13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

13.1 Vector Functions and Space Curves

t
1. The component functions ln(t + 1), √ , and 2t are all defined when t + 1 > 0 ⇒ t > −1 and 9 − t2 > 0 ⇒
9 − t2
−3 < t < 3, so the domain of r is (−1; 3).

1
2. The component functions cos t, ln t, and are all defined when t > 0 and t 6= 2, so the domain of r is (0; 2) ∪ (2; ∞).
t−2

t2 1 1 1 1
3. lim e−3t = e0 = 1, lim = lim = = µ ¶2 = 2 = 1,
t→0 t→0 sin2 t t→0 sin2 t sin2 t sin t 1
lim 2 lim
t2 t→0 t t→0 t

and lim cos 2t = cos 0 = 1. Thus

t→0
µ ¶ h i · ¸ h i
t2 t2
lim e−3t i + 2 j + cos 2t k = lim e−3t
i + lim 2 j + lim cos 2t k = i + j + k.
t→0 sin t t→0 t→0 sin t t→0

t2 − t t (t − 1) √ sin ¼t ¼ cos ¼t
4. lim = lim = lim t = 1, lim t + 8 = 3, lim = lim = −¼ [by l’Hospital’s Rule].
t→1 t−1 t→1 t−1 t→1 t→1 t→1 ln t t→1 1=t
Thus the given limit equals i + 3 j − ¼ k.

1 + t2 (1=t2 ) + 1 0+1 1 − e−2t 1 1

5. lim 2
= lim = = −1, lim tan−1 t = ¼
, lim
2 t→∞
= lim − 2t = 0 − 0 = 0. Thus
t→∞ 1−t t→∞ (1=t2 ) − 1 0−1 t→∞ t t→∞ t te
¿ À
1 + t2 1 − e−2t ­ ®
lim 2
; tan−1 t; = −1; ¼2 ; 0 .
t→∞ 1−t t

t 1 t3 + t 1 + (1=t2 ) 1+0 1
6. lim te−t = lim = lim t = 0 [by l’Hospital’s Rule], lim = lim = = ,
t→∞ t→∞ et t→∞ e t→∞ 2t − 1
3 t→∞ 2 − (1=t3 ) 2−0 2

1 sin(1=t) cos(1=t)(−1=t2 ) 1
and lim t sin= lim = lim = lim cos = cos 0 = 1 [again by l’Hospital’s Rule].
t→∞ t t→∞ 1=t t→∞ −1=t2 t→∞ t
¿ À
3
t +t 1 ­ ®
Thus lim te−t ; 3 ; t sin = 0; 12 ; 1 .
t→∞ 2t − 1 t

7. The corresponding parametric equations for this curve are x = − cos t,

y = t. We can make a table of values or we can eliminate the parameter:

t=y ⇒ x = − cos y, with y ∈ R. By comparing different values of t,

we find the direction in which t increases as indicated in the graph.

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° 1271
1272 ¤ CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

8. The corresponding parametric equations for this curve are x = t2 − 1, y = t. We

can make a table of values, or we can eliminate the parameter:

t=y ⇒ x = y 2 − 1, with y ∈ R. Thus the curve is a parabola with vertex

(−1; 0) that opens to the right. By comparing different values of t, we find the

direction in which t increases as indicated in the graph.

9. The corresponding parametric equations for this curve are x = 3 sin t, y = 2 cos t. We can make a table of values, or we can
x y
eliminate the parameter: x = 3 sin t, y = 2 cos t ⇒ = sin t, = cos t ⇒
3 2
x2 y2
+ = sin2 t + cos2 t = 1, which we recognize as the equation of an
9 4
ellipse with x ∈ [−3; 3] and y ∈ [−2; 2]. By comparing different values of

t, we find the direction in which t increases as indicated in the graph.

10. The corresponding parametric equations for this curve are x = et , y = e−t .

We can make a table of values, or we can eliminate the parameter:

y = e−t = 1=et = 1=x with x, y > 0. By comparing different values of t,

we find the direction in which t increases as indicated in the graph.

11. The corresponding parametric equations are x = t, y = 2 − t, z = 2t, which are

parametric equations of a line through the point (0; 2; 0) and with direction vector

h1; −1; 2i.

