FUSED COCONUT (Cocos nucifera L.

Kuntze) AND CASSAVA STARCH AS

SUSTAINABLE BIO-FIRE BRIQUETTES

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, AND MATHEMATICS

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

BACUS, IDE C.

BALONQUITA, LESLY JANE F.

CASTILLON, ALLEJAH MAE P.

CERO, CYRHA JANE C.

GALANO, ARGYLL C.

LASAGA, JAIRO JUDE D.

PARANGAN, MARY MAYNARD B.

NOVEMBER 2024
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

People frequently encounter and use energy every day. Especially now, in this
high-tech era with a growing global population, the demand for energy supply has
increased. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (2024), energy
consumption in the United States reached approximately 94 quadrillion British thermal
units in 2023. In the Philippines, due to its large population, about 78% of total electricity
generation was reported as of mid-2023. Our heavy reliance on fossil fuels not only
depletes energy resources but also negatively impacts the environment by contributing
to greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution, as noted by National Geographic
Education.

The Philippines has a significant number of coconut trees. Due to the country's
vulnerability to typhoons, many coconut trees have been damaged and subsequently
cut down. For instance, during Typhoon Odette, over 10 million coconut trees were
destroyed, with around 3.5 million deemed beyond recovery. Most of these trees were
located on Panaon Island, where many were cut down at that time. As a result,
numerous coconut stumps remain, and instead of being removed, many are left to rot
and become habitats for insects. Recognizing this abundance of coconut stumps and
the need for sustainable energy resources, researchers have proposed utilizing these
stumps to create bio-fire briquettes.

By converting the supposedly left to decay into sustainable bio-fire briquettes, the
researchers can significantly help lessen the environmental impact of waste gathered.
These briquettes serve as an eco-friendly alternative to traditional fossil fuels, offering a
cleaner source of energy that helps to air pollution and reduce greenhouse gas
emissions.
Statement of the problem
The primary objective of this research is to investigate the potential of bio-fire
briquettes made from the fusion of coconut (Cocos nucifera) stumps and cassava starch
as an alternative to conventional/ traditional firewood.
Specifically, the study sought answers to the following questions:

1. How long does it take to light bio-fire briquettes and traditional firewood?

2. How long does it take to boil 200 mL of water using a bio-fire briquette?

3. How long does it take to cook egg using bio-fire briquettes?

4. How do bio-fire briquettes perform compared to firewood in terms of ignition time,

boiling time, and burn time?

Hypothesis / Assumptions

Ho — There is no significant difference in the ignition time, boiling time, and

combustion efficiency between bio-fire briquettes made from coconut stumps and
traditional firewood.

Ha — There is a significant difference in the ignition time, boiling time, and

combustion efficiency between bio-fire briquettes made from coconut stumps and
traditional firewood.

Scope & Delimitation

This study looks at the viability of using fused coconut (Cocos nucifera L. Kuntze)
stumps as a sustainable bio-fire briquette in Molopolo, Liloan, Southern Leyte, Eastern
Visayas, in the Philippines. The study will focus on the manufacturing and evaluation of
these briquettes with widely available and sustainable binding agents. The study will be
completed within a specific timeframe and will make use of coconut stumps from the
coconut tree (Cocos nucifera L. Kuntze) variety is widespread in the region. However,
the study will not look into the utilization of additional coconut components, alternative
binding agents, or the economic and environmental implications of large-scale
production. This limitation offers a concentrated and controllable study endeavor,
allowing for a full evaluation into the potential of fused coconut stumps as a sustainable
bio-fire briquette in the specific location.

Significance of the Study

Environment. It promotes sustainable resource utilization by transforming

agricultural waste into valuable energy products, thereby minimizing waste and
encouraging efficient use of natural resources. And it also translates into a lower carbon
footprint and a decrease in greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to mitigating climate
change. Furthermore, the use of these bio-fire briquettes can significantly reduce the
pressure on forests, preserving biodiversity and protecting vital ecosystems.

Societal Impact. The study is likely to have diverse social impacts. It may boost
the living standards of communities especially in areas where coconut and pili trees are
in plenty. It can enable income-generating opportunities among the local populations by
generating a new market for such resources, thus contributing towards economic
empowerment and sustainable development. Jobs in collection, processing, and
distribution of bio-fire briquettes may be created as well, hence contributing to local
economic growth.

