CHEM1070B: Principles of Modern Chemsitry

Chemical Reactions in Aqueous

Solution

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 Chemical Reactions & Reaction Stoichiometry
Chemist?
Chemistry Reactions?

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 Chemical Reactions
 Forming new substance through reactions
 Reactions involve rearrangement and exchange of atoms

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 Chemical Reactions & Reaction Stoichiometry

Chemical Equation:
2𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂(𝑙𝑙) → 2𝐻𝐻2 (𝑔𝑔) + 𝑂𝑂2 (g)

Chemical Reactions provide information about the reaction:

• Formulas of reactants and products
• States of reactants and products
• Relative numbers of reactant and product molecules that are required
• Can be used to determine weights of reactants used and products that
can be made

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 Chemical Equations
Chemical equations are concise representations of chemical
reactions.

 Atoms cannot be created or destroyed during a chemical

reaction

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 Chemical Equations
How to write a chemical equations?
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

 Reactants appear on the left

 Products are on the right
 The states of the reactants and products are written in parentheses
 Coefficients are inserted to balance the equation

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 Chemical Equations

Difference between subscripts and coefficients

 Subscripts tell the number of atoms of each element in a molecule

 Coefficients tell the number of molecules

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 Chemical Equations
Rules for Balancing Chemical Equations
• You can only change the coefficients.
• You can NOT add new atoms or molecules into the equation

2𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 → 2𝐻𝐻2 + 𝑂𝑂2 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2

• You can NOT change the chemical formulas to force a balanced

equation
𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 → 𝐻𝐻2 + 𝑂𝑂

• Balance atoms in more complex substances first, leave pure

elements last

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 Working Example
Write a balanced equation for the reaction of calcium carbonate
and hydrochloric acid to produce aqueous calcium chloride, carbon
dioxide gas and water
Write down the equation:
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶3 + 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 → 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂
Balancing the equation:
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶3 + 2𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 → 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂

Indicating the state:

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶3 (𝑠𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) → 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 (𝑔𝑔) + 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂(𝑙𝑙)
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 Quantitative Information from Balanced
Equations
How do we relate the number of atoms or molecules to
the amounts we measure in the laboratory?
Formula weight: the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms in the
empirical formula of the substance
If the chemical formula is that of a molecule, the formula weight is also called the
molecular weight

Molecular weight: its average mass as calculated by adding together

the atomic weights of the atoms in the molecular formula.

For Example:
For an element, the formula weight = atomic weight of the element: Na = 23.0 u.
The molecular weight of glucose (C6H12O6)
= 6(12.0 u) + 12(1.0 u) +6(1.0 u)
= 180.0 u
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 Quantitative Information from Balanced
Equations
Percent Composition: One can find the percentage of the mass of a
compound that comes from each of the elements in the compound by
using this equation:
(number of atoms)(atomic weight)
% Element = x 100
(FW of the compound)

(2)(12.011 amu)
For the molecule ethane, C2H6 %C =
(30.070 amu)
24.022 amu
= x 100
30.070 amu
= 79.887%

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 Quantitative Information from Balanced
Equations
Avogadro’s Number and the Mole
Even the smallest samples in the lab. contain enormous numbers of atoms
One mole is the amount of matter that contains as many objects (atoms,
molecules, or whatever other objects we are considering ) as the number
of atoms in exactly 12 g of isotopically pure 12C.

Avogadro’s Number, NA ,:
6.02 X 1023 mol-1

Avogadro
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 Quantitative Information from Balanced
Equations

Mass of one dozen eggs ≠ one dozen of elephants

Molar Mass
• By definition, a molar mass is the mass of 1 mol of a substance (i.e., g/mol).
• The formula weight (in amu’s) will be the same number as the molar
mass (in g/mol).

H2O has a formula weight of 18.0 amu

= 1 mol H2O has a mass of 18.0 g

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 Quantitative Information from Balanced
Equations
Moles provide a bridge from the molecular scale to
the real-world scale.

