Department of Ancient Indian History,

Culture and Archaelogy

Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University
(A Central University)
Srinagar Garhwal, Uttarakhand

Internal Assignment

Master of Arts: 3rd Sem

Session: 2024-25

Paper Name:- Geo Archaeology

Submi ed To: Submitted By:

Prof. Yogamber Singh Name: Saurav Singh
Father’s Name: Ashok Singh
Farswan Sir Roll No: 23134302010
Enrollment No: G201340706
Mob No: 8126162743
 Acknowledgement
Primarily I would thank God for being able to complete this assignment
with success.Then I would like to thanks my Geoarchaeology Teacher
Prof. Yogamber Singh Farswan Sir, whose valuable guidance has been
the success his sugges on and his instruc on has served as the major
contributor towards the comple on of the assignment.
Then I would like to thanks my friend who helped me with their
valuable sugges ons and guidance has been helpful in various phase
of the comple on of the assignment.
Last but not the least I would like to thank my classmate who have
helped me a lot.
Saurav Singh
  Introduc on:
Geoarchaeology is an interdisciplinary field that integrates principles of geology
with archaeological research to understand the interac ons between humans
and their environment through me. One of the most important tools for
geoarchaeologists is the geological me scale (GTS), which divides Earth’s
history into eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages. This scale helps in organizing
and correla ng geological and archaeological events, providing a framework for
interpre ng stra graphy, sedimentology, and the ming of human ac vity in
rela on to geological processes.
The Geological Time Scale (GTS) is a system used by geologists and other Earth
scien sts to organize and describe the ming and rela onships between events
that have occurred throughout Earth's history. It divides Earth's 4.6 billion-year
history into several sec ons based on significant geological and paleontological
events, such as the forma on of mountain ranges, the appearance or ex nc on
of species, and shi s in climate.
The GTS is hierarchical, with each level represen ng progressively smaller
intervals of me. The largest divisions are eons, followed by eras, periods,
epochs, and ages. Each of these me units is defined by major events such as
mass ex nc ons, evolu onary milestones, and changes in Earth’s climate.

 Major Divisions of the Geological Time Scale

1. Eons
Eons are the largest divisions of geologic me, spanning hundreds of
millions to billions of years. Earth's history is divided into four eons:
o Hadean Eon (4.6 to 4.0 billion years ago): The me from the
forma on of Earth to the appearance of the earliest known rocks. It
marks the very early, molten state of Earth.
o Archean Eon (4.0 to 2.5 billion years ago): This eon saw the
forma on of Earth's crust and the earliest known life forms,
primarily simple, single-celled organisms (prokaryotes).
o Proterozoic Eon (2.5 billion to 541 million years ago): This period
witnessed the buildup of atmospheric oxygen (Great Oxygena on
Event) and the emergence of more complex life forms, including the
first mul cellular organisms.

o Phanerozoic Eon (541 million years ago to present): The eon in

which most of the well-known fossil records exist, marked by the
emergence of abundant complex life, including plants, animals, and
fungi. This eon is divided into three eras.

2. Eras
Each eon is subdivided into eras, represen ng significant shi s in Earth's
biological, clima c, and geological history. The Phanerozoic Eon, for
example, is divided into three eras:
 o Paleozoic Era (541 to 252 million years ago): Characterized by the
rise of early life forms such as trilobites, fish, amphibians, and the
first forests. It ended with the Permian-Triassic ex nc on event,
the largest mass ex nc on in Earth's history.

o Mesozoic Era (252 to 66 million years ago): Known as the "Age of

Rep les," this era saw the dominance of dinosaurs, the rise of
mammals and birds, and the breakup of the supercon nent
Pangaea. It ended with the Cretaceous-Paleogene ex nc on
event, which led to the ex nc on of non-avian dinosaurs.
o Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago to present): O en called the
"Age of Mammals," this era has witnessed the rise of mammals,
birds, flowering plants, and eventually humans. This era con nues
today and is marked by the Ice Ages and significant changes in
Earth’s climate and ecosystems.

3. Periods
Eras are further subdivided into periods, which reflect significant changes
in Earth’s biology and geography. Some of the key periods within the
Phanerozoic Eon include:
 o Cambrian Period (541 to 485 million years ago): Known for the
"Cambrian Explosion," a period of rapid evolu onary
diversifica on.

o Jurassic Period (201 to 145 million years ago): Part of the Mesozoic
Era, famous for the dominance of dinosaurs and the development
of the first birds.

o Quaternary Period (2.58 million years ago to present): The current

period, including the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs,
characterized by the evolu on of humans and the recent Ice Ages.

4. Epochs
Periods are divided into smaller units called epochs. Epochs represent
finer subdivisions of me, o en iden fied by dis nct fossil records and
climate changes. For example, within the Cenozoic Era:
 o Paleocene Epoch (66 to 56 million years ago): Marked by the
recovery of Earth’s ecosystems a er the mass ex nc on that wiped
out the dinosaurs.
o Holocene Epoch (11,700 years ago to present): The epoch in which
modern human civiliza ons developed, following the end of the last
major Ice Age.

5. Ages
Epochs are further divided into ages, the smallest units of geologic me.
Ages o en correspond to significant events such as glacia ons, volcanic
erup ons, or shorter-term clima c fluctua ons. For example, the
Greenlandian Age is the first of the three ages of the Holocene Epoch,
beginning at the end of the last Ice Age.