12. The corresponding parametric equations are x = sin ¼t, y = t, z = cos ¼t.

Note that x2 + z 2 = sin2 ¼t + cos2 ¼t = 1, so the curve lies on the circular

cylinder x2 + z 2 = 1. A point (x; y; z) on the curve lies directly to the left or

right of the point (x; 0; z) which moves clockwise (when viewed from the left)

along the circle x2 + z 2 = 1 in the xz­plane as t increases. Since y = t, the

curve is a helix that spirals toward the right around the cylinder.

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°
 SECTION 13.1 VECTOR FUNCTIONS AND SPACE CURVES ¤ 1273

13. The corresponding parametric equations are x = 3, y = t, z = 2 − t2 .

Eliminating the parameter in y and z gives z = 2 − y2 . Because x = 3, the

curve is a parabola in the vertical plane x = 3 with vertex (3; 0; 2).

14. The corresponding parametric equations are x = 2 cos t, y = 2 sin t,

z = 1. Eliminating the parameter in x and y gives

x2 + y2 = 4 cos2 t + 4 sin2 t = 4(cos2 t + sin2 t) = 4. Since z = 1, the

curve is a circle of radius 2 centered at (0; 0; 1) in the horizontal plane

z = 1.

15. The parametric equations are x = t2 , y = t4 , z = t6 . These are positive

for t 6= 0 and 0 when t = 0. So the curve lies entirely in the first octant.

The projection of the graph onto the xy­plane is y = x2 , y > 0, a half parabola.

The projection onto the xz­plane is z = x3 , z > 0, a half cubic, and the

projection onto the yz­plane is y 3 = z 2 .

16. If x = cos t, y = − cos t, z = sin t, then x2 + z 2 = 1 and y2 + z 2 = 1,

so the curve is contained in the intersection of circular cylinders along the
x­ and y­axes. Furthermore, y = −x, so the curve is an ellipse in the
plane y = −x, centered at the origin.

17. The projection of the curve defined by the vector function

­ ® ­ ®
r(t) = t2 ; t3 ; t−3 onto the yz­plane is given by r(t) = 0; t3 ; t−3

[we use 0 for the x­component], whose graph is the curve z = 1=y, x = 0,

since z = t−3 = 1=t3 .

18. The projection of the curve defined by the vector function

r(t) = ht + 1; 3t + 1; cos(t=2)i onto the xy­plane is given by

r(t) = ht + 1; 3t + 1; 0i [we use 0 for the z­component], whose graph is

the curve y = 3x − 2, z = 0, since y = 3t + 1 = 3(x − 1) + 1 = 3x − 2.

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°
1274 ¤ CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

19. The projection of the curve onto the xy­plane is given by r(t) = ht; sin t; 0i [we use 0 for the z­component] whose graph
is the curve y = sin x, z = 0. Similarly, the projection onto the xz­plane is r(t) = ht; 0; 2 cos ti, whose graph is the cosine
wave z = 2 cos x, y = 0, and the projection onto the yz­plane is r(t) = h0; sin t; 2 cos ti whose graph is the ellipse
y2 + 14 z 2 = 1, x = 0.

xy­plane xz­plane yz­plane

From the projection onto the yz­plane we see that the curve lies on an elliptical
cylinder with axis the x­axis. The other two projections show that the curve
oscillates both vertically and horizontally as we move in the x­direction,
suggesting that the curve is an elliptical helix that spirals along the cylinder.

20. The projection of the curve onto the xy­plane is given by r(t) = ht; t; 0i whose graph is the line y = x, z = 0.
­ ®
The projection onto the xz­plane is r(t) = t; 0; t2 whose graph is the parabola z = x2 , y = 0.
­ ®
The projection onto the yz­plane is r(t) = 0; t; t2 whose graph is the parabola z = y2 , x = 0.

xy­plane xz­plane yz­plane

From the projection onto the xy­plane we see that the curve lies on the vertical
plane y = x. The other two projections show that the curve is a parabola contained
in this plane.

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°
 SECTION 13.1 VECTOR FUNCTIONS AND SPACE CURVES ¤ 1275

21. We take r0 = h−2; 1; 0i and r1 = h5; 2; −3i. Then, by Equation 12.5.4 we have a vector equation for the line segment:

r(t) = (1 − t) h−2; 1; 0i + t h5; 2; −3i ⇒ r(t) = h−2 + 7t; 1 + t; −3ti, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1

with corresponding parametric equations x = −2 + 7t, y = 1 + t, z = −3t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

22. We take r0 = h0; 0; 0i and r1 = h−7; 4; 6i. Then, by Equation 12.5.4 we have a vector equation for the line segment:

r(t) = (1 − t) h0; 0; 0i + t h−7; 4; 6i ⇒ r(t) = h−7t; 4t; 6ti, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1

with corresponding parametric equations x = −7t, y = 4t, z = 6t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