Let’s calculate the mass of CO2 produced when 100 g of C4H10 is burned

1. Lets get the mole of C4H10

1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶4 𝐻𝐻10
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶4 𝐻𝐻10 = 1.00 𝑔𝑔𝐶𝐶4 𝐻𝐻10
58.4 𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶4 𝐻𝐻10
= 1.72 × 10−2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶4 𝐻𝐻10
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 Quantitative Information from Balanced
Equations
2. Use the stoichiometric factor from the balanced
equation to calculate the moles of CO2
8 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 = 1.72 × 10−2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶4 𝐻𝐻10
2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶4 𝐻𝐻10
= 6.88 × 10−2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2

3. We use the molar mass of CO2, 44.0 g/mol, to calculate

the mass in grams
44.0 𝑔𝑔𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 = 6.88 × 10−2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝑂𝑂2
1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2
= 3.03 𝑔𝑔 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2
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 Types of Reaction
Combination reactions
 Two or more substances react to form one product

Examples:
 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

 N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

 C3H6(g) + Br2(l) → C3H6Br2(l)

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 Types of Reaction
Decomposition reactions
 One substance breaks down into two or more products

 Examples:
 CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

 2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + O2(g)

 2NaN3(s) → 2Na(s) + 3N2(g)

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 Types of Reaction
Combustion reactions
 Rapid reactions that produce a flame

 Most often involve hydrocarbons reacting with oxygen

 CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
 C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

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 Combustion Reaction
Empirical formulas determination
 Empirical formula can be calculated from % composition

Example
 The compound para-aminobenzoic acid is composed of
carbon (61.31%), hydrogen (5.14%), nitrogen (10.21%), and
oxygen (23.33%). Find the empirical formula

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 Combustion Reaction
Empirical formulas determination
 Assuming 100.0 g of para-aminobenzoic acid

1 mol
C: 61.31 g x = 5.105 mol C
12.01 g
1 mol
H: 5.14 g x = 5.09 mol H
1.01 g
1 mol
N: 10.21 g x = 0.7288 mol N
14.01 g
1 mol
O: 23.33 g x = 1.456 mol O
16.00 g

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 Combustion Reaction
Empirical formulas determination
 Calculate the mole ratio by dividing the smallest number of moles
5.105 mol
C: = 7.005 ≈ 7
0.7288 mol

5.09 mol
H: = 6.984 ≈ 7
0.7288 mol The empirical formula
is C7H7NO2
0.7288 mol
N: = 1.000
0.7288 mol

1.458 mol
O: = 2.001 ≈ 2
0.7288 mol
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 Combustion Reaction
 This is a routine analytical method to determine the composition
of C, H, O containing compounds

- C is determined by the mass of CO2 produced

- H is determined by the mass of H2O produced
- O is determined by the difference after the C and H
contents have been determined
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 Combustion Reaction
Combustion analysis
 Isopropyl alcohol is composed of only C, H and O.
Combustion of 0.255 g of a sample produces 0.561 g of CO2
and 0.306 g of H2O. Find its empirical formula

Mass of O = mass of sample - (mass of C + mass of H)

= 0.255 g - (0.153 g + 0.0343 g) = 0.068 g O

 The empirical formula is C3H8O

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 Chemical Calculations
Stoichiometric calculations
 One can calculate the amount of product formed by
- knowing the balanced equation
- assuming all reactants are converted into the products
 This calculated amount is known as theoretical yield
Example
 Calculate the amount of O2 formed from the decomposition
of 4.50 g of KClO3
- 2 KClO3 → 2 KCl + 3 O2
- Mol of KClO3 = 4.5/(39.1+35.45+16×3) = 0.0367
- Mol of O2 formed = 3/2×0.0367 = 0.055
- Weight of O2 formed = 0.055 × 32 = 1.76 g
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 Limiting Reactants
• The limiting reactant is the reactant present in the smallest stoichiometric
amount.
• In other words, it’s the reactant you’ll run out of first (in this case, the
H2).