Future Researchers. This opens up future research avenues, starting with the
optimization of proportions between coconut stumps and pili tree exudates to produce
more viable briquettes, enhancing calorific value and possible burn time. More
exploratory research can also determine if other agricultural wastes mixed with these
resources may ultimately yield even more sustainable bio-fire briquettes. In the long run,
it would be advisable to analyze the environmental effects of these bio-fire briquettes
compared to traditional fuels to understand their full potentials.
 Low income families. It offers an economical and available source of energy,
hence helping to alleviate dependence on costlier fuels such as charcoal and firewood.
The technology aids in enhancing the quality of life through improved energy security
since it is a cleaner source that is healthier for households. Additionally, it will offer
employment opportunities at the local level in both production and in distribution for
enhancing economic resilience. Since the project makes use of agricultural waste, it
aids in waste management and environmental sustainability; this is one of the most
impactful advantages for low-income communities.

Economy. It will encourage agricultural waste to be transformed into a

more usable form of energy, away from those expensive fuels like charcoal and
firewood. This can help reduce household energy costs for poor families and improve
their economic security. Further, this local production will create employment, develop
small-scale industries, and enhance the resilience of communities. By doing so, it
enables supportive practices that promote economic development along with issues
related to deforestation and waste management.
 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Energy Consumption

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a global initiative adopted in

September 2015, have garnered significant attention to the pressing issue of air
pollution. This 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Omer and Noguchi, 2020,
Alawneh et al., 2019, Akuraju et al., 2020), endorsed by 193 countries, both developed
and developing, explicitly addresses air pollution within two key objectives: SDG 11.6,
which aims to mitigate the impact of air pollution in large cities, and SDG 3.9, which
targets a substantial reduction in health risks associated with hazardous elements.
These objectives underscore the global recognition of air pollution as a critical challenge
that necessitates concerted efforts from governments, corporations, and individuals
alike. The integration of air pollution into the SDGs framework signifies a commitment to
sustainable development that prioritizes human health and environmental well-being.

The 21st century has witnessed a growing global consensus on the urgent need
to mitigate the detrimental impacts of rising greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This is
reflected in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which allocate approximately
25% of their objectives to environmental sustainability. However, the pursuit of
industrialization, a key driver of economic growth, poses a significant challenge to these
environmental goals. As industrialization accelerates, so does the demand for energy
(Luqman et al., 2019), which can either exacerbate or alleviate environmental concerns
depending on its source. While renewable energy consumption is generally considered
environmentally friendly (Khan et al., 2021, Liu et al., 2022), reliance on non-renewable
fossil fuels contributes to increased GHG emissions and environmental degradation
(Achuo, 2022). This complex interplay between industrialization, energy consumption,
and environmental impact highlights the need for a balanced approach that prioritizes
sustainable development and minimizes the negative consequences of human activity
on the planet.
 The growing global concern for environmental degradation has spurred a surge
in research examining various facets of this complex issue. Studies have delved into
topics such as environmental degradation CO2 emissions (Kartal, 2022; Khan et al.,
2019), environmental pollution (Shen et al., 2019), air quality (Li et al., 2020), and
environmental sustainability (Solarin and Bello, 2020). Concurrently, there has been a
significant increase (e.g., Kartal et al., 2022, Kılıç Depren et al., 2022, Kirikkaleli and
Darbaz, 2021) in research on energy consumption, recognizing its pivotal role in both
economic development and environmental impact. To gain a comprehensive
understanding of the evolving research landscape, bibliometric analyses have been
employed to map trends, identify key themes, and assess the scholarly contributions in
this field. Researchers have conducted bibliometric studies covering diverse time
periods, ranging from the 1990s to the present day, and analyzed a substantial number
of articles to uncover patterns, gaps, and emerging trends in the literature on
environmental degradation, energy consumption, and related topics.

Global climate change, primarily driven by the burning of fossil fuels, poses one
of the most significant environmental challenges of our time. The United States, a major
energy consumer, heavily relies on non-renewable sources such as coal and natural
gas. In 2019, fossil fuels accounted for a substantial portion of the country's energy
generation, contributing to significant CO2 emissions. While the country's carbon
intensity declined in 2018, overall energy consumption per capita remained significantly
higher than the global average. These trends highlight the urgent need for the United
States to transition towards a more sustainable energy mix, reduce its carbon footprint,
and contribute to global efforts to mitigate climate change (EIA, 2019b, EIA, 2019a).

