Psychology

Psychology - the scientific study of mind and behavior. Its subject matter includes the
behavior of humans and nonhumans, both conscious and unconscious phenomena,
and mental processes such as thoughts, feelings, and motives.

Father of Modern Psychology

Wilhelm Wundt - founded experimental psychology as a discipline and became a
pioneer of cultural psychology.

Sigmund Freud
Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis and introduced influential theories such as:
his ideas of the conscious and unconscious; the id, ego, and superego; dream
interpretation; and psychosexual development.

Three Branches of Psychology

● Clinical Psychology
● Cognitive Psychology
● Developmental Psychology

Three Fold / Stages of Self

1. Preparatory Stage - The preparatory stage lasts from the time we are born until
we are about age two. Within this stage the child mimics. The child has no
understanding of the meaning behind the words, actions, or tone of voice.
2. Play Stage - Within this stage, the child pretends and still does not adhere to
the rules within organized games. During this stage, the child will ‘pretend’ to
be mommy or daddy, depending on their observation.
3. Game Stage - The game stage lasts from seven years onward. At this stage, the
child begins to comprehend and adhere to the rules of games. Formalization
begins at this stage. While pretending, rather than mirroring their observation,
the child will become more independent in their roles. The child begins taking
this perspective into account during this stage.
 ● The concept of the generalized other is the ability of a human being to perceive
the expectations of society and the perspectives of other people.
● Development of the generalized other is the last step of childhood
development, according to George Herbert Mead.

Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis - human behavior is influenced by unconscious memories, thoughts,
and urges.

Conscious and Unconscious Mind

● The conscious mind includes all the things we are aware of or can easily bring
into awareness.
● The unconscious mind, on the other hand, includes all of the things outside of
our awareness—all of the wishes, desires, hopes, urges, and memories that we
aren't aware of yet continue to influence behavior.

Three Stages of Human Mind

● Id

According to Freud, the id is the earliest part of the personality to emerge. The id is
present at birth and runs on pure instinct, desire, and need. It is entirely unconscious
and encompasses the most primitive part of the personality, including basic biological
drives and reflexes.

The id is motivated by the pleasure principle, which wants to gratify all impulses
immediately. If the id's needs aren’t met, it creates tension. However, because all
desires cannot be fulfilled right away, those needs may be satisfied, at least
temporarily, through primary process thinking in which the individual fantasizes
about what they desire.

● Ego

The second part of the personality, the ego, arises from the id. Its job is to
acknowledge and deal with reality, ensuring that the id’s impulses are reigned in and
expressed in socially acceptable ways.

The ego operates from the reality principle, which works to satisfy the id’s desires in
the most reasonable and realistic ways. The ego may do this by delaying gratification,
compromising, or acting in ways that will avoid the negative consequences of going
against society’s norms and rules.
Such rational thinking is referred to as secondary process thinking. It is geared
towards problem-solving and reality-testing, enabling the person to maintain
self-control. Like the id, the ego is interested in seeking pleasure, however, it wants
to do so in a realistic way. The ego is not concerned with right and wrong, but with
how to maximize pleasure and minimize pain without getting into trouble.

The ego operates at conscious, preconscious, and unconscious levels. The ego’s
consideration of reality is conscious. However, it may also keep forbidden desires
hidden by unconsciously repressing them. Much of the ego’s functioning is also
preconscious, meaning it happens below awareness but takes little effort to bring
those thoughts into consciousness.

Freud initially used the term ego to reference one’s sense of self. Often, when we use
the term in everyday conversation—such as when we say someone has a “big
ego”—we are using it in this sense. Yet, the term ego in Freud’s theory of personality
no longer refers to the self-concept but to functions like judgment, regulation, and
control.

● Superego

The superego is the final part of the personality, emerging between the ages of 3 and
5, the phallic stage in Freud’s stages of psychosexual development. Freud says that the
superego is the moral compass of the personality, upholding a sense of right and
wrong, values that are initially learned from one’s parents. However, the superego
continues to grow over time, enabling children to adopt moral standards from other
people they admire, such as teachers.