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 Limiting Reactants
 How many grams of NH3 can be produced from 3.0 mol of N2
and 6.0 mol of H2?
- The balanced equation: 3 H2 + N2 → 2NH3

 Mass of NH3 = 4.0 mol × 17 g/mol = 68 g

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 Theoretical Yield
 The maximum amount of product that can be made
according to the balanced equation
 In reality, there are always side reactions that make the
actual yield smaller than the theoretical value
 The term percent yield can be used to describe the
cleanliness of the reaction

actual yield
Percent yield = x 100
theoretical yield

 Example: if in the previous reaction: 3 H2 + N2 → 2NH3, the

actual yield of NH3 is 50 g, the % yield = 50/68 × 100 = 73.5

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 Solutions
• Solutions are defined as
homogeneous mixtures of two or
more pure substances.
• The solvent is present in greatest
abundance.
• All other substances are solutes.
• When water is the solvent, the
solution is called an aqueous
solution.

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 Aqueous Solutions
• Substances can dissolve in water by different ways:

• Ionic compounds dissolve by dissociation, where water

surrounds the separated ions.

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 Aqueous Solutions
 Molecular compounds interact with water, but most
do NOT dissociate.

 Some molecular substances react with water when

they dissolve.

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 Molarity
• The quantity of solute in a solution can matter to a chemist.
• We call the amount dissolved its concentration.
• Molarity is one way to measure the concentration of a solution:

moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
volume of solution in liters

A 1 molar solution (written 1.00 M) contains 1.00 mol of

solute in every liter of solution

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 Solution Concentration
 Example: Calculate the concentration of 15.3 g of NaCl
dissolved in water and make it to 250.0 mL
- mol of NaCl = 15.3/(22.90 + 35.45) = 0.262 mol
0.262 mol
- concentration = = 1.05 M
(250.0 /1000)L

 Example: Calculate the concentration of 20.0 mL of a 0.35 M

NaCl solution is diluted to 100.0 mL
- mol of NaCl in 20.0 mL = 0.35 × 20.0/1000 = 0.0070mol
0.0070 mol
- concentration = = 0.070 M
(100.0 /1000)L

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 Making a Solution
• To create a solution of a known molarity, weigh out a
known mass (and, therefore, number of moles) of the
solute.
• Then add solute to a volumetric flask, and add solvent to
the line on the neck of the flask.

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 Dilution
• One can also dilute a more concentrated solution by
• using a pipet to deliver a volume of the solution to a new
volumetric flask, and
• adding solvent to the line on the neck of the new flask.

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 Dilution

The molarity of the new solution can be determined

from the equation
Mc × Vc = Md × Vd
where Mc and Md are the molarity of the
concentrated and dilute solutions, respectively, and Vc
and Vd are the volumes of the two solutions.

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 Dilution - Example
Q: Suppose you are given 1.00L of 1.00 M HCl solution.
How would you make 0.400 M HCl solution from it?

1.00 M (1.00 L) = 0.400 M Vd

Vd = 2.50 L

You will have to add extra water till the total volume of
solution is 2.50 L

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 Electrolytes & Non-electrolytes
Life of a potato:

Potato
Batteries!
Why?!
The salt
inside the
potato!
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 Electrolytes & Non-electrolytes

• A strong electrolyte dissociates completely when

dissolved in water.
• A weak electrolyte only dissociates partially when
dissolved in water.
• A nonelectrolyte does NOT dissociate in water.
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 Electrolytes & Non-electrolytes
 Strong electrolytes - Compounds when dissolved in water all
dissociate into ions
NaCl(s) + H2O → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
 Weak electrolytes – Compounds when dissolved in water only
a small amount of which dissociate into ions; the majority is
still in molecular form
CH3CO2H(l) + H2O (l) ⇔ CH3CO2-(aq) + H+(aq)
 Non-electrolytes – Compounds when dissolved in water do
not dissociate into ions
glucose (s) + H2O (l) → glucose (aq)

