Variation

Variation in species can be generated by genetics. Mutations arise spontaneously and can
sometimes lead to genetic disorders or death. Genes can be inserted into a genome through
genetic engineering.

Genetic modification and cloning

Genetic modification transplants genes for a desired characteristic into a different organism.
Cloning makes an identical genetic copy of a parent plant or animal.

Cloning mammals
The cloning of animals has many important commercial implications. It allows an individual
animal with desirable features, such as a cow that produces a lot of milk, to be replicated several
times. But the process takes much longer than it does with plants.

Evolution
Evolution is the change of inherited characteristics within a population over time through natural
selection, which may result in the formation of a new species.
 Charles Darwin proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection
o He came up with this theory as a result of observations from a round-the-world
expedition, years of experimentation and his knowledge of geology and fossil
 Evolution can be defined as the change in the frequency of a phenotype in a
population over many generations

Darwin’s theory, very simply, is:

o Individuals in a species show a wide range of variation caused by differences

in genes
o Individuals with characteristics most suited to the environment have a higher
chance of survival and more chances to reproduce
o Therefore, these characteristics are passed to their offspring at a higher
rate than those with characteristics less suited to survival
o Over many generations, these beneficial characteristics become more
common in the population and the species changes (the species evolves)
 This idea of natural selection became known as ‘survival of the fittest’
Dolly the sheep
Dolly the sheep was the first
mammal to be cloned. She was
born in the UK in 1996 and died in
2003. She was produced using the
nucleus from an udder cell
(although other cells such as skin cells may also be used).

The stages of cloning a mammal include:

1. removal of diploid nucleus from a body cell

2. enucleation - removing the nucleus from an egg cell
3. insertion of the diploid nucleus into the enucleated egg cell
4. stimulation of the diploid nucleus to divide by mitosis
The new animal is genetically identical to the animal that donated the nucleus from
one of its body cells.
Selective breeding
Selective breeding or artificial selection is when humans breed plants
and animals for particular genetic characteristics. Humans have bred
food crops from wild plants and domesticated animals for thousands of
years.

Selective breeding involves choosing parents with particular

characteristics to breed together and produce offspring with more
desirable characteristics. It is is the process by which humans use
animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively develop particular
phenotypic traits by choosing which typically animal or plant males and
females will sexually reproduce and have offspring together.
Main steps involved
Selective breeding takes place over many generations. These are the main
steps for both plants and animals involve:

1. Decide which characteristics are important enough to select.

2. Choose parents that show these characteristics from a mixed
population. They are bred together.
3. Choose the best offspring with the desired characteristics to produce
the next generation.
4. Repeat the process continuously over many generations, until all
offspring show the desired characteristics.
 Farmers selectively breed different types of cows with highly
desirable characteristics in order to produce the best meat
and dairy.
Characteristics can be chosen for usefulness or
appearance:
Desired characteristics in plants:
 disease resistance in food crops
 wheat plants that produce lots of grain
 large or unusual flowers
Desired characteristics in animals:
 animals that produce lots of milk or meat
 chickens that lay large eggs
 domestic dogs that have a gentle nature
The new varieties may be economically important. For
example, they may provide more or better quality food, or
allow farmers to feed more people.

Benefits and risks of selective breeding

Because of selective breeding, future generations of selectively
bred plants and animals will all share very similar genes which
will reduce variation. Genes and their different alleles within a
population are known as its gene pool. Inbreeding can lead to a
reduced gene pool, making it more difficult to produce new
varieties in the future. This also makes organisms prone to
certain diseases or inherited defects.
 Benefits of selective breeding include:
 new varieties may be economically important, by producing
more or better quality food
 animals can be selected that cannot cause harm, for example
cattle without horns
Risks of selective breeding include:
 reduced genetic variation can lead to attack by specific insects
or disease, which could be extremely destructive
 rare disease genes can be unknowingly selected as part of a
positive trait, leading to problems with specific organisms, eg a
high percentage of Dalmatian dogs are deaf
 can create physical problems in specific organisms, eg large
dogs can have faulty hips due to not being formed correctly

Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering is also called genetic modification or GM. It
involves modifying the genome of an organism by introducing
a gene from another organism to result in a desired characteristic.
Genetic engineering involves these steps:

1. selection of the desired characteristic

2. the gene responsible for the characteristic is 'cut out' of
the chromosome
3. the gene is transferred and inserted into another organism
4. replication of the modified organism.
Plant crops have been genetically engineered to be disease
resistant or to produce bigger fruits.
The process of genetic engineering
The main steps of genetic engineering:
1. Enzymes are used to isolate the required gene, this gene is inserted into
a vector, which is usually a bacterial plasmid or a virus.
2. The vector inserts the gene into required cells.
3. The genes are transferred to animal, plant or microorganism cells, during
early development. This allows them to develop with the desired
characteristics.
This diagram shows how the genetic engineering of the insulin works:
 Potential benefits and risks of genetic engineering
There are many benefits to using genetic engineering. It is used in
agriculture to do things such as, improve the yields of important economic
crops, and provide insect or pest resistance. It is also used in the medical
field to create insulin, which can be used for treating diabetes. But, as with
most new technology, it also carries potential risks.

Benefits of genetic engineering

 Genetic modification is a faster and more efficient way of getting the
same results as selective breeding.
 Improve crop yields or crop quality, which is important in developing
countries. This may help reduce hunger around the world.
 Introduce herbicide resistance, which results in less herbicides being
used, as weeds are quickly and selectively killed.
 Insect and pest resistance can be developed and inserted into the plants.
The plant produces toxins, which would discourage insects from eating
the crop.
 Sterile insects could be created such as a mosquito. They would breed,
which would lead to infertile offspring. This may help with spread of
diseases, such as malaria, dengue fever and the Zika virus.

Risks of genetic engineering

 Transfer of the selected gene into other species. What benefits one plant
may harm another.
 Some people believe it is not ethical to interfere with nature in this way.
Also, GM crop seeds are often more expensive and so people in
developing countries cannot afford them.
 GM crops could be harmful, for example toxins from the crops have been
detected in some people’s blood.
 GM crops could cause allergic reactions in people.
 Pollen produced by the plants could be toxic and harm insects that
transfer it between plants.
Biotic factors are living things within an ecosystem; such as
plants, animals, and bacteria, while abiotic are non-living
components; such as water, soil and atmosphere.