MODULE II

OBJECTIVES
Understand logic simplifications
Understand Boolean postulates and theorems
simplification with the help of logic rules and truth
tables.
● Standard and Canonical Forms
■ SOP and POS (Standard forms)
■ Minterms and Maxterms (Canonical forms)
Give the basic principle of Karnaugh map.
Two variable, three variables and four variables K-
maps with reductions.
Boolean algebra
●The mathematical theory that describes the
switching circuits is called as Boolean
algebra
●The system consists of (0,1) and two binary
operators AND, OR and one unary operator
NOT.
●Any complex logic statement can be
expressed by Boolean functions
Need for simplifying Boolean
expressions
Logic circuits are designed using gates
Realization of digital circuit with minimum
components reduce cost and complexity
The technique of simplifying logic
expressions is called Reduction or
simplification
Boolean Postulates (axioms) and
theorems
●Axioms or postulates are set of logical
expressions that we accept without proof
●Upon which we build useful theorems
Laws of Boolean algebra
AND law
OR law
●It allows to change the position of AND or
OR variables
●Law1 A+B =B+A

●Law2 A.B =B.A

●It allows grouping of variables
Reducing Boolean Expression
● Boolean expression must be reduced to a
simple form as possible
● Every logic operation represents a hardware
● Reduction reduces cost and complexity
Procedure
Multiply all variables necessary to remove
parentheses
Look for identical terms. One of them is
retained
Eg: AB+AB+AB=AB
 Look for a variable and its negation in the
same term
Eg:- A.BB’ = A.0 = 0; ABCC’=AB.0 = 0
Look for pairs of terms that are identical
except for one variable which may be
missing in one of the terms.
Larger term can be dropped
ABC’D’+ABC’= ABC’(D’ + 1) = ABC’ . 1 =
ABC’
●Look for pairs of terms which have same
variables with one or more variables
complimented
●If such a pair exists, it is combined into a
single term with one variable dropped
1 Simplify F = x’yz + x’yz’ + xz.
F = x’yz + x’yz’+ xz
= x’y(z+z’) + xz
= x’y•1 + xz
= x’y + xz
●Reduce expression f= A +B[AC+(B+C’)D]
=A +B(AC+BD+C’D) // Expanded (B+C’)D
=A+ABC+BBD+BC’D // Expanded B(AC+BD+C’D)
=A+ABC+BD+BC’D
=A(1+BC)+BD(1+C’)
=A.1+BD.1
=A+BD
Sum of Product(SOP)
●It is a type of Boolean expression where
several product terms are summed together
●The logical sum of two or more product
term is called SOP
●Eg: Z=AB+BC+ACD
■ Z=AB+AC+BC+BCD

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra

 Standared SOP
● A standard SOP form is one in which a number of
product terms, each of contains all variables of the
function
● They may be either in complimented or non
complimented form are summed together
● Minterm- Each of the product terms in the
standard SOP form
For minterm the binary words are formed by representing
non complimented variable by 1 and complimented
variable by 0 and the decimal equivalent of this binary
word is expressed as Boolean
Jun 24, 2014
a subcript
Algebra
of lower case m
(m0,m1,m2….)
Expansion of Boolean expression in
SOP standard form
●Write down all the terms
●If one or more variables are missing in any
term
● expand that by multiplying it with the sum of
each one of the missing variable and its
compliment
●Drop the redundant terms

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra

Eg:

Jun 24, 2014

Boolean Algebra
Product of Sum(POS)
●A type of Boolean expression where several
sum terms are multiplied together
●A POS expression represents the product
of two or more algebraic sums
●Eg: (A+B)(A+B’)

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra

Standard POS
●A standard POS form is one in which a
number of sum terms
●each of contains all variables of the
function.
●If any variable is missing in any sum term
expand it by adding the products of
missing variable and its compliment

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra

Expansion of Boolean expression in
POS standard form
●Write down all the terms
●If one or more variables are missing in any
sum term
● expand that by adding the products of each of
the missing variable and its compliment
●Drop the redundant terms