23. We take r0 = h3:5; −1:4; 2:1i and r1 = h1:8; 0:3; 2:1i. Then, by Equation 12.5.4 we have a vector equation for the line
segment:

r(t) = (1 − t) h3:5; −1:4; 2:1i + t h1:8; 0:3; 2:1i ⇒ r(t) = h3:5 − 1:7t; −1:4 + 1:7t; 2:1i, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
with corresponding parametric equations x = 3:5 − 1:7t, y = −1:4 + 1:7t, z = 2:1, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

24. We take r0 = ha; b; ci and r1 = hu; v; wi. Then, by Equation 12.5.4 we have a vector equation for the line segment:

r(t) = (1 − t) r0 + t r1 = (1 − t) ha; b; ci + t hu; v; wi

⇒ r(t) = ha + (u − a)t; b + (v − b)t; c + (w − c)ti ; 0≤t≤1

with corresponding parametric equations x = a + (u − a)t, y = b + (v − b)t, z = c + (w − c)t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

25. x = t cos t, y = t, z = t sin t, t ≥ 0. At any point (x; y; z) on the curve, x2 + z 2 = t2 cos2 t + t2 sin2 t = t2 = y2 so the

curve lies on the circular cone x2 + z 2 = y2 with axis the y­axis. Also notice that y ≥ 0; the graph is II.

26. x = cos t, y = sin t, z = 1=(1 + t2 ). At any point on the curve we have x2 + y2 = cos2 t + sin2 t = 1, so the curve lies

on the circular cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1 with axis the z­axis. Notice that 0 < z ≤ 1 and z = 1 only for t = 0. A point (x; y; z)

on the curve lies directly above the point (x; y; 0), which moves counterclockwise around the unit circle in the xy­plane as t
increases, and z → 0 as t → ±∞. The graph must be VI.

27. x = t, y = 1=(1 + t2 ), z = t2 . At any point on the curve we have z = x2 , so the curve lies on a parabolic cylinder parallel

to the y­axis. Notice that 0 < y ≤ 1 and z ≥ 0. Also the curve passes through (0; 1; 0) when t = 0 and y → 0, z → ∞ as
t → ±∞, so the graph must be V.

28. x = cos t, y = sin t, z = cos 2t. x2 + y 2 = cos2 t + sin2 t = 1, so the curve lies on a circular cylinder with axis the
z­axis. A point (x; y; z) on the curve lies directly above or below (x; y; 0), which moves around the unit circle in the xy­plane

with period 2¼. At the same time, the z­value of the point (x; y; z) oscillates with a period of ¼. So the curve repeats itself and
the graph is I.

29. x = cos 8t, y = sin 8t, z = e0:8t , t ≥ 0. x2 + y2 = cos2 8t + sin2 8t = 1, so the curve lies on a circular cylinder with

axis the z­axis. A point (x; y; z) on the curve lies directly above the point (x; y; 0), which moves counterclockwise around the

unit circle in the xy­plane as t increases. The curve starts at (1; 0; 1), when t = 0, and z → ∞ (at an increasing rate) as
t → ∞, so the graph is IV.

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°
1276 ¤ CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

30. x = cos2 t, y = sin2 t, z = t. x + y = cos2 t + sin2 t = 1, so the curve lies in the vertical plane x + y = 1.
x and y are periodic, both with period ¼, and z increases as t increases, so the graph is III.
­ ®
31. As y = 4 in the vector equation r(t) = t; 4; t2 , the curve z = x2 lies in the plane y = 4.
­ ®
32. r(t) = t; t2 ; t . Consider the projection of the curve in the xz­plane, r(t) = ht; 0; ti. This is the line z = x, y = 0. Thus, the

curve is contained in the plane z = x.

33. r(t) = hsin t; cos t; − cos ti. Consider the projection of the curve in the yz­plane, r(t) = h0; cos t; − cos ti. This is the line
z = −y, x = 0. Thus, the curve is contained in the plane z = −y.

34. r(t) = h2t; sin t; t + 1i. Consider the projection in the xz­plane, r(t) = h2t; 0; t + 1i. This is the line with parametric

equations x = 2t, z = t + 1, y = 0 ⇒ x = 2t = 2(z − 1) = 2z − 2, y = 0. Thus, the curve is contained in the plane

x = 2z − 2.

