Module-1 Outdoor and indoor

propagation models, Link budget design

Outdoor propagation Environment
Based on the coverage area, the Outdoor
propagation environment may be divided
into three categories
1. Propagation in Macro cells
2. Propagation in Micro cells
3. Propagation in street Micro cells
Outdoor propagation Environment
Macrocells over Microcells
Macrocell Microcell
Cell Radius 1 to 20 km 0.1 to 1 km
TX power 1 to 10W 0.1 to 1 W
Fading Rayleigh Nakgami- Rice
RMS Delay 0.1 to 10 s 10 to 100 ns
Spread
Max. Bit Rate 0.3 Mbps 1 MBps
 Outdoor propagation Models
• Outdoor radio transmission takes place over
an irregular terrain.
• The terrain profile must be taken into
consideration for estimating the path loss
e.g. trees, buildings and hills must be taken into
consideration
• Some common models used are
 Longley Rice Model
 Okumura Model
 Hatta model
 Longley Rice Model
• Longley Rice Model is applicable to point to point
communication.
• It covers 40MHz to 300 GHz
• It can be used in wide range of terrain
• Path geometry of terrain and the refractivity of
troposphere is used for transmission path loss
calculations
• Geometrical optics is also used along with the two
ray model for the calculation of signal strength.
• Two modes
 Point to point mode prediction
 Area mode prediction
 Longley Rice Model
• Longley Rice Model is normally available as a
computer program which takes inputs as
 Transmission frequency
 Path length
 Polarization
 Antenna heights
 Surface reflectivity
 Ground conductivity and dialectic constants
 Climate factors
• A problem with Longley rice is that It doesn't
take into account the buildings and
multipath.
 Okumura Model
• In 1968 Okumura did a lot of measurements and
produce a new model.
• The new model was used for signal prediction in
Urban areas.
• Okumura introduced a graphical method to
predict the median attenuation relative to free-
space for a quasi- smooth terrain
• The model consists of a set of curves developed
from measurements and is valid for a particular
set of system parameters in terms of carrier
frequency, antenna height, etc.
 Okumura Model
• First of all the model determined the free space path loss
of link.
• After the free-space path loss has been computed, the
median attenuation, as given by Okumura’s curves has
to be taken to account
• The model was designed for use in the frequency range
100 MHz to 1920 MHz and mostly in an urban
propagation environment. Distance 1km to 100km
• Okumura’s model assumes that the path loss between
the TX and RX in the terrestrial propagation environment
can be expressed as:
 Okumura Model
• Estimating path loss using Okumura Model

1. Determine free space loss and Amu(f ,d ), between points of interest

2. Add Amu(f ,d) and correction factors to account for terrain

L50 = 50% value of propagation path loss (median)

LF = free space propagation loss
Amu(f,d) = median attenuation relative to free space
G(hte) = base station antenna height gain factor
G(hre) = mobile antenna height gain factor
GAREA = gain due to environment
 Okumura Model
• Amu(f,d) & GAREA have been plotted for wide range of
frequencies
• Antenna gain varies at rate of 20dB or 10dB per decade
G(hte) =
hte 30m < hte < 1000m
20 log
200
h
G(hre) = 10 log re hre  3m
3
h
G(hre) = 20 log re 3m < hre <10m
3

• model corrected for

h = terrain undulation height, isolated ridge height
average terrain slope and mixed land/sea parameter
 Median Attenuation Relative to Free Space (Amu(f,d) ) (dB)

70 Urban Area 100

ht = 200m 80
60 hr = 3m
70

50 60
Amu(f,d) (dB) 50
40 40
d(km)
30 30
20
20
10
5
10 2
1

100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000 f (MHz)

Correction Factor GAREA
24. Calculate the mean path loss using Okumara’s model for
d=50km, the hte=100m, hre=10m in a suburban environment. If the
base station transmitter radiates an EIRP of 1 kW at a carrier
frequency of 900 MHz, Find EIRP(dBm) and the power at the
receiver where gain at receiving antenna is 10 dB.
 Hata Model
• Most widely used model in Radio frequency.
• Predict the behavior of cellular communication in
built up areas.