The superego consists of two components: the conscious and the ego ideal. The
conscious is the part of the superego that forbids unacceptable behaviors and
punishes with feelings of guilt when a person does something they should not. The
ego ideal, or ideal self, includes the rules and standards of good behavior one should
adhere to. If one is successful in adhering to these behavioral standards, it leads to
feelings of pride. However, if the standards of the ego ideal are too high, the person
might feel like a failure and experience guilt.

The superego not only controls the id and its impulses towards societal taboos, like
sex and aggression, but it also attempts to get the ego to go beyond realistic
standards and aspire to moralistic ones. The superego works at conscious and
unconscious levels. People are often aware of their ideas of right and wrong but
sometimes these ideals impact us unconsciously.

Psychosexual Stages of Development - a series of psychosexual stages that lead to

the development of the adult personality, explains how personality develops over the
course of childhood.
 1. Oral stage
● Birth to 1 year
● Erogenous zone - mouth

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital
for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying
activities such as tasting and sucking.

Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for
feeding the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this
oral stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the
individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result
in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

2. Anal stage
● 1-3 years old
● Erogenous zone - bowel and bladder control

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet
training—the child has to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this control
leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents
​approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at
the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and
productive.

However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need
during this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents.

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes.

If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive
personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive
personality.
If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an
anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid,
and obsessive.

3. Phallic stage
● Age range - 3-6 years old
● Erogenous zones - genitals

Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the
genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and
females.​

Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s
affection. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the
mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will
be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.

The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls (possess the father and replace the mother). Freud,
however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.

4. Latent period
● Age range - 6 to puberty
● Erogenous zones - sexual feelings are inactive

During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are
suppressed. Children develop social skills, values, and relationships with peers and
adults outside of the family.

The development of the ego and superego contributes to this period of calm. The stage
begins around the time that children enter school and become more concerned with
peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is repressed or
dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as
intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the
development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children
to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in
immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.
 5. Genital stage
● Age range - puberty to death
● Erogenous zones - maturing sexual interests.

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final
stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest
in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but lasts throughout the rest of a
person's life.

Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the
welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a
balance between the various life areas.

Unlike many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and
superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled
by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants.

Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges
against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

Rational Choice Theory

• Rational choice theory refers to a set of guidelines that help understand economic
and social behaviour. The theory originated in the eighteenth century and can be
traced back to the political economist and philosopher Adam Smith.

• Rationality can be used as an assumption for the behaviour of individuals in a

wide range of contexts outside of economics. It is also used in political science,
sociology, and philosophy.

• According to philosophers like Adam Smith, humans are rational beings who
make choices in their own self-interest. This notion has given rise to rational
choice theory, which explores the role of rationality in human decision-making.

• Individuals use rational calculations to make choices and achieve outcomes that
are aligned with their own personal objectives. These results are also associated
with maximizing an individual's self-interest.
 Feminism
Feminism - the advocacy of women's rights on the basis of the equality of the sexes.

Mary Wollstonecraft - founder of feminism

Charles Fourier - coined the term feminism

Feminist Movements

● First wave
- The first wave of feminism took place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
- It focused mainly on legal issues and inequalities, especially women's right to
vote. property rights, and access to education.
- Key leaders included Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton.
● Second wave
- The second wave of feminism happened from the 1960s to the 1980s.
- It focused on many issues, like equal rights at work, birth control and
abortion, and education.
- Activists challenged unfair treatment and fought for women's equality. Key
leaders included Betty Friedan and Gloria Steinem.
● Third wave
- Third wave feminism began in the 1990s and continues today.
- It focuses on diversity and individual experiences, recognizing that women's
issues vary based on race, class, sexuality, and other identities.
- This wave embraces different perspectives and aims to challenge stereotypes.
Key topics include body positivity, sexual freedom, and LGBTQ+ rights.
- Activists work to ensure that all voices are heard in the fight for equality.

Types of Feminism

● Liberal feminism - achieving gender equality through legal and political

reform within the current societal framework
● Radical feminism - overthrow the patriarchal structure of capitalist
society
● Socialist feminism - focuses on social relations, and believes that
women's liberation must be achieved in conjunction with social and
economic justice. Socialist feminists believe that capitalism and
patriarchy are intertwined forms of exploitation and oppression of
women
● Cultural feminism - differences between men and women in terms of
biology, personality, and behavior