Sustainable Energy

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted the global energy landscape,
particularly in the context of sustainable energy transitions. (Kuzemko et al. (2020)
explore how emergency measures during the pandemic have led to political, economic,
and social changes that could influence energy demand and carbon intensity. They
identify critical themes shaping these transitions, including investment practices in clean
technology and shifts in energy governance. The pandemic's disruptions have posed
challenges for renewable energy development, as noted by (Capelle-Blancard and
Desroziers (2020), who highlight production halts and supply chain delays that threaten
progress made in recent years. Siddique et al. (2021) further emphasize that without
robust government incentives, the renewable energy sector risks losing momentum
gained over the past decade. Conversely, some experts argue that the crisis presents
an opportunity for governments to prioritize clean energy investments in their recovery
plans. Bridle (2021) asserts that strategic political commitments to renewable projects
can facilitate a transition away from fossil fuels, which have been propped up during the
pandemic. The International Energy Agency (IEA) also notes that while investments in
renewables are expected to decline, there remains potential for rapid growth if
governments integrate clean energy into stimulus packages (IEA, 2020). Moreover, the
pandemic has highlighted the vulnerabilities of supply chains crucial for sustainable
energy technologies. For instance, disruptions in China, a major supplier of solar panels
and batteries, have had global repercussions (JHU, 2022). As nations emerge from
lockdowns, there is a critical need for policies that not only support recovery but also
advance the transition to sustainable energy systems.

In this perspectives piece, an interdisciplinary team of social science researchers

considers the implications of Covid-19 for the politics of sustainable energy transitions.
The emergency measures adopted by states, firms, and individuals in response to this
global health crisis have driven a series of political, economic and social changes with
potential to influence sustainable energy transitions. We identify some of the initial
impacts of the ‘great lockdown’ on sustainable and fossil sources of energy, and
consider how economic stimulus packages and social practices in the wake of the
pandemic are likely to shape energy demand, the carbon-intensity of the energy
system, and the speed of transitions.

Climate change, disturbance of the energy security resulting from increasing fuel
prices due to conflicts, and disruptions to production and supply chains caused by
COVID-19 have highlighted the need for the world to be prepared for future challenges.
The environmental and climate change impacts of heavy use of fossil fuels for energy
production have yielded numerous crucial challenges and will even cause increasingly
more severe effects in the years to come. This is particularly important, as the utilization
of fossil fuels is the largest contributor to the increasing emissions of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere, which is leading to climate change and other problems. As a result,
there is an emerging need to transition towards low or zero-emission energy systems
where renewables and nuclear energy can play a critical role in the new energy
equation and help establish the source ecosystem for hydrogen. Hydrogen, being the
most abundant, clean, and energy-intensive element in nature, is an attractive
alternative to fossil fuels. Furthermore, when produced using renewable energy
sources, it is easier to reduce and control upstream emissions to produce or store
hydrogen than fossil fuels. This study presents a framework for developing hydrogen
technologies, building the necessary infrastructure, and selecting appropriate energy
sources to help transition to a more sustainable and resilient energy system.

Meeting the rising energy demand and limiting its environmental impact are the
two intertwined issues faced in the 21st century. Governments in different countries
have been engaged in developing regulations and related policies to encourage
environment friendly renewable energy generation along with conservation strategies
and technological innovations. It is important to develop sustainable energy policies and
provide relevant and suitable policy recommendations for end-users. This study
presents a review on sustainable energy policy for promotion of renewable energy by
introducing the development history of energy policy in five countries, i.e., the United
States, Germany, the United Kingdom, Denmark and China. A survey of the articles
aimed at promoting the development of sustainable energy policies and their modelling
is carried out. It is observed that energy-efficiency standard is one of the most popular
strategy for building energy saving, which is dynamic and renewed based on the current
available technologies. Feed-in-tariff has been widely applied to encourage the
application of renewable energy, which is demonstrated successfully in different
countries. Building energy performance certification schemes should be enhanced in
terms of reliable database system and information transparency to pave the way for
future net-zero energy building and smart cities.
Coconut Stumps

Coconut (Cocos nucifera) is among the most popular crops grown in tropical
regions and has enormous economic significance for many countries providing a wide
range of products and supporting economies worldwide (Ighalo et al., 2023). This
versatile tree thrives in warm, humid climates, particularly along coastlines, making the
Philippines, with its extensive coastline and tropical climate, a major producer. With an
estimated 3.5 billion coconut trees, the Philippines is the world's largest coconut
producer, making the coconut palm an integral part of Filipino culture and economy. Its
adaptability allows it to grow in various environments, contributing to its widespread
cultivation and economic significance (Henrietta et al., 2022).

The coconut trees were the type of multifunctional plant because almost all parts
of the coconut tree can be used (Saputra et al., 2023). In the study of Anthony et al.,
(2024) coconut tree is often referred as the “tree of life”, reflecting its integral role in the
livelihood of millions around the world. While many people utilize the coconut's shell,
husk, trunk, and leaves, there is a significant oversight regarding the potential of the
tree stumps post-harvest (Saputra et al., 2023). This reason lead to the researchers to
utilized coconut tree stumps and make as a briquettes. Furthermore, innovative
processing techniques can enhance the value of coconut residues, promoting a circular
economy and reducing waste. By recognizing and utilizing all parts of the coconut tree,
communities can foster economic resilience and environmental sustainability.