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra

Maxterm
● Each of the sum terms in the standard POS form
■ For maxterm the binary words are formed by
representing non complimented variable by 0 and
complimented variable by 1 and the decimal
equivalent of this binary word is expressed as a
subscript of the upper-case letter M (M0,M1,M2…)

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra

●Expand A(B’+A)B
1 term A=A+BB’ =(A+B)(A+B’)
2 term = (B’+A)
3 term B=B+AA’ = (B+A)(B+A’)
A(B’+A)B=(A+B)(A+B’) (B’+A) (B+A)(B+A’)
●Eliminating Redundant terms
●=(B+A) (A+B’) (B’+A)
●=(00)(01)(10) =M0,M1,M2
● M(0,1,2)Jun 24, 2014
Boolean Algebra
Logic Gates
●Logic gates are the fundamental building
blocks of digital system
●Components that operate on one or more
input signals to produce an output signal.
●It produces one output level when some
combinations of input levels are present
●The behavior of gates are described by
■ Boolean Expressions
■ Logic Diagrams
■ Truth tables Boolean Algebra
 Basic Logic Gates

●AND
Binary
●OR
●NOT Unary

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra PJF - 37

NOT Gate
●A NOT gate accepts one input value
and produces one output value

● if the input value for a NOT gate is 0, the output

value is 1, and if the input value is 1, the output is
0
● A NOT gate is sometimes referred to as an
inverter because it inverts the input value 4–38
AND Gate
●An AND gate accepts two or more inputs
signals
●If the input values for an AND gate are 1, the
output is 1; otherwise, the output is 0
 Basic Logic Operators (cont.)
●1-bit logic AND resembles binary
multiplication:
0 • 0 = 0, 0 • 1 = 0,
1 • 0 = 0, 1 • 1 = 1 74LS08
Quad 2-input AND

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra PJF - 40

 OR Gate
●OR gate may have two or inputs
●If all input values are 0, the output value is 0;
otherwise, the output is 1

●1-bit logic OR resembles binary addition,

except for one operation:
0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1, 4–41

1 + 0 = 1, 1 + 1 = 1 (≠ 102)
Universal Gates
●The gate that can be used to realize logic
circuits single handedly.
●The gates NAND and NOR are called
universal Gates

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra

NAND Gate
●The output is logic 0 only
when each of the input
assumes a 1

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra

NAND Realization
●The NAND gates are essentially the
opposite of the AND gate

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra

NOR Gate
●The NOR gates are essentially the opposite
of the OR gate

74LS02
Quad 2-input NOR

74LS02
Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra
Quad 2-input NOR
NOR Gate realization
●NOT gate (Before Bubble)

X
●OR gate

X
Y

NOR Gate “Inverter”

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra

NOR gate Realization
●AND gate
X

Y
X Y Z
“Inverters” NOR Gate
0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra

XOR Gate
●XOR, or exclusive OR, gate
■ An XOR gate produces 0 if its two inputs are the
same, and a 1 otherwise

4–48
X-NOR gate
●It is a combination of X-OR gate with a NOT
gate

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra

Realization of Logic Expression
●Combinations of gates implement Boolean
functions.
●The circuit below implements the function:

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra

Realization of X-OR using NAND

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra

Realization of X-OR using NOR

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra

Karnaugh map(K- map)
●Karnaugh maps (K-maps) are graphical
representations of boolean functions.
●Rows and columns are assigned a binary
code
●Two adjacent rows or columns differ in one
bit only
●Column on extreme left is adjacent to the
column on the extreme right
●Top row and bottom row are adjacent
K-map
 2 variable K-map – SOP Expression
●A two variable expression can have four
possible combinations
●Each of these combinations A’B’, A’B,AB’
B
and AB in SOP is called minterm
A
0 0 1 1
0
m0 m1
1 2 3
m2 m3
Mapping of SOP expressions
●Two varaible K-map has 4 squares
●Each square on the K-map represents a
unique minterm
● Any two adjacent cells in the map differ by
ONLY one variable
F=m1+m2 = m(1,2)
Minimization of SOP expression
● Enter 1s in the K-map for each product term in the
function
● Look for adjacent squares having 1’s
● Combine them to form larger squares to eliminate
variables Group size must be in power of 2 (2, 4, 8,
…)