35. If x = t cos t, y = t sin t, z = t, then x2 + y 2 = t2 cos2 t + t2 sin2 t = t2 = z 2 ,

so the curve lies on the cone z 2 = x2 + y2 . Since z = t, the curve is a spiral on

this cone.

36. If x = sin t, y = cos t, z = sin2 t, then x2 = sin2 t = z and

x2 + y2 = sin2 t + cos2 t = 1, so the curve is contained in the

intersection of the parabolic cylinder z = x2 with the circular

cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1. We get the complete intersection for

0 ≤ t ≤ 2¼.

37. Here x = 2t, y = et , z = e2t . Then t = x=2 y = et = ex=2 , so the curve lies on the cylinder y = ex=2 . Also
⇒
¡ ¢2
z = e2t = ex , so the curve lies on the cylinder z = ex . Since z = e2t = et = y 2 , the curve also lies on the parabolic

cylinder z = y2 .
√ √
38. Here x = t2 , y = ln t, z = 1=t. The domain of r is (0; ∞), so x = t2 ⇒ t= ⇒ y = ln x. Thus one surface
x
√ √
containing the curve is the cylinder y = ln x or y = ln x1=2 = 12 ln x. Also z = 1=t = 1= x, so the curve also lies on the
√
cylinder z = 1= x or x = 1=z2 , z > 0. Finally z = 1=t ⇒ t = 1=z ⇒ y = ln (1=z), so the curve also lies on the

cylinder y = ln(1=z) or y = ln z −1
= − ln z. Note that the surface y = ln(xz) also contains the curve, since

ln(xz) = ln(t2 · 1=t) = ln t = y.

39. Parametric equations for the curve are x = t, y = 0, z = 2t − t2 . Substituting into the equation of the paraboloid

gives 2t − t2 = t2 ⇒ 2t = 2t2 ⇒ t = 0, 1. Since r(0) = 0 and r(1) = i + k, the points of intersection

are (0; 0; 0) and (1; 0; 1).

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°
 SECTION 13.1 VECTOR FUNCTIONS AND SPACE CURVES ¤ 1277

40. Parametric equations for the helix are x = sin t, y = cos t, z = t. Substituting into the equation of the sphere gives

sin2 t + cos2 t + t2 = 5 ⇒ 1 + t2 = 5 ⇒ t = ±2. Since r(2) = hsin 2; cos 2; 2i and

r(−2) = hsin(−2); cos(−2); −2i, the points of intersection are (sin 2; cos 2; 2) ≈ (0:909; −0:416; 2) and
(sin(−2); cos(−2); −2) ≈ (−0:909; −0:416; −2).

41. r(t) = hcos t sin 2t; sin t sin 2t; cos 2ti.

We include both a regular plot and a plot

showing a tube of radius 0.08 around the
curve.

­ ® ­ ®
42. r(t) = tet ; e−t ; t 43. r(t) = sin 3t cos t; 14 t; sin 3t sin t

44. r(t) = hcos(8 cos t) sin t; sin(8 cos t) sin t; cos ti 45. r(t) = hcos 2t; cos 3t; cos 4ti

46. x = sin t, y = sin 2t, z = cos 4t.

[continued]

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°
1278 ¤ CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

We graph the projections onto the coordinate planes.

xy­plane xz­plane yz­plane

From the projection onto the xy­plane we see that from above the curve appears to be shaped like a “figure eight.”

The curve can be visualized as this shape wrapped around an almost parabolic cylindrical surface, the profile of

which is visible in the projection onto the yz­plane.

47. x = (1 + cos 16t) cos t, y = (1 + cos 16t) sin t, z = 1 + cos 16t. At any
point on the graph,

x2 + y 2 = (1 + cos 16t)2 cos2 t + (1 + cos 16t)2 sin2 t

= (1 + cos 16t)2 = z 2 , so the graph lies on the cone x2 + y2 = z 2 .

From the graph at left, we see that this curve looks like the projection of a
leaved two­dimensional curve onto a cone.
√ √
48. x= 1 − 0:25 cos2 10t cos t, y = 1 − 0:25 cos2 10t sin t,
z = 0:5 cos 10t. At any point on the graph,

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = (1 − 0:25 cos2 10t) cos2 t

+(1 − 0:25 cos2 10t) sin2 t + 0:25 cos2 t

= 1 − 0:25 cos2 10t + 0:25 cos2 10t = 1,

so the graph lies on the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, and since z = 0:5 cos 10t the graph resembles a trigonometric curve with

ten peaks projected onto the sphere. We get the complete graph for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2¼.