Bio-Briquettes

The rising demand for renewable energy has catalyzed the development of bio-
briquettes as an effective energy source. Marriero et al. (2022) define briquettes as solid
fuels that convert energy through direct combustion, making them ideal for heating and
cooking applications in both domestic and industrial contexts. Their structural design is
particularly suited for use in fixed bed combustion systems. Briquettes are increasingly
recognized for their sustainability and energy efficiency, largely due to their affordability,
accessibility, and versatility in fulfilling diverse energy needs (Donald et al., 2022).
Common forms of briquettes include pillow, honeycomb, cylinder, and egg shapes
(Djuanda, 2020), with charcoal and biomass briquettes being the most prevalent types
in the market. This trend suggests a promising expansion of briquettes within the
renewable energy landscape.

Charcoal briquettes are solid fuels primarily composed of carbon, known for their
high calorific value and extended burn time (Djuanda, 2020). These characteristics
make them an efficient energy source for various applications, from cooking to heating.
Moreover, the production and use of charcoal briquettes present a promising investment
opportunity for agriculturalists. By utilizing agricultural waste materials, such as coconut
stumps, they can contribute to environmental conservation while simultaneously
reducing dependence on imported energy sources (Wasty & Awny, 2020). This not only
supports sustainable practices but also fosters local economies by creating jobs in the
production and distribution of these eco-friendly fuels.

Umar et al. (2019) highlight that while wood has traditionally served as a primary
source of fuel for fires, ovens, and conventional heating methods, advancements in
biomass energy extend far beyond these applications. Biomass energy, derived from
organic materials such as sawdust, agricultural residues, and annual crops, offers a
cleaner alternative to coal. Moreover, when sourced sustainably, biomass has the
potential to meet a significant portion of the world's energy demands (Marriero et al.,
2021b).

Briquettes, a versatile form of solid biofuel, are produced by compressing

agricultural and biomass residues. This densification process transforms loose materials
into compact, energy-dense briquettes. A diverse range of biomass sources can be
utilized for briquette production, including rice husk (Duangkham & Thuadaij, 2023),
coffee husk (Tesfaye et al., 2022a), sugar cane bagasse (Mekonen et al., 2024), corn
cob (Nagarajan & Prakash, 2021), and bamboo species (Krishnamoorthi et al., 2023).
By subjecting these biomass residues to densification techniques, often with the
addition of binding agents or additives (Gwenzi et al., 2020), briquettes can be
manufactured to serve as an efficient and sustainable alternative to traditional fossil
fuels.

Gap Bridge by the study

While existing research has explored the potential of various biomass materials,
such as coffee husk (Tesfaye et al., 2022a), corn cub (Nagaran & Prakash, 2021), and
rice husk (Duangkham & Thuadaij, 2023), as biofuel sources, there is a significant gap
in research on the utilization of fused coconut stumps as a sustainable bio-fire briquette
material. The proposed study aims to fill this gap regarding the formulation of bio-fire
briquettes using coconut stump combined with cornstarch as binder.

Theoretical Framework

This study is grounded in the biomass energy theory and chemical reaction
theory. The Biomass energy theory relates to the recycling of organic waste into energy
and proposes the possible use of coconut stumps as a suitable biomass fuel. This type
of purposed strategy decreases dependency on fossil fuels and helps achieve
sustainability through better use of agro-residues. However, from the sights of chemical
reaction theory, some factors explain the burning behavior of the materials being used
in the process. This assists also in explaining how the burning characteristics of the
coconut stumps and the cassava starch are affected by their chemical contents. Such
studies enable the modification of the briquettes’ formulation in order to improve their
energy and burning efficiencies. All these explanation theories form part of the
formulation strategy aimed at the production of bio-fire briquettes that are efficient and
sustainable in the search for alternative renewable energy resources.
Conceptual Framework

Figure 2. Schematic Diagram on the Conceptual Framework of the study

______________________________________________________________________

BRIQUETTE PROCESSING
TECHNIQUES

COCONUT STUMPS BIO-FIRE BRIQUETTES

PROPERTIES CALORIFIC VALUE AND
BURN CHARACTERISTICS

ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITION
TEMPERATURE AND
HUMIDITY DURING

