WEEK THREE

MODELS OF ATOMS

CONTENT

❖ Thompson, Rutherford, Bohr Models and Limitations

❖ Assumption of Bohr theory
❖ Electron Cloud Model
❖ Structure of Nucleus, Protons, Isotopes

THOMPSON MODEL

Thompson proposed an atomic model which visualized the atom as a homogenous sphere of
positive charge inside of which are embedded negatively charged electrons.

Sphere of positively charged matter

Embedded electron

He also determined the ratio of the charged to mass, e/m , of electrons, and found e/m to be
identical for all cathode rays particles, irrespective of the kind of gas in the tube or the metal the
electrons are made of.

RUTHERFORD MODEL

He proposed a planetary model of the atom which suggested that the atom consists of
positively charged heave core called the nucleus where most of the mass of the atom was
concentrated .around this nucleus, negatively charged electrons circle in orbits much as planets
move around the sun. Each nucleus must be surrounded by a number of electrons necessary to
produce an electrically neutral atom

LIMITATION OF RUTHERFORD MODEL

1. It predicts that light of a continuous range of frequencies will be emitted whereas

experiment show line spectra instead of continuous spectra.
2. It predict that atoms are unstable-electrons quickly spiral into the nucleus- but we know
that atoms in general are stable, since the matter around us is stable.
Clearly Rutherford’s model was not sufficient to explain experimental observations.
Some sot of modification was needed and this was provided by Neils Bohr.

EVALUATION

What are the limitations of Rutherford’s model?

THE BOHR’S MODEL

He suggested a model of hydrogen atom in which

i. the electron moves around the nucleus in certain specific circular orbits called energy
level and that the centrifugal force due to this motion counter balances the electrostatic
attraction between the electron and the nucleus. The electrons can move without
losing or radiating energy in such orbits. He called the possible orbits stationary states.
Only orbits of particular radii were possible. In general, the higher the energy of the
electron, the farther its orbits from the nucleus.

ii. the energy of an electron in an atom cannot vary continuously to a limited number of
discrete or individual values. The energy of the electron is said to be quantized ( i.e can
have only discrete values). He thus postulated that electrons in an atom cannot lose
energy continuously but mist do so in quantum ‘jumps’. He postulated that light is
emitted only when an electron jumps from one stationary state to another of lower
energy.

When such a jump occurs, a single photon of light would be emitted whose energy is given by

hf = Eu – El

Eu = Energy of upper state

El = energy of lower state

h = planck constant ( h = 6.67 x 10-34 Js)

f = frequency of emitted light

Bohr was able to account for the appearance of line spectrum rather than continuous spectrum.
An electron absorbs energy when it transfers to higher energy level ( excitation) Photon An
electron emits a photon when it moves to a lower energy level.

iii. The third postulate of Bohr’s model was that angular momentum values of the electron
in an atom are quantized, that is, they are restricted to a limited number of discrete
values that are integral 9n0 multiples of a constant, planck’s constant (h) divided by 2 π.
That angular momentum

L =n (h)

2π n = 1,2,3,4…

The integral n is called a quantum number

Bohr model is also known as the Bohr – Rutherford model since it was an extension of
Rutherford planetary model. The great success of Bohr theory is that;

i. it gives a model for why atoms emits, line spectra and accurately predicts, for
hydrogen, the wave lengths of emitted lights or the frequencies of the lines in the
hydrogen spectrum.
ii. It offers an explanation for absorption spectra; photons of just the right wavelength
can knock an electron from one energy level to a higher one. To conserve energy, the
photon must have just the right energy. This explains why a continuous spectrum
passing through a gas will have dark (absorption) lines at the same frequencies as
the emission line.
iii. It ensures the stability of atoms by stating that the ground state is the lowest state
for an electron and there is no lower energy level to which it can go and emit more
energy.
 iv. It accurately predicts the ionization energy of 13.6ev for hydrogen.

THE ELECTRON CLOUD MODEL

This model visualizes the atom as consisting of a tiny nucleus of radius of the order of 10 -10 - 10-
15m. The electron is visualized as being in rapid motion within a relatively large region around

the nucleus, but spending most of its time in certain high probability regions. Thus, the electron
is not considered as a ball revolving around the nucleus but as a particle or wave with a
specified energy having only a certain probability of being in a given region in the space outside
the nucleus. The electron is visualized as spread out around the nucleus in a sort of electron –
cloud.