Possible minterm grouping in 2 variable K-map

Eg”- Reduce the expression

Group1= A’B’+ A’B

=A’
Group2 =A’B+AB
=B
F=A’+B
Exercise
A’B’ + A’B
A’B’ + AB’
●To obtain the minimal expression in POS
form, enter 0’s in the K-map for each
maxterm in the function
●Look for adjacent squares having 0’s
●Combine them to form larger squares to
eliminate variables Group size must be in
power of 2 (2, 4, 8, …)
●Y’=(A+B)(A+B’) (A+B’)(A’+B’)
●Y’=A+B’
 Three-Variable Map

● A function in three variables expressed in standard

SOP can have 8 possible combinations.
● It requires 8 squares to map and each square
represents a minterm

BC
A 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2 variable ordering is (A,B,C);BC
0 m0 m1 m3 m2 specifies column,A specifies row.
-Each cell is adjacent to three other
4 5 7 6
cells (left or right or top or bottom
1 m4 m5 m7 m6 or edge wrap)
 minterm

group of 2 terms

group of 4 terms
 Simplification
● Enter minterms of the Boolean function into the
map, then group terms

Group1= A’B’C+AB’C
=B’C
Group2 =AB
Group3=BC’
F=AB+B’C+BC’
 Example: f(a,b,c) = a’c + abc + bc’

●= a’c + abc + bc’

=a’bc+a’b’c+abc+abc’+a’bc’

1 1 1 abc 00 01 11 10

1 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
●Result: f(a,b,c) = a’c+ b

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra PJF - 66

 More Examples
yz
X 00 01 11 10

●f1(x, y, z) = ∑ m(2,3,5,7) 0 1 1
1 1 1
● f1(x, y, z) = x’y + xz

●f2(x, y, z) = ∑ m (0,1,2,3,6)
1 1 1 1
●f2(x, y, z) = x’+yz’
1

Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra PJF - 67

 POS Expressions

F’=(A+B+C)((A’+C”)(A’+B’)(B+C)
●G1= x
●G2=y+z
Y’=x.(y+z)
 Four-Variable Maps
CD
AB 00 01 11 10

00 m0 m1 m3 m2

01 m4 m5 m7 m6

11 m12 m13 m15 m14

10 m8 m9 m11 m10

● Top cells are adjacent to bottom cells. Left-edge

cells are adjacent to right-edge cells.
● Note variable ordering (ABCD).

Boolean Algebra
Four-variable Map Simplification
One square represents a minterm of 4
literals.
A rectangle of 2 adjacent squares
represents a product term of 3 literals.
A rectangle of 4 squares represents a
product term of 2 literals.
A rectangle of 8 squares represents a
product term of 1 literal.
A rectangle of 16 squares produces a
function that is equal to logic 1.
Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra PJF - 71
 Example
● Simplify the following Boolean function (A,B,C,D)
= ∑m(0,1,2,4,5,7,8,9,10,12,13).
● First put the function g( ) into the map, and then
group
cd
as many 1s as possible.
ab
1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

g(A,B,C,D) = c’+b’d’+a’bd
Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra PJF - 73
Reduce
Hints
If provided expressions are not in standard
form convert it to standard form
If a truth table is provided
for SOP consider the terms having high
output function
for POS consider the terms having low
output funtion
Simplify SOP using K-map
1 Y=m0+m1+m3+m7
2 f(a,b,c)=Em(0,2,4,5)
3 F(a,b,c,d)=acd+a’b+d’
Simplify POS using K-map
1 S=II M(0,1,2,3,4,7)
2 S=A.(B+C).(B’+C’)
Simplify for POS using K-map

