e.g., labo-
ratories or audio-visual equipment).
• Instructor Preferences: Some instructors may have restrictions on when
they can teach.

4. Disease Diagnosis (Solved by Decision Trees)

◦ Problem Formulation:
• Goal: To accurately diagnose diseases based on symptoms, patient history,
and test results.
• States: Each state represents a set of features associated with a patient,
including symptoms presented, medical history, demographic data, and results
from various medical tests.
• Initial State: The initial information gathered about the patient, which
includes all initial symptoms and available medical history.
• Actions: jActions are not typically modeled in decision trees as they are used
for classification rather than processes involving sequential decisions.
• Transition Model: Not applicable for decision trees since the process does
not involve moving between states.
• Goal Test: The diagnosis output by the decision tree, determining the most
likely disease or condition based on the input features.
• Path Cost: In decision trees, the cost is not typically measured in terms of
path, but accuracy, specificity, and sensitivity of the diagnosis can be consid-
ered as metrics for evaluating performance.
◦ Features Used:
• Symptoms: Patient-reported symptoms and observable signs.
• Test Results: Quantitative data from blood tests, imaging tests, etc.

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Solving Problems with AI Artificial Intelligence

• Demographic Data: Age, sex, genetic information, lifestyle factors.

• Medical History: Previous diagnoses, treatments, family medical history.

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 CHAPTER 3
INFORMED SEARCH ALGORITHMS

Note: This lecture closely follows Chapter 3.6 (Heuristic Functions) and 3.5 (Informed
Search) to 3.5.1 (Greedy Best First Search) of Russel and Norvig, Artificial Intelligence: A
Modern Approach. The images are also borrowed from these chapters

As computer science students, you are already familiar with various search algorithms such as
Breadth-First Search, Depth-First Search, and Dijkstra’s/Best-First Search. These strategies
fall under the category of Uninformed Search or Blind Search, which means they rely solely
on the information provided in the problem definition.

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Informed Search Algorithms Artificial Intelligence

For example, consider a map of Romania where we want to travel from Arad to Bucharest.
The map indicates that Arad is connected to Zerind by 75 miles, Sibiu by 140 miles, and
Timis, oara by 118 miles. Using a blind search strategy, the next action from Arad would be
chosen based solely on the distances to these connected cities. This approach can be slower
and less efficient as it may explore paths that are irrelevant to reaching the goal efficiently.

In this course, we will focus on informed search strategies, also known as heuristic search.
Informed Search uses additional information—referred to as heuristics—to make educated
guesses about the most promising direction to pursue in the search space. This approach
often results in faster and more efficient solutions because it avoids wasting time on less likely
paths. We will study Greedy Best-First Search and A* search extensively. But first, let’s
explore the concept of heuristics.

3.1 Heruistic Function

In the context of informed search algorithms, a heuristic is a technique that helps the algo-
rithm estimate the cost (often the shortest path or least costly path) from a current state (or
node) to the goal state. It’s essentially a function that provides guidance on which direction
the search should take in order to find the most efficient path to the goal. This guidance allows
informed search algorithms to perform more efficiently than uninformed search algorithms,
which do not have knowledge of the goal state as they make their decisions.

3.1.1 Key Characteristics of Heuristics in Search Algorithms

Estimation: A heuristic function estimates the cost to reach the goal from a current
node. This estimate does not need to be exact but should never overestimate.

Returning to the example of traveling to Bucharest from Arad: A heuristic function can
estimate the shortest distance from any city in Romania to the goal. For instance, we might
use the straight-line distance as a measure of the heuristic value for a city. The straight-
line distance from Arad to Bucharest is 366 miles, although the optimal path from Arad to

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Informed Search Algorithms Artificial Intelligence

Bucharest actually spans 418 miles. Therefore, the heuristic value for Arad is 366 miles. For
each node (in this problem, city) in the state space (in this problem, the map of Romania) the
heuristic value will be their straight line distance from the goal state (in this case Bucharest).

3.1.2 Why do we use heuristics?

Guidance: The heuristic guides the search process, helping the algorithm prioritize
which nodes to explore next based on which seem most promising—i.e., likely to lead
to the goal with the least cost.

Efficiency: By providing a way to estimate the distance to the goal, heuristics can
significantly speed up the search process, as they allow the algorithm to focus on more
promising paths and potentially disregard paths that are unlikely to be efficient.

3.2 Heuristic functions to solve different problems

Generating a heuristic function for use in informed search algorithms involves a process where
the function must effectively estimate the cost, usually the shortest path, from any node or
state in the search space to the goal. The design of the heuristic function is based on the
problem domain, which requires an understanding of the rules, constraints, and ultimate goal
of the problem. Here are some examples of heuristic functions for different types of problems.

8-Puzzle Game

The number of misplaced tiles (blank not included): For the figure above, all
eight tiles are out of position, so the start state has h1 = 8.

The sum of the distances of the tiles from their goal positions: Be-
cause tiles cannot move along diagonals, the distance is the sum of the horizontal and
vertical distances- sometimes called the city-block distance or Manhattan distance.

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Informed Search Algorithms Artificial Intelligence

Figure 3.1: Initial and Goal State of a 8-Puzzle Game (Russel and Norvig, Artificial Intel-
ligence: A Modern Approach)

Pathfinding in Maps and GPS Systems

Straight-line Distance: d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 where (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) are

p

the coordinates of the current position and the goal.

Travel Time: Estimating the time needed to reach the goal based on average
speeds and road types. t = vd where d is the distance and v is the average speed.

Traffic Patterns: Using historical or real-time traffic data to estimate the fastest
route. Could involve a weighting factor, w based on traffic data, modifying the travel
time: tadjusted = t × w .