49. If t = −1, then x = 1, y = 4, z = 0, so the curve passes through the point (1; 4; 0). If t = 3, then x = 9, y = −8, z = 28,

so the curve passes through the point (9; −8; 28). For the point (4; 7; −6) to be on the curve, we require y = 1 − 3t = 7 ⇒

t = −2: But then z = 1 + (−2)3 = −7 6= −6, so (4; 7; −6) is not on the curve.

50. The projection of the curve C of intersection onto the xy­plane is the circle x2 + y2 = 4, z = 0.

Then we can write x = 2 cos t, y = 2 sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2¼. Since C also lies on the surface z = xy, we have
z = xy = (2 cos t)(2 sin t) = 4 cos t sin t, or 2 sin(2t). Then parametric equations for C are x = 2 cos t, y = 2 sin t,

z = 2 sin(2t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 2¼, and the corresponding vector function is r(t) = 2 cos t i + 2 sin t j + 2 sin(2t) k, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2¼.

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°
 SECTION 13.1 VECTOR FUNCTIONS AND SPACE CURVES ¤ 1279
p
51. Both equations are solved for z, so we can substitute to eliminate z: x2 + y2 = 1 + y ⇒ x2 + y2 = 1 + 2y + y 2 ⇒

x2 = 1 + 2y ⇒ y = 12 (x2 − 1). We can form parametric equations for the curve C of intersection by choosing a

parameter x = t, then y = 12 (t2 − 1) and z = 1 + y = 1 + 12 (t2 − 1) = 12 (t2 + 1). Thus a vector function representing C

is r(t) = t i + 12 (t2 − 1) j + 12 (t2 + 1) k.

52. The projection of the curve C of intersection onto the xy­plane is the parabola y = x2 , z = 0. Then we can choose the

parameter x = t ⇒ y = t2 . Since C also lies on the surface z = 4x2 + y2 , we have z = 4x2 + y 2 = 4t2 + (t2 )2 .

Then parametric equations for C are x = t, y = t2 , z = 4t2 + t4 , and the corresponding vector function
is r(t) = t i + t2 j + (4t2 + t4 ) k.

53. The projection of the curve C of intersection onto the xy­plane is the circle x2 + y2 = 1, z = 0, so we can write x = cos t,

y = sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2¼. Since C also lies on the surface z = x2 − y 2 , we have z = x2 − y2 = cos2 t − sin2 t or cos 2t.
Thus parametric equations for C are x = cos t, y = sin t, z = cos 2t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2¼, and the corresponding vector function
is r(t) = cos t i + sin t j + cos 2t k, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2¼.

54. The projection of the curve C of intersection onto the xz­plane is the circle x2 + z 2 = 1, y = 0, so we can write x = cos t,

z = sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2¼. C also lies on the surface x2 + y 2 + 4z 2 = 4, and since y ≥ 0 we can write
√ p p √ √
y = 4 − x2 − 4z 2 = 4 − cos2 t − 4 sin2 t = 4 − cos2 t − 4(1 − cos2 t) = 3 cos2 t = 3 | cos t |
√
Thus parametric equations for C are x = cos t, y = 3 | cos t |, z = sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2¼, and the corresponding vector function
√
is r(t) = cos t i + 3 | cos t | j + sin t k, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2¼.

55. The projection of the curve C of intersection onto the

xy­plane is the circle x2 + y 2 = 4; z = 0. Then we can write

x = 2 cos t, y = 2 sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2¼. Since C also lies on

the surface z = x2 , we have z = x2 = (2 cos t)2 = 4 cos2 t.

Then parametric equations for C are x = 2 cos t, y = 2 sin t,

z = 4 cos2 t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2¼.

56.

q ¡ ¢2
x = t ⇒ y = t2 ⇒ 4z2 = 16 − x2 − 4y 2 = 16 − t2 − 4t4 ⇒ z= 4 − 12 t − t4 .

Note that z is positive because the intersection is with the top half of the ellipsoid. Hence the curve is given
q
by x = t, y = t2 , z = 4 − 14 t2 − t4 .