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 Electrolytes & Non-electrolytes

 Soluble ionic compounds are strong electrolytes

 Molecular compounds tend to be non-electrolytes, except for
strong acids (HCl, HBr, HI, HClO3, HClO4, HNO3, H2SO4) and
strong bases (group IA and IIA metal hydroxides)

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 Electrolytes & Non-electrolytes
Properties
 Strong electrolyte can conduct electricity

 Non-electrolyte does not conduct electricity

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 Solubility of Ionic Compounds
• Not all ionic compounds dissolve in water.
• A list of solubility rules is used to decide what combination of
ions will dissolve.

Na+,K+ ,NH4+compounds are soluble

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 Precipitation Reactions
When two solutions containing soluble salts are mixed, sometimes
an insoluble salt will be produced. A salt “falls” out of solution, like
snow out of the sky. This solid is called a precipitate.

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 Precipitation Reactions

 When one mixes ions that form compounds that are

insoluble, a precipitation reaction occurs

AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) → KNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)

 It appears that the ions in the reactant compounds are

exchanging partners. It is also known as metathesis or
exchange reaction

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 Ways to Write Reactions
The molecular equation lists the reactants and products without
indicating the ionic nature of the compounds.
AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq)

• In the complete ionic equation all strong electrolytes (strong

acids, strong bases, and soluble ionic salts) are dissociated into
their ions.
• This more accurately reflects the species that are found in the
reaction mixture.
Ag+(aq) + NO3−(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl−(aq) →
AgCl(s) + K+(aq) + NO3−(aq)

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 Ways to Write Reactions
• To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything that does
not change from the left side of the equation to the right.
• The ions crossed out are called spectator ions, K+ and NO3−,
in this example.
• The remaining ions are the reactants that form the product—
an insoluble salt in a precipitation reaction, as in this
example.
Ag+(aq) + NO3−(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl−(aq) →
AgCl(s) + K+(aq) + NO3−(aq)

Ag+(aq) + Cl−(aq) → AgCl(s)

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 When aqueous solutions of K2SO4 and Pb(NO3)2 are mixed, PbSO4 precipitates. Calculate
the mass of PbSO4 formed when 1.25 L of 0.0500 M Pb(NO3)2 and 2.00 L of 0.0250
M K2SO4 are mixed.
Atomic masses (g/mol): K – 39.098, O - 16.00, N - 14.01, S - 32.066, Pb – 207.2
• When aqueous solutions of K2SO4 and Pb(NO3)2 are mixed, the resulting solution contains the
ions K+, SO42-, Pb2+, and NO3-. Since NaNO3 is soluble and PbSO4 is insoluble, PbSO4(s) will form.
• Pb2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) -> PbSO4 (s)

• Since 0.0500 M Pb(NO3)2 contains 0.0500 M Pb2+ ions, we can calculate the moles of Pb2+ ions in 1.25 L
of this solution as follows:
• 1.25 L x 0.0500 mol Pb2+/ 1 L = 0.0625 mol Pb2+

• The 0.0250 M Na2SO4 solution contains 0.0250 M SO42- ions, and the number of moles of SO42- ions in
2.00 L of this solution is:
• 2.00 L x 0.0250 mol SO42-/ 1 L = 0.0500 mol SO42-
• Because Pb2+ and SO42- react in a 1:1 ratio, the amount of SO42- will be limiting ( 0.0500 mol SO42- is less
than 0.0625 mol Pb2+).
• Since the Pb2+ ions are present in excess, only 0.0500 mol of PbSO4 (s) will be formed.
• The mass of PbSO4 formed can be calculated using the molar mass of PbSO4 (303.3 g/mol).
• 0.0500 mol PbSO4 x 303.0 g PbSO4/ 1 mol PbSO4 = 15.2 g PbSO4
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 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation-Reduction Reaction: electrons are transferred from one
reactant to another.