• Applicable to the transmission inside cities.

• Suited for point to point and broadcast
transmission.

• 150 MHz to 1.5 GHz, Transmission height up to

200m and link distance less than 20 Km.
 Hata Model
• Hata transformed Okumura’s graphical model into an analytical
framework.

• The Hata model for urban areas is given by the empirical

formula:

• L50urban = 69.55 dB +26.16 log fc (MHz)  13.82 log hte (m)  a

[hre (m)] + (44.9 − 6.55 log hte (m)) log d(km)

• Where L50urban is the median path loss in dB

• The formula is valid for
 150 MHz  fc  1.5GHz,
 1 m  hre  10m, 30m  hte  200m, 1km<d<20km
 Hata Model
• The correction factor a(hre) for mobile antenna height hre for a small
or medium-sized city is given by:
• a(hre) = (1.1 logfc − 0.7)hre − (1.56 log(fc) − 0.8) dB

• For a large city it is given by

a(hre) = 8.29[log(1.54hre)]2 − 1.10 dB for fc  300 MHz
=3.20[log (11.75hre)]2 − 4.97 dB for fc  300 MHz

• To obtain path loss for suburban area the standard Hata

model is modified as
L50 = L50(urban)  2[log(fc/28)]2  5.4
• For rural areas
L50 =L50(urban)  4.78log(fc)2  18.33logfc  40.98
 PCS Extension to Hata Model
• Frequency range from1500 MHz to 2000 MHz
• BS-MS distance of 1 km to 20 km.
• BS antenna heights ranging from 30 m 200 m.
L50 (urban ) = 46.3 + 33.9 log f c  13.82 log hte  a(hre ) + (44.9  6.55 log hte )log d + C M
• fc is the frequency (in MHz) from 1500 MHz to 2000 MHz,
• hte is the effective transmitter antenna height (in meters)
• hre is the effective receiver (mobile) antenna height (1..10 m)
• d is the T-R separation distance (in km),
• a(hre ) is the correction factor for effective mobile antenna height
(large city, small to medium size city, suburban, open rural)
• CM 0 dB for medium sized city and suburban areas
• 3 dB for metropolitan centers
PCS Extension to Hata Model
 Wideband PCS Microcell Model
• LOS
Distance at which 1st Fresnel Zone just obstructed by
ground

p1 is PL(d0)
 Contd…
• OBS
Durkin’s Model
 Indoor Models
• Indoor Channels are different from traditional
channels in two ways
 The distances covered are much smaller
 The variability of environment is much greater for a
much small range of Tx and Rx separation

• Propagation inside a building is influenced

by:
 Layout of the building
 Construction materials
 Building Type: office , Home or factory
 Indoor Models
• Indoor models are dominated by the same
mechanism as out door models:
Reflection, Diffraction and scattering
• Conditions are much more variable
Doors/Windows open or not
Antenna mounting : desk ceiling etc
The levels of floor
• Indoor models are classified as
Line of sight (LOS)
Obstructed (OBS) with varying degree of clutter
 Indoor Models
• Portable receiver usually experience
• Rayleigh fading for OBS propagation paths
• Ricean fading for LOS propagation path
• Multipath delay spread
• Building with small amount of metal and
hard partition have small delay spread 30
to 60ns
• Building with large amount of metal and
open isles have delay spread up to 300ns
 Partition losses (same floor)
• Two types of partitions
 hard partitions: Walls of room
 Soft partitions : Moveable partitions that
donot span to ceiling

• Partitions vary widely in their Physical and

electrical properties.

