Optical Instruments

Simple Microscope

A simple microscope or a magnifying glass is just a convex lens of short focal length, held close to
eye.

Working principle:

When an object is placed between f and optical center of a convex lens: a virtual erect and magnified
image is formed on the same side of the lens as the object.

Magnifying Power

The magnifying power of a simple microscope is defined as the ratio of the angles subtended by the
image and the object at the eye, when both are at least distance of distinct vision.

𝐷
𝑚 = 1+
𝑓

If the object is formed at infinity

𝐷
𝑚=
𝑓

Thus shorter the focal length of a convex lens, the greater is its magnifying power.

Compound Microscope

A compound microscope is an optical device used to see highly magnified images of tiny objects.

Construction

It consists of two convex lens of short focal length, arranged co-axially at the two ends of a sliding
metal tube.

1. Objective – it is a convex lens of very shorter focal length fo and small aperture. It is placed
near the object to be magnified.
2. Eyepiece – it is a convex lens of comparatively larger focal length fe and aperture than the
objective (fe ‹ fo ). It is positioned near the eye for viewing the final image.

The distance between the two lenses can be adjusted by using rack and pinion arrangement.

The object AB to be viewed is placed at a distance uo slightly larger than the focal length of the
objective O. The objective forms a real inverted and magnified image A’B’ of the object AB on the
other side of the lens O. The separation between the objective and eyepiece is so adjusted that the
image A’B’ lies within the focal length of the eyepiece. The image A’B’ acts as an object for eyepiece
which essentially acts like a microscope. The eyepiece forms a virtual and magnified final image A’’B’’
of the object AB. Clearly the final image A’’B’’ is inverted with respect to the object AB.
Magnifying power

The magnifying power of a compound microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by
the eye by the final virtual image to the angle subtended at the eye at the object, when both are at
least distance of distinct vision from the eye.

𝑣 𝐷
𝑚= 1+
𝑢 𝑓

As the object AB is placed close to the focus of the objective uo ≈ -fo

Also the image A’B’ is formed close to the eye lens therefore vo ≈ L

𝐿 𝐷
𝑚= − 1+
𝑓 𝑓

Magnification when the image is formed at infinity

𝐿 𝐷
𝑚= − 𝑥
𝑓 𝑓

Telescope

A telescope is an optical device which enables us to see the distant objects clearly. It provides an
angular magnification of the distant object.

Broadly telescopes can be categorized into two types:

1. Refracting telescopes
(a) Astronomical telescopes – it is used to see heavenly objects like sun, star, planets etc. the
final image formed is inverted.
(b) Terrestrial telescopes – it used to see distant objects on the surface of the earth. The
final image formed is erect.
2. Reflecting telescopes – these telescopes make use of converging mirror to view the distant
objects. Example – Newtonian and Cassegrain telescopes.

ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE

It is a refracting type telescope which is used to see heavenly bodies like stars, planets and sun etc.
Construction – it consists of two converging lenses mounted coaxially at the outer ends of a two
sliding tubes.

1. Objective – it is a convex lens of large focal length and a much large aperture. It faces the
distant object. In order to form brighter images of the distant object, the aperture of the
objective is taken to be large so that it can gather sufficient light from the distant object.
2. Eyepiece – it is a convex lens of small focal length and small aperture. It faces the eye.

Working

The parallel beam of light coming from distant object falls on the objective at some angle α. The
objective focuses its beam on its focal plane and forms a real, inverted and diminished image A’B’.
This image A’B’ acts as an object for the eyepiece. The distance of the eyepiece is so adjusted that
the image A’B’ lies within its focal length. The eyepiece magnifies this image so that the final image
A’’B’’ is magnified and inverted with respect to the object. The final image is seen distinctly by the
eye at the least distance of distinct vision.

Magnifying power – the magnifying power of an astronomical telescope is defined as the ratio of the
angle subtended at the eye by the final image formed at the least distance of distinct vision to the
angle subtended at the eye by the object at infinity when seen directly.

Magnification when the image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision

𝑓 𝑓
𝑚= − 1+
𝑓 𝐷

When the object is formed at infinity

𝑓
𝑚= −
𝑓

TERRESTRIAL TELESCOPE

It is a refracting type telescope used to see erect images of distant heavenly objects. It uses an
additional convex lens between eyepiece and objective for obtaining erect images.

Working

The objective forms a real, inverted and diminished image, A’B’ of the distant object in its focal
plane. Now the erecting lens is held at twice its focal length from the focal plane of objective. This
lens forms a real, inverted and equal size image A’’B’’ of A’B’. This image is now erect with respect to
the distant object. The eyepiece is so adjusted that the image A’’B’’ lies at its principal focus. Hence
the final image is formed at infinity and is highly magnified and erect with respect to the distant
object. As the erecting lens does not cause any magnification, the angular magnification of the
terrestrial telescope is same as that of the astronomical telescope.

When the final image is formed at infinity

𝑓
𝑚=
𝑓

When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision,

𝑓 𝑓
𝑚= 1+
𝑓 𝐷

Drawbacks:

1. The length of the terrestrial telescope is much larger than the astronomical telescope. In
normal adjustment, the length of a terrestrial telescope = fo + 4f + fe, where f is the focal
length of the erecting lens.
2. Due to extra reflection at the surfaces of the erecting lens, the intensity of the final image
decreases.

Reflecting Telescopes

Newtonian Reflecting Telescope – The first reflecting telescope was set up by Newton in 1668. It
consists of a large concave mirror of large focal length as the objective, made of an alloy of copper
and tin.
A beam of light from the distant star is incident on the objective. Before the rays are focused at F,
a plane mirror is inclined at 45o intercepts them and turns them towards an eyepiece adjusted
perpendicular to the axis of the instrument. The eyepiece forms a highly magnified, virtual and erect
image of the distant object.

Cassergrain reflecting telescope – it consists of large concave paraboloid mirror having a hole at its
centre. There is a small convex mirror near the focus of the primary mirror. The eyepiece is placed
on the axis of the telescope near the hole of the primary mirror.

The parallel rays from the distant object are reflected by the large concave mirror. Before these
rays come to the focus at F they are reflected by the small convex mirror and are converged to a
point I just outside the hole. The final image formed at I is viewed through the eyepiece. The final
image is inverted with respect to the object and the second image is erect with respect to the first
image, hence the final image is inverted with respect to the object.

Magnification for the image formed at least distance of distinct vision

𝑓 𝑓
𝑚= 1+
𝑓 𝐷

Magnification for the image formed at infinity

𝑓 𝑅/2
𝑚= =
𝑓 𝑓
Advantages of reflecting type telescope

1. A concave mirror of large aperture has high gathering power and absorbs very less amount of
light then the lenses of large apertures. The final image is very bright. So even very distant or
faint stars can be easily viewed.
2. Due to large aperture of the mirror used, the reflecting telescopes have high resolving power.
3. As the objective is a plane mirror and not a lens, it is free from chromatic aberration.
4. The use of paraboloidal mirror reduces the spherical aberration.
5. A mirror requires grinding and polishing of one surfaced only so its maintenance cost is low.
6. A lens of large aperture tends to be very heavy and therefore, difficult to make and support
by edges. On the other hand a mirror of equivalent optical quality weighs less and can be
supported over its entire back surface.