INPUTS OUTPUT
A B C Y

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 1 0 1

0 1 1 0

1 0 0 1

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0

1 1 1 0
Don’t care condition
For certain input combinations output is
unspecified
■ Either it is invalid
■ Precise value has no concern
The combination for which the value of the
expression are not specified are called don’t
care combination
It is denoted by X or
During the process of reduction it can be
treated as either 0 or 1
 cd
ab 00 01 11 10
Example 00 0 1 0 1
01 1 1 0 1
●Simplify the function f(a,b,c,d) 11 0 0 x x
10 1 1 x x
whose K-map is shown at the
right. 0 1 0 1
●f = a’c’d+ab’+cd’+a’bc’ 1 1 0 1
0 0 x x
or 1 1 x x
●f = a’c’d+ab’+cd’+a’bd’
0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1
0 0 x x
1 1 x x
Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra PJF - 80
 cd
Example ab
x 1 0 0
1 x 0 x
●Simplify the function 1 x x 1
g(a,b,c,d) whose K-map 0 x x 0

is shown at right. x 1 0 0
●g = a’c’+ ab 1 x 0 x
1 x x 1
or
0 x x 0
●g = a’c’+b’d
x 1 0 0
1 x 0 x
1 x x 1
0 x x 0
Jun 24, 2014 Boolean Algebra PJF - 81
KMAP – Summary

● Enter a 1 on the Kmap for each fundamental product

that produces a 1 output in the truth table. Enter 0s
elsewhere.
● Encircle the octets, quads, and pairs. Remember to
roll and overlap the largest groups possible. Don’t
care conditions can be considered as 1’s for
enlarging the group
● If any isolated 1’s encircle each
● 4. Eliminate any redundant group
● 5. Write the boolean equation by OR ing the
products corresponding to the encircled groups

2024/11/15 Unit II
Digital computer
KMAP – Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
● It is a visualization of truth table.
● It is easy construct the groups.
● Easy to reduce the equation
● Can also consider the don’t care output to find the SOP.

● Same can be used for finding POS.

● Designer can select either POS or SOP
● Easy to under stand
Disadvantage
● Constructing of more than 4 variable KMAP is difficult.

2024/11/15 Unit II
Digital computer
Assignment
I Simplify using Boolean Algebra
1 A(A’+AB)
2 AB’C+A’BC+A’B’C
3 AB+A’B’C+A
4 A’B+A’BC’+A’BCD+A’BC’D’E
5 AB+(A’+B’)C+AB
Assignment
II)Draw truth table, Kmap and simplify
Q1: Y=∑(m2,m3)
Q2: Y= ∑(m2,m6,m7)
Q3: Y= ∑(m1,m6,m7,m14)
Q4: Y = ∑(m5,m8,m9,m10,m11,m12,m13,m14,m15)
Q5: Y = ∑(m4,m6,m12,m14)
Q6: Y= ∑(m0,m1,m4,m5,m6,m8,m9,m12,m13,m14)
Q7: Y= ∏(M3,M7,M11,M14,M15)
Q8: Y= ∏(M0,M1,M2,M6,M8,M10,M11,M12)
Q9: Y= ∑(m9) and don’t cares =
(m10,m11,m12,m13,m14,m15)
Q10: find SOP and POS Y= ∏(M4,M5,M6,M7,M8,M9)
which logic you will select for implementation?. Why?.
2024/11/15 Unit II
Digital computer
NAND AND NOR
IMPLIMENTATION
● Simplified Boolean expression can be
implemented by AND-OR gates.
● NAND and NOR gates are easier to fabricate
with electronic components

2024/11/15 Unit II Digital

computer Principles
NAND-NAND Logic
●F = AB + CD
●Implement the following Boolean function
with NAND gates:
●F (x, y, z) = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7)
Steps
●Simplify the function and express it in sum-
of-products form.
●Draw a NAND gate for each product term of
the expression that has at least two literals.
●Draw a single gate using the AND-invert or
the invert-OR graphic symbol in the second
level
●A term with a single literal requires an
inverter in the first level.
NOR-NOR Logic
●F = (x + y + z)(x’ + y’ + z)