• Path loss depend upon the types of

partitions
Partition losses (same floor)
Material Type Loss(dB) Frequency (MHZ)
All metal Partition 26 815
Concrete block wall 13 1300
Empty Cardboard boxes 3-6 1300
Dry Plywood(0.75 inches) 1 9.6
Dry Plywood(0.75 inches) 4 28.8
Partitions losses (between floors)
• Partition losses between the two floors
depend on
 External dimension and material used for
buildings
 Types of construction used to create floors

 External surroundings

 No of windows used

 Tinting on the windows

• Floor Attenuation Factor (FAF) increases as

we increase the no of floors
Partitions losses (between floors)
Log distance path loss model
• Received power decrease logarithmically
with distance
• Path loss can be given as
𝑑
𝑃𝐿 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑃𝐿 𝑑0 + 10𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔 +𝑋𝜎
𝑑0

where n is path loss exponent and σ is

standard deviation
• n and σ depend on the building type.
• Smaller value of σ indicates better accuracy
of path loss model
Log distance path loss model
 Attenuation factor model
 Obtained by measurement in multiple floors building
𝑑
𝑃𝐿(𝑑) 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑃𝐿 𝑑0 + 10𝑛𝑆𝐹 𝑙𝑜𝑔 +𝐹𝐴𝐹 𝑑𝐵 + 𝑃𝐴𝐹(𝑑𝐵)
𝑑0

Path loss exponent of the same floor

Floor Attenuation Factor

Partition Attenuation Factor
Attenuation factor model
25. Given an indoor path loss model of the form
𝑃𝐿 𝑑 𝑑𝐵 = 40 + 20 log 𝑑 + 𝐹𝐴𝐹
where d is measured in meters, find the mean received power
between three floors of a building if FAF is 15dB per floor. Assume
the transmitter radiates 20 dBm and unity gain antenna are used at
both transmitter and receiver and that the straight line path
between the transmitter and receiver is 15m through the floors.
 Link Budget
• Calculation of signal powers, noise powers, and/or signal-to-
noise ratios for a complete communication link is a link budget
• it is a useful approach to the basic design of a complete
communication system
• Calculations are usually fairly simple, they give system
performance, provided appropriately accurate assumptions
• The maximum acceptable path loss is usually split into two
components:
1. Distance-dependent path-loss model
2. Fade margin, which is included to allow the system
some resilience against the practical effects of signal
fading beyond the value predicted by the model.
• Maximum acceptable propagation loss (dB) = Predicted loss +
Fade margin
• The path loss relates the transmit power to the received SNR
 Log-normal Shadowing
• Path loss at a particular location is random and distributed
normally about mean distance
• Log normal shadowing path loss
𝑑
𝑃𝐿 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑃𝐿 𝑑 + 𝑋𝜎 = 𝑃𝐿 𝑑0 + 10𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 𝑋𝜎
𝑑0
where
path loss PL(d) is random and distributed log normally (in dB)
• For large coverage cellular systems 1 km reference
distance are commonly used
• path loss PL(d) is calculated using free space path loss
(PLFS) or through field measurements at distance d0
• Free space path loss
𝑃𝐿𝐹𝑆(𝑑𝐵) = 32.45 + 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑑(𝑘𝑚) + 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑍) )
n- path loss exponent
𝑋 – zero mean Gaussian distributed random Variable (dB)
 Link Budget
• Link-budget of a wireless link is a systematic listing of power
losses and gains of different intermediate components in the
transceiver chain.
• The level of received power in excess of that required for a
specified minimum level of system performance is referred
to as the fade margin.
• So called, because it provides a margin of safety in the event
of a temporary attenuation or fading of the received signal
power
• In link budget all losses and gains are expressed in dB
• The various additive and negative components for the net
signal power at the receiver are shown in Table.
• The + sign denotes a component which enhances or adds to
the received signal strength while the − sign denotes a
component which subtract from the signal strength or SNR
 Link Budget
• The final= in the last row denotes the required SNR. Therefore,
the link-budget expression for the SNR required is given as:
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑃𝑡 𝑑𝐵 + 𝐺𝑡 𝑑𝐵 − 𝐿50 𝑑𝐵 − 𝑀𝑑𝐵 + 𝐺𝑟 𝑑𝐵 − 𝐿𝐶 𝑑𝐵 − (𝑁 + 𝐼)𝑑𝐵
𝑑
Pathloss 𝑃𝐿 𝑑 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑃𝐿 𝑑0 + 10𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑑0

• path loss PL(d0) is calculated using free space path loss (PLFS) or through field
measurements at distance d0
• Free space path loss
𝑃𝐿𝐹𝑆(𝑑𝐵) = 32.45 + 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑑(𝑘𝑚) + 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑍) )
n- path loss exponent