In the key parameters intertwine with each other to produce effects that differ from one
another. The independent variable in this case is the characteristics of the coconut
stumps such as moisture content, density and fiber which are essential in the making of
quality briquettes. The dependent variable on the other hand is the calorific value and
burn characteristics of these briquettes and their efficiency in burning as well as energy
output. The moderating variable also includes the processing methods which include
compression, drying, and binding that are essential in optimizing the uses of the stumps’
characteristics in order to increase performance. Additionally, as for the stumps’
characteristics or the efficiency of the processing methods applied, temperature and
humidity also are considered to be the moderating factors where, for example, high
humidity will increase the moisture content of the stumps which negatively affects the
burn characteristics. However optimal temperatures are favorable as they will enhance
the bonding and even the combustion efficiency. All these interrelationships are equally
important for effective and most economic production of bio-fire briquettes from the
coconut stumps with an aim of providing energy in a more sustainable way.

Definition of term

 Sustainable bio-energy. Harnesses organic sources like agricultural waste,

forestry residue, and algae generate renewable energy, mitigating climate
change and environmental degradation.
 Coconut palm. Residue includes coconut husks, shells, leaves, fronds, trunk
fibers, and stump waste generated from coconut palm processing, offering
opportunities for sustainable reuse.
 Bio-Fire Briquette. A type of fuel briquette made from compressed biomass
materials, such as agricultural waste, wood waste, or other organic matter.
 Ignition time. Refers to the time it takes for any parts of the briquette to catch
fire and start burning after being exposed to an ignition source, such as a flame
or a spark
 Bio-briquette. A solid fuel made from organic materials, often used as an
alternative to fossil fuel.
 Coconut stump. Residual trunks of coconut palm trees (Cocos nucifera) after
harvesting or felling.
 CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH DESIGN & METHODOLOGY

This chapter will present the research method, instrumentations that will be
utilized, data gathering procedure and sources, and the treatment of data in statistical
means.

Research Method

The study will employ a quantitative experimental design to evaluate the usability
of the incorporated chipped coconut stumps and cassava starch as a bio-fire briquette.
This design will allow the researcher to measure key variables, including its efficiency in
terms of duration of combustion, ignition time, and the time it will take to boil a specific
amount of water in comparison to commercially produced firewood.

Research Instrument

As a key technique for this investigation into the effectiveness of fused coconut
(Cocos nucifera L. Kuntze) stumps as a sustainable bio-fire briquette, direct observation
will be employed to gather real-time data on the impact and performance of the
briquettes in real-world situations. We can determine the briquettes' efficiency,
longevity, environmental impact, and usability by monitoring their use, which allows us
to measure fuel consumption, burn time, smoke and emissions, and even user
behavior. Furthermore, we can obtain qualitative information through direct observation,
such as user feedback and environmental impact, which provides a broad and practical
evaluation of potential. Additionally, it provides useful research data on fused coconut
stumps as a bio-fire briquette, outlining the sustainability and efficacy of the technology.
Sources of Data

Data will be collected through direct observation and measurement of ignition and
combustion of bio-fire briquettes. The primary sources of data include: (1) the time
taken for the water to boil, (2) the egg to cook;

Data Gathering Procedure

1. Preparation of Extract: Coconut stump (cocos nucifera) will be harvested,

processed, and extracted using standardized methods to create a concentrated bio-fire
briquette solution.

This guide outlines coconut stump and cassava starch binder briquette solution
prototype, a sustainable bio-fire briquettes using Cocos nucifera L. Kuntze.

Materials:

 Wood
 Stopwatch
 Coconut stumps with starch binder as bio-fire briquettes
 Thermometer
 Pan
 Weighing scale
 Measuring cup

Procedure:

I. Collection stumps

a. Collect coconut stump

b. Chip it into pieces

c. Dry for under the sun

II. Creation of briquettes

 a. Powder the chips of coconut stumps.

b. Mix the powdered coconut stumps with cornstarch and add water in a
specific ratio of 5:3:2

c. Compress the mixed material in a water bottle molder.

d. Dry the briquettes for 3 days under the sun.

e. The resulting bio-fire briquettes will be stored for later use.

2. Experimental Set-up: Water will be boiled in a kettle and egg will be cooked in a pan
using traditional firewood and bio-fire briquettes as fuel. Three trials will be conducted
for each fuel, measuring the time taken for the water to boil, the egg to cook and the
duration of combustion. To ensure fairness, both bio-fire briquettes and traditional
firewoodl will be dried for 3 days. After drying, the fuels will be weighed equally at 135
grams.

3. Data Recording: The time taken for the water to boil, the egg to cook, and the
duration of combustion in each trials will be meticulously measured and recorded.

Statistical Treatment