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°
1280 ¤ CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

­2 ® ­ ®
57. For the particles to collide, we require r1 (t) = r2 (t) ⇔ t ; 7t − 12; t2 = 4t − 3; t2 ; 5t − 6 . Equating components

gives t2 = 4t − 3, 7t − 12 = t2 , and t2 = 5t − 6. From the first equation, t2 − 4t + 3 = 0 ⇔ (t − 3)(t − 1) = 0 so t = 1

or t = 3. t = 1 does not satisfy the other two equations, but t = 3 does. The particles collide when t = 3, at the
point (9; 9; 9).
­ 2 3®
58. The particles collide provided r1 (t) = r2 (t) ⇔ t; t ; t = h1 + 2t; 1 + 6t; 1 + 14ti. Equating components gives

t = 1 + 2t, t2 = 1 + 6t, and t3 = 1 + 14t. The first equation gives t = −1, but this does not satisfy the other equations, so
the particles do not collide. For the paths to intersect, we need to find a value for t and a value for s where r1 (t) = r2 (s) ⇔
­ 2 3®
t; t ; t = h1 + 2s; 1 + 6s; 1 + 14si. Equating components, t = 1 + 2s, t2 = 1 + 6s, and t3 = 1 + 14s. Substituting the

first equation into the second gives (1 + 2s)2 = 1 + 6s ⇒ 4s2 − 2s = 0 ⇒ 2s(2s − 1) = 0 ⇒ s = 0 or s = 12 .

From the first equation, s = 0 ⇒ t = 1 and s = 1

2 ⇒ t = 2. Checking, we see that both pairs of values satisfy the

third equation. Thus the paths intersect twice, at the point (1; 1; 1) when s = 0 and t = 1, and at (2; 4; 8) when s = 1
2

and t = 2.

59. (a) We plot the parametric equations for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2¼ in the first figure. We get a better idea of the shape of the curve if we plot

it simultaneously with the hyperboloid of one sheet from part (b), as shown in the second figure.

(b) Here x = 27
26 sin 8t − 8
39 sin 18t, y = − 27
26 cos 8t +
8
39 cos 18t, z = 144
65 sin 5t.

For any point on the curve,

¡ 27 ¢2 ¡ ¢2
x2 + y 2 = 26
sin 8t − 8
39
sin 18t + − 27
26
cos 8t + 8
39
cos 18t

272
= 262
sin2 8t − 2 · 27·8
26·39
sin 8t sin 18t + 64
392
sin2 18t
2
+ 27
262
cos2 8t − 2 · 27·8
26·39
cos 8t cos 18t + 64
392
cos2 18t

272
¡ 2 ¢ ¡ 2 ¢
= 262
sin 8t + cos2 8t + 64
392
sin 18t + cos2 18t − 72
169
(sin 8t sin 18t + cos 8t cos 18t)

272 64 72 272 64 72
= 262
+ 392
− 169
cos (18t − 8t) = 262
+ 392
− 169
cos 10t

using the trigonometric identities sin2 µ + cos2 µ = 1 and cos (x − y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y. Also

1442 1 − cos 2x 1442 1442 1442

z2 = 652
sin2 5t, and the identity sin2 x = gives z 2 = 652
· 1
2
[1 − cos(2 · 5t)] = 2·652
− 2·652
cos 10t.
2
[continued]

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°
 SECTION 13.1 VECTOR FUNCTIONS AND SPACE CURVES ¤ 1281

Then
³ ´ ³ 2 ´
272 1442
144(x2 + y2 ) − 25z 2 = 144 262
+ 64
392
− 72
169
144
cos 10t − 25 2·652 − 2·652
cos 10t
³ ´
272 64 25·144 72 25·144
= 144 262
+ 392
− 2·652
− 169
cos 10t + 2·652
cos 10t
³ ´ ¡ ¢
272 64 72 72 72
= 144 262
+ 392
− 169
− 169
cos 10t + 169
cos 10t = 144 25
36
= 100

Thus the curve lies on the surface 144(x2 + y2 ) − 25z 2 = 100 or 144x2 + 144y 2 − 25z 2 = 100, a hyperboloid of one
sheet with axis the z­axis.