 Methods of Dividing Geological Time

Geologists and paleontologists use several methods to divide me and date the
events on the geological me scale:
 Fossil Evidence: Key fossil discoveries help define the boundaries between
different periods, epochs, and ages. The appearance and ex nc on of
species, especially those that were globally widespread but only lived for
a short period (index fossils), are used to iden fy specific me intervals.
 Radiometric Da ng: This technique measures the decay of radioac ve
isotopes (such as uranium-lead or potassium-argon) in minerals to
calculate the absolute ages of rocks and fossils. Radiometric da ng allows
for precise da ng of geological events and correlates them to the
geological me scale.
 Stra graphy: The study of rock layers (strata) and their rela ve posi oning
helps geologists establish the sequence of events. The principle of
superposi on states that in an undisturbed sequence, older layers will be
found below younger ones.

 Key Milestones on the Geological Time Scale

1. Forma on of Earth (~4.6 billion years ago): The Earth formed from the
dust and gas surrounding the early Sun. This marks the beginning of the
Hadean Eon.
2. First Life (~3.5 billion years ago): Simple microbial life appeared during
the Archean Eon, with the first evidence of photosynthesis and oxygen
produc on following soon a er.
3. Cambrian Explosion (~541 million years ago): A drama c diversifica on
of life occurred at the beginning of the Cambrian Period, marking the start
of the Phanerozoic Eon and the Paleozoic Era.
4. Mass Ex nc on Events: Five major ex nc on events punctuate the GTS.
These include the Permian-Triassic ex nc on (~252 million years ago),
which wiped out about 96% of marine species, and the Cretaceous-
Paleogene ex nc on (~66 million years ago), which ended the reign of
dinosaurs.
5. Ice Ages and Human Evolu on (~2.6 million years ago to present): The
Quaternary Period, especially during the Pleistocene Epoch, has been
characterized by cyclic glacia ons and the evolu on of modern humans.

 Importance of the Geological Time Scale in Geoarchaeology:

1. Chronological Framework: The geological me scale provides a
standardized chronological framework to date archaeological sites in
rela on to broader geological events. Geoarchaeologists use this scale to
align human ac vity with significant geological periods, such as
glacia ons, volcanic erup ons, and climate changes. Understanding the
ming of these events helps archaeologists place human evolu on,
migra on, and cultural developments into a larger environmental context.
2. Understanding Environmental Changes: Geoarchaeologists study the
sedimentary layers that contain ar facts or evidence of past human
ac vity. The geological me scale allows them to link these layers with
known environmental changes, such as the transi on from the
Pleistocene to the Holocene epoch, which marked significant climate
shi s that influenced human subsistence strategies, such as the shi from
hun ng-gathering to agriculture.
3. Stra graphy and Sediment Analysis: In geoarchaeology, stra graphy—
the study of rock and soil layers—is essen al for understanding the
sequence of human occupa on. The geological me scale helps in
correla ng these stra graphic layers with global geological periods. For
example, during the Quaternary period (Pleistocene and Holocene),
significant human evolu onary milestones occurred, and sediment
analysis in this context helps track changes in landscape use by ancient
popula ons.
4. Da ng Techniques: The geological me scale supports various da ng
methods used in geoarchaeology, such as radiocarbon da ng (for organic
materials) and luminescence da ng (for sediments). These methods are
calibrated against the GTS, ensuring that archaeological findings are
accurately dated within the context of Earth's history. For instance,
knowing the end of the Pleistocene (approximately 11,700 years ago)
helps archaeologists understand the ming of human adapta ons during
the transi on to the Holocene.
5. Correla ng Global and Local Events: The GTS enables geoarchaeologists
to correlate local archaeological events with global geological
phenomena. For instance, the Younger Dryas, a cold clima c event at the
end of the Pleistocene, is an important geological marker that affected
human popula ons globally. Geoarchaeologists use such markers to
inves gate how different human socie es responded to simultaneous
global clima c changes.

 Applica on of the Geological Time Scale in Geoarchaeology:

1. Reconstruc ng Paleoenvironment: By studying sediment cores, pollen
analysis, and other geological data, geoarchaeologists can reconstruct
past landscapes and environments. The GTS helps iden fy which
geological periods correspond to these reconstruc ons, such as
iden fying periods of aridity, glacia on, or sea-level changes that affected
human se lements.
2. Studying Human Adapta on: Geoarchaeologists use the geological me
scale to inves gate how humans adapted to changing environments. For
example, during the Late Pleistocene epoch, fluctua ng climates and
glacia ons required adap ve strategies such as innova ons in tool-making
or changes in se lement pa erns. Understanding when these adapta ons
occurred rela ve to geological events helps in explaining human resilience
and technological progress.
 3. Assessing Natural Disasters and Human Response: Major natural events
such as volcanic erup ons, earthquakes, and tsunamis have been crucial
in shaping human history. Geoarchaeologists use the GTS to iden fy the
ming of such events and examine human responses. For example, the
erup on of Mount Vesuvius during the Holocene buried the city of
Pompeii, and geoarchaeologists can precisely date the event using
geological and archaeological evidence.
4. Landscape Evolu on and Human Occupa on: The geological me scale
assists in understanding how landscapes evolve through me and how
these changes influence human occupa on. For example, the Holocene
epoch witnessed the expansion of forests and wetlands, which impacted
early farming communi es. Geoarchaeologists use this informa on to
study se lement pa erns, resource availability, and changes in land use
over me.
5. Climate Change Studies: Geoarchaeologists study the impacts of long-
term climate change on human socie es. The transi ons between
different epochs, such as from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, are
characterized by significant clima c shi s. The GTS allows researchers to
understand how these shi s influenced human migra ons, the
development of agriculture, and the rise and fall of civiliza ons.

 Conclusion:
The geological me scale is a vital tool in geoarchaeology, offering a detailed
temporal framework that allows researchers to interpret the rela onship
between human ac vi es and the Earth’s changing environments. By
integra ng geological and archaeological evidence, geoarchaeologists can
reconstruct past landscapes, understand the impacts of clima c and geological
events on human socie es, and place human history within the broader
context of Earth’s history.