Metal corrosion is one of the most common oxidation-reduction reactions:

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 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

• Loss of electrons is oxidation.

• Gain of electrons is reduction.
• One cannot occur without the other.
• The reactions are often called redox reactions.

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 Oxidation Numbers (O.N.)

To determine if an oxidation–reduction reaction has

occurred, we assign an oxidation number to each
element in a neutral compound or charged entity.

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 Determining O. N.
1. The oxidation number (O.N.) of an element is always zero.
• 0 for H in H2, 0 for O in O2, 0 for F in F2, etc.

2. For monatomic ion, the charge is the same as the oxidation state.
• +2 for Fe in Fe2+, -1 for Cl in Cl-

3. Oxygen in a compound is -2, unless a peroxide is present. The oxidation state of

oxygen in peroxide ion , O22- is -1.
• -2 for O in CO2, -2 for O in H2O

4. O.N. of fluorine is always -1. O.N. of Cl and Br is almost always -1 unless bonded to a
more electronegative atom.

5. Hydrogen in a compound is +1, unless it is a hydride (H-).

• +1 for H in CH4, +1 for H in H2O

6. For species containing multiple atoms, the sum of O.N. equals the charge of the
species
• For H2O, the sum of O.N. (2x1-2=0) is 0 because H2O has no net charge.
• For NH4+, the sum of O.N. is +1 because the molecular ion has +1 charge
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 Examples
1. What is the O.N. of Fe in FeCl3?
Let x be the O.N. of Fe
x+3(-1)=0
x=+3
x=O.N. of Fe = +3
2. What is the O.N. of Cr in Cr2O72-?
Let x be the O.N. of Cr
2x+7(-2)=-2
2x=12
x=O.N. of Cr = +6
3. What is the O.N. of Cl in OCl-?
-2 + O.N. of Cl = -1
O.N. of Cl = +1

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 Examples
• In the reaction below, what are the O.N. of C and O before
and after the reaction? What are the reducing and oxidizing
agents?
CH4(g) + 2O2 (g)→ CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

• O.N. of C changes from -4 to +4. C or (CH4) is oxidized. CH4 is

reducing agent.
• O.N. of O changes from 0 to -2. O (or O2) is reduced. O2 is
oxidizing agent.

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 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
• Oxidation
• Loss of electrons
• Increase in O.N.
• Oxidizing agent does the oxidation.
• Reducing agent is oxidized
• Reduction
• Gain of electrons
• Decrease in O.N.
• Reducing agent does the reduction
• Oxidizing agent is reduced

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 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Displacement reaction
 A class of oxidation-reduction reaction in which an ion

oxidizes an element and itself is reduced back to an element

2H+(aq) + Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

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 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Displacement reaction

2Ag+(aq) + Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)

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 Activity Series

• Elements higher
on the activity
series are more
reactive.
• They are more
likely to exist as
ions.

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 Acid-Base Reactions

 In an acid–base reaction, the acid (H2O above) donates a

proton (H+) to the base (NH3 above).
 Reactions between an acid and a base are called
neutralization reactions.
 When the base is a metal hydroxide, water and a salt (an
ionic compound) are produced.

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 Neutralization Reactions
When a strong acid (like HCl) reacts with a strong base
(like NaOH), the net ionic equation is circled below:

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

H+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH−(aq) →
Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + H2O(l)

H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l)

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 Titration
A titration is an analytical technique in which one can
calculate the concentration of a solute in a solution.

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 Titration – Example
Q: 0.500 M HCl is used to titrate against a 10.00 mL of NaOH solution
with unknown concentration. 25.00 mL of the HCl solution is needed to
reach the “end point”, indicated by a color change.
What is the concentration of the NaOH solution?

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)

mol H+ added at the end point

= 0.500 M x 0.0250 L
= 0.00125 mol

mol OH- reacted= 0.00125 mol

M NaOH = 0.00125 mol /0.0100 M = 1.25 M

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