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Informed Search Algorithms Artificial Intelligence

Game AI (e.g., Chess, Go)

Material Count: Sum of the values of all pieces. For example, in chess, pawns = 1,
knights/bishops = 3, rooks = 5, queen = 9.

Positional Advantage: A score based on piece positions. E.g., control of center

squares in chess might be given additional points.

Mobility: Number of legal moves available M for a player at a given turn.

Web Search Engines

Keyword Frequency: The number of times a search term appears on a web-

page.
Number of occurrences of keyword
F =
Total number of words in document

Page Rank: Evaluating the number and quality of inbound links to estimate
the page’s importance.

Domain Authority: The reputation and reliability of the website hosting the
information. Often a proprietary metric, but generally a combination of factors like
link profile, site age, traffic, etc.

Robotics and Path Planning

Distance to Goal: Estimating the remaining distance to the target location.

Same as straight-line distance in GPS systems.

Obstacle Proximity: Distance to the nearest obstacle to avoid collisions.

O = min(distance to each obstacle).

Energy Efficiency: Estimating the most energy-efficient path, important for

battery-powered robots.
X
E= energy per unit distance × path distance

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Informed Search Algorithms Artificial Intelligence

Natural Language Processing (NLP)

Word Probability: P (w |context) where w is the word and context represents

the surrounding words.

Semantic Similarity: How closely words or phrases match in meaning. Often

uses cosine similarity,
A·B
similarity = cos(θ) =
∥A∥∥B∥
where (A), and (B) are vector representations of words or sentences.

Language Consistency: Ensuring the text follows grammatical and syntacti-

cal norms of the target language. Can be quantified using perplexity in language
models.

Recommendation Systems User Behavior Tracking: Score items based on

frequency and recency of user interactions. Analyzing past purchases or viewing habits
to predict future interests.

Item Similarity: Recommending products similar to those a user has liked or

purchased. Cosine similarity or other distance measures between item feature vectors.

Collaborative Filtering: Using preferences of similar users to recommend

items. Matrix factorization techniques or neighbor-based algorithms to predict user
preferences.

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Informed Search Algorithms Artificial Intelligence

3.3 Greedy Best First Search- Finally an algorithm

Greedy best-first search is a form of best-first search that expands first the node with the
lowest h(n) value—the node that appears to be closest to the goal—on the grounds that this
is likely to lead to a solution quickly. So the evaluation function f (n) = h(n).

Let us see how this works for route-finding problems in Romania; we use the straight-
line-distance heuristic, which we will call hSLD . If the goal is Bucharest, we need to know
the straight-line distances to Bucharest, which are shown in the figure below. For example,
hSLD (Arad) = 366. Notice that the values of hSLD cannot be computed from the problem
description itself (that is, the ACTIONS and RESULT functions). Moreover, it takes a certain
amount of world knowledge to know that hSLD is correlated with actual road distances and
is, therefore, a useful heuristic.

The next figure shows the progress of a greedy best-first search using hSLD to find a path
from Arad to Bucharest. The first node to be expanded from Arad will be Sibiu because the
heuristic says it is closer to Bucharest than is either Zerind or Timisoara. The next node to
be expanded will be Fagaras because it is now closest according to the heuristic. Fagaras in
turn generates Bucharest, which is the goal. For this particular problem, greedy best-first
search using hSLD finds a solution without ever expanding a node that is not on the solution
path. The solution it found does not have optimal cost, however: the path via Sibiu and
Fagaras to Bucharest is 32 miles longer than the path through Rimnicu Vilcea and Pitesti.
This is why the algorithm is called “greedy”—on each iteration it tries to get as close to a
goal as it can, but greediness can lead to worse results than being careful.

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Informed Search Algorithms Artificial Intelligence

Greedy best-first graph search is complete in finite state spaces, but not in infinite ones. The
worst-case time and space complexity is O(| V |). With a good heuristic function, however,
the complexity can be reduced substantially, on certain problems reaching O(bm).

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Informed Search Algorithms Artificial Intelligence

3.3.1 Algorithm: Greedy Best-First Search

◦ Input:

• start: The target node of the search

• goal: The target node to reach
• heuristic(node): A function that estimates the cost from node to the goal

◦ Output:

• The path from start to goal if one exists, otherwise None.

◦ Procedure

• Initialize:
□ Create a priority queue and insert the start node along with its heuristic value
heuristic(start).
□ Define a visited set to keep track of all visited nodes to avoid cycles and
redundant paths.
• Search:
□ While the priority queue is not empty:
∗ Remove the node current with the lowest heuristic value from the pri-
ority queue.
∗ If current is the goal, return the path that led to current.
∗ Add current to the visited set.
∗ For each neighbor n of current:
. If n is not in visited:
– Calculate the heuristic value heuristic(n).
– Add n to the priority queue with the priority set to heuristic(n).
• Failure to find the goal:
□ If the priority queue is exhausted without finding the goal, return None.

3.3.2 Key Points

Heuristic Function: This function is crucial as it determines the search behavior. A

good heuristic can dramatically increase the efficiency of the search.

Completeness and Optimality: Greedy Best-First Search does not guarantee that
the shortest path will be found, making it neither complete nor optimal. It can get
stuck in loops or dead ends if not careful with the management of the visited set.

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Informed Search Algorithms Artificial Intelligence

Data Structures: The algorithm typically uses a priority queue for the frontier and
a set for the visited nodes. This setup helps in efficiently managing the nodes during
the search process.

Greedy Best-First Search is particularly useful when the path’s exact length is less
important than quickly finding a path that is reasonably close to the shortest possible.
It is well-suited for problems where a good heuristic is available.

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