60. The projection of the curve onto the xy­plane is given by the parametric equations x = (2 + cos 1:5t) cos t,

y = (2 + cos 1:5t) sin t. If we convert to polar coordinates, we have

r2 = x2 + y2 = [(2 + cos 1:5t) cos t]2 + [(2 + cos 1:5t) sin t]2

= (2 + cos 1:5t)2 (cos2 t + sin2 t) = (2 + cos 1:5t)2 ⇒ r = 2 + cos 1:5t

y (2 + cos 1:5t) sin t

Also, tan µ = = = tan t ⇒ µ = t.
x (2 + cos 1:5t) cos t

Thus the polar equation of the curve is r = 2 + cos 1:5µ. At µ = 0, we have

r = 3, and r decreases to 1 as µ increases to 2¼

3
. For 2¼
3
≤µ≤ 4¼
3
, r

increases to 3; r decreases to 1 again at µ = 2¼, increases to 3 at µ = 3 ,

8¼

decreases to 1 at µ = 10¼
3
, and completes the closed curve by increasing

to 3 at µ = 4¼. We sketch an approximate graph as shown in the figure.

We can determine how the curve passes over itself by investigating the maximum and minimum values of z for 0 ≤ t ≤ 4¼.

Since z = sin 1:5t, z is maximized where sin 1:5t = 1 ⇒ 1:5t = 2

, 2,
¼ 5¼
or 9¼
2
⇒

t= , 3,
¼ 5¼
3
or 3¼. z is minimized where sin 1:5t = −1 ⇒

1:5t = 2
, 2,
3¼ 7¼
or 11¼
2
⇒ t = ¼, 7¼
3
, or 11¼
3
. Note that these are

precisely the values for which cos 1:5t = 0 ⇒ r = 2, and on the graph

of the projection, these six points appear to be at the three self­intersections

we see. Comparing the maximum and minimum values of z at these

intersections, we can determine where the curve passes over itself, as

indicated in the figure.

[continued]

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°
1282 ¤ CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

We show a computer­drawn graph of the curve from above, as well as views from the front and from the right side.

Top view Front view Side view

The top view graph shows a more accurate representation of the projection of the trefoil knot onto the xy­plane (the axes are

rotated 90◦ ). Notice the indentations the graph exhibits at the points corresponding to r = 1. Finally, we graph several
additional viewpoints of the trefoil knot, along with two plots showing a tube of radius 0:2 around the curve.

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°
 SECTION 13.1 VECTOR FUNCTIONS AND SPACE CURVES ¤ 1283

61. Let u(t) = hu1 (t); u2 (t); u3 (t)i and v(t) = hv1 (t); v2 (t); v3 (t)i. In each part of this problem the basic procedure is to use

Equation 1 and then analyze the individual component functions using the limit properties we have already developed for
real­valued functions.
D E D E
(a) lim u(t) + lim v(t) = lim u1 (t); lim u2 (t); lim u3 (t) + lim v1 (t); lim v2 (t); lim v3 (t) and the limits of these
t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a

component functions must each exist since the vector functions both possess limits as t → a. Then adding the two vectors
and using the addition property of limits for real­valued functions, we have that
D E
lim u(t) + lim v(t) = lim u1 (t) + lim v1 (t); lim u2 (t) + lim v2 (t); lim u3 (t) + lim v3 (t)
t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a
D E
= lim [u1 (t) + v1 (t)] ; lim [u2 (t) + v2 (t)] ; lim [u3 (t) + v3 (t)]
t→a t→a t→a

= lim hu1 (t) + v1 (t); u2 (t) + v2 (t); u3 (t) + v3 (t)i [using (1) backward]
t→a

= lim [u(t) + v(t)]

t→a
D E
(b) lim cu(t) = lim hcu1 (t); cu2 (t); cu3 (t)i = lim cu1 (t); lim cu2 (t); lim cu3 (t)
t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a
D E D E
= c lim u1 (t); c lim u2 (t); c lim u3 (t) = c lim u1 (t); lim u2 (t); lim u3 (t)
t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a

= c lim hu1 (t); u2 (t); u3 (t)i = c lim u(t)

t→a t→a

D E D E
(c) lim u(t) · lim v(t) = lim u1 (t); lim u2 (t); lim u3 (t) · lim v1 (t); lim v2 (t); lim v3 (t)
t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a

h ih i h ih i h ih i
= lim u1 (t) lim v1 (t) + lim u2 (t) lim v2 (t) + lim u3 (t) lim v3 (t)
t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a