Chemists prefer to consider the electron in terms of a cloud of negative charges (electron
cloud), with a cloud being dense in regions of high electron probability and more diffuse in
region of low probability.

The probability of finding the electron inside the spherical boundary is high. The probability
then decreases rapidly as the distance of the thin shell from the nucleus increases.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL BEHAVIOUR

Today we consider the atom as made up of tiny but massive nucleus at the centre and outside
the nucleus is a cloud of electrons which move in wave-like orbits or shells around the massive
nucleus. The nucleus consists of protons which carry positive changes and neutrons which carry
no charge. The neutron and proton together constitute the nucleon. All the mass of an atom is
concentrated in the central nucleus. The protons, neutrons and electrons are the fundamental
sub atomic particles of the atom.

The electron is the lightest particle of an atom, with a mass (Me) of 9.10-31kg and an electronic
charge e- = 1.6 x 10-19 C.

The proton has a mass of 1.67 x 10-27kg which is over 1836 times heavier than the mass of an
electron. It carries a positive charge, e+ = 1.67 x 10-29 c ( i.e e+ = e- = 1.6 x 10 -10). There are
the same number of protons in the atoms of different elements.in a neutral atom, the number
of protons equals the number of electrons.
AX
We denote the atom of an element X by z

A = mass number

Z = atomic number

The atomic number or proton number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an
element. The mass number or nucleon number (A) is the total number of protons and
neutrons in an atom of an element

ISOTOPES

Isotopes are atoms of the same element which have the same atomic number (X) but
different mass number. Isotopes are thus atoms with the same number of protons, but
different number of neutrons. Isotopes have similar chemical properties because they have the
same number of electrons round the nucleus. Chemical combinations is due to an exchange of
outer or valence electrons between elements.

Examples of isotopes

a) i. 35 17Cl (17 protons , 17 electrons, 18 neutrons)

ii. 3717Cl (17 protons, 17 electrons, 20 neutrons)
b) 126Cl (6 protons, 6 electrons, 6 neutrons)
13 Cl
6 (6 protons, 6 electrons, 7 neutrons)
16 O
c) 8 (8 protons, 8 electron 8 neutrons)
17 O
8 (8 protons, 8 electrons, 9 neutrons)
18 O
8 (8 protons, 8 electrons, 10 neutrons)
238 U (92 protons, 92 electrons, 146 neutrons)
d) 92
238\5 U (92 protons,92 electrons, 143 neutrons)
92

234 U
92 (92 protons, 92 electrons, 142 neutrons)

GENERAL EVALUATION
 1. Mention four effect of thermal expansion of solid
2. Mention four the advantages and disadvantages of thermal expansion of solid

THEORY

1. Describe the essential feature of the Bohr- Rutherford Model of the atom. What are its
successes and its failures. How does it account for line spectra.

2. What are the essential features of the Electron –Cloud Model of the atom. Illustrate with
a diagram.

WEEK FOUR

TOPIC: RADIOACTIVITY (1)

CONTENTS

❖ Emission of Alpha and Beta particles and Gamma rays

❖ Properties and peaceful uses of radioactivity
❖ Radioactive hazards and safety precautions
❖ Binding energy

Radioactivity is the spontaneous decay or disintegration of the nucleus of the atom of an

element during which it emits α, β or γ rays or a combination of any or all the three and energy (
or heat).

If a small sample of radium is placed at the bottom of a small hole drilled in a block of lead. The
radiation emitted from this radium emerged from the hole in a narrow beam. if the rays were
subjected to a strong magnetic field placed at the side of a beam. A photographic plate situated
at appropriate sides to receive the rays showed that the paths of some rays were bent to the
right, some to the left and some went straight on, unbent.

Electrically charged plates placed at the side of the beam gave the same effect. The radiations
that was bent towards the negative electric plate or the south pole of the magnetic field are
called the Alpha particles ( α –particles )
The radiations deflected towards the positive electric plate or the North pole of the magnetic
field is called Beta particles (β – particles ). The radiation that was neither affected by the
electric or magnetic field is called gamma rays (γ ). They are actually electromagnetic radiations.

Radiation Alpha-particles Beta Particles Gamma - rays

Nature Helium nuclei 42He High Energy Electromagnetic wave

electrons of short wavelength

Velocity 5 – 7% speed of light Travel at approx. Travel at speed of light

speed of light

Effects of Slightly deflected in a Strongly No effects

magnetic magnetic field (+ve) deflected in a
field magnetic field (-
ve)

Ionizing Large, cause heavy Medium Small

magnetic ionization
field

Penetrating Little penetrating Good High penetrating power

power power e.g thin sheet penetrating e.g leads
power e.g
aluminium

Radioactive Decay; Half-life, Decay Constant

Radioactivity is a spontaneous process. It goes on independent of external control, it is not

affected by temperature, or pressure or by chemical treatment. It is a random process as no one
can predict which atom will disintegrate at a given time.

The half-life of a radioactive element is the time taken for half of the atoms initially present in
the element to decay. The rate of decay of radioactive elements is found to be proportional to
the number of atoms of the material present. If there are N atoms of a radioactive element
present at a time, ti, then the probable number of disintegration per unit time or activity.

N α - dN
 Dt

The minus sign arises from the fact that N is decreasing with time

dN = -λN

dt

λ is a constant of proportionality called the decay constant.

:. λ = - 1 dN

N dt

Hence, decay constant is defined as the instantaneous rate of decay per unit atom of a
substance

Λ = No of atoms disintegrating per second

Np pf atoms in the source at that time

By integration

N =Noe-λt

No = Number of atoms present at time t = o

N = Number of atoms present at time t

T = 0.693

Λ
Example

A certain radioactive element has a half-life of 10years.

1. How long will take to lose 7/8 of its atoms originally present.
2. How long will it take until only ¼ of the atoms originally present remain unchanged.

If 7/8 of its atoms has been lost, 1/8 remains

Half-life = 10years

N/4 remains after 20 years

N/8 remains after 30 years:. it takes 30 years to lose 7/8 of its atoms

N/2 remain unchanged after 10 years

N/4 remains unchanged after 20 years

Ans = 20years

EVALUATION

If the half life of a radioactive substance is 2.45 X 10 8s, determine is decay constant.

TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS
There are two types of radioactivity

1. Natural radioactivity
2. Artificial radioactivity

Natural radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of an atom during

which α particles,β particles or γ rays and heat ( or energy) are released. When a radioactive
elements undergoes radioactive decay, it may emit either α ,B, or γ rays. This changes the
atomic number of the element, hence a new element is formed.
226 4 He
88X α 2 + 22286Rn + energy

222
88 2B 2 0-1e + 22290Ra + energy

238 U 2α, 2β 2 ( 42He) + 2 -1oe + 230 Th + energy

92 91

234 U β
0 e
90 -1 + 23491Pa + energy

Generally we represent alpha (α) decay by

4 A -4
A 2 He + y + energy

Z Z -2

And B decay by

A
0 e
Z -1 +Ay

(z+1)

ARTIFICIAL RADIOACTIVITY
If the radioactivity is induced in an element by irradiation with for neutrons, the process is
known as artificial radioactivity. By irradiation, it means exposure to radiation either by
accident or by intent.
4
2He + 14 7N 18
9F
17
8O + 1
1H + energy

in artificial radioactivity, an ordinary materials is made radioactive by bombarding itwith

radioactive particles.
4He + 27 Al 30P + 1n

1 n
0 + 63Li 3 H
1 + 42He + energy

1 n + 2412Mg 24 Na + 11P + energy

0 11

4 He
2 + 94Be 12 C
6 + 10n + energy

1 n
0 +5927Co 60 Co
27 + energy

Isotopes can also be made artificially by bombarding neutrons, or protons or deuterons at

elements e.g.
34 S
10 + 10n 35 S
10 + energy
79 Br
10 + 10n 35 Br
10 + energy

such artificially produced isotope are unstable and decay with the emission of α – particles, β –
particles and γ – rays. They are called radio isotopes.