= lim u1 (t)v1 (t) + lim u2 (t)v2 (t) + lim u3 (t)v3 (t)

t→a t→a t→a

= lim [u1 (t)v1 (t) + u2 (t)v2 (t) + u3 (t)v3 (t)] = lim [u(t) · v(t)]
t→a t→a

D E D E
(d) lim u(t) × lim v(t) = lim u1 (t); lim u2 (t); lim u3 (t) × lim v1 (t); lim v2 (t); lim v3 (t)
t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a
Dh ih i h ih i
= lim u2 (t) lim v3 (t) − lim u3 (t) lim v2 (t) ;
t→a t→a t→a t→a
h ih i h ih i
lim u3 (t) lim v1 (t) − lim u1 (t) lim v3 (t) ;
t→a t→a t→a t→a
h ih i h ih iE
lim u1 (t) lim v2 (t) − lim u2 (t) lim v1 (t)
t→a t→a t→a t→a
D
= lim [u2 (t)v3 (t) − u3 (t)v2 (t)] ; lim [u3 (t)v1 (t) − u1 (t)v3 (t)] ;
t→a t→a
E
lim [u1 (t)v2 (t) − u2 (t)v1 (t)]
t→a

= lim hu2 (t)v3 (t) − u3 (t)v2 (t); u3 (t) v1 (t) − u1 (t)v3 (t); u1 (t)v2 (t) − u2 (t)v1 (t)i
t→a

= lim [u(t) × v(t)]

t→a

62. Let r(t) = hf (t) ; g (t) ; h (t)i and b = hb1 ; b2 ; b3 i. If lim r(t) = b, then lim r(t) exists, so by (1),
t→a t→a
D E
b = lim r(t) = lim f (t); lim g(t); lim h(t) . By the definition of equal vectors we have lim f(t) = b1 , lim g(t) = b2
t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a

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°
1284 ¤ CHAPTER 13 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

and lim h(t) = b3 . But these are limits of real­valued functions, so by the definition of limits, for every " > 0 there exists
t→a

± 1 > 0, ± 2 > 0, ± 3 > 0 so that if 0 < |t − a| < ± 1 then |f(t) − b1 | < "=3, if 0 < |t − a| < ±2 then |g(t) − b2 | < "=3, and

if 0 < |t − a| < ± 3 then |h(t) − b3 | < "=3. Letting ± = minimum of {± 1 ; ± 2 ; ± 3 }, then if 0 < |t − a| < ± we have

|f (t) − b1 | + |g(t) − b2 | + |h(t) − b3 | < "=3 + "=3 + "=3 = ". But

p
|r(t) − b| = |hf (t) − b1 ; g(t) − b2 ; h(t) − b3 i| = (f (t) − b1 )2 + (g(t) − b2 )2 + (h(t) − b3 )2
p p p
≤ [f (t) − b1 ]2 + [g(t) − b2 ]2 + [h(t) − b3 ]2 = |f (t) − b1 | + |g(t) − b2 | + |h(t) − b3 |

Thus for every " > 0 there exists ± > 0 such that if 0 < |t − a| < ± then

|r(t) − b| ≤ |f(t) − b1 | + |g(t) − b2 | + |h(t) − b3 | < ".

Conversely, suppose for every " > 0, there exists ± > 0 such that if 0 < |t − a| < ± then |r(t) − b| < " ⇔
p
|hf(t) − b1 ; g(t) − b2 ; h(t) − b3 i| < " ⇔ [f(t) − b1 ]2 + [g(t) − b2 ]2 + [h(t) − b3 ]2 < " ⇔

[f (t) − b1 ]2 + [g(t) − b2 ]2 + [h(t) − b3 ]2 < "2 . But each term on the left side of the last inequality is positive, so if

0 < |t − a| < ±, then [f(t) − b1 ]2 < "2 , [g(t) − b2 ]2 < "2 and [h(t) − b3 ]2 < "2 or, taking the square root of both sides in

each of the above, |f(t) − b1 | < ", |g(t) − b2 | < " and |h(t) − b3 | < ". And by definition of limits of real­valued functions
D E
we have lim f(t) = b1 , lim g(t) = b2 , and lim h(t) = b3 . But by (1), lim r(t) = lim f (t); lim g(t); lim h(t) ,
t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a t→a

so lim r(t) = hb1 ; b2 ; b3 i = b.

t→a

13.2 Derivatives and Integrals of Vector Functions

1. (a)

r(4:5) − r(4)
(b) = 2[r(4:5) − r(4)], so we draw a vector in the same
0:5
direction but with twice the length of the vector r(4:5) − r(4).
r(4:2) − r(4)
= 5[r(4:2) − r(4)], so we draw a vector in the same
0:2
direction but with 5 times the length of the vector r(4:2) − r(4).

r(4 + h) − r(4) r0 (4)

(c) By Definition 1, r0 (4) = lim . T(4) = 0 .
h→0 h |r (4)|

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°