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MODULE-2: Machine Tools, CNC Machines and Robotics

4. MACHINE TOOLS

4.1 LATHE
4.1.1 Introduction
Machining is a manufacturing term encompassing a broad range of technologies and techniques. It
can be defined as the process of removing material from a workpiece using power-driven machine
tools to shape it into an intended design.

Figure 4.1: Machining process (Milling operation)

4.1.2 History of Machining Process

Machining is considered as one of the most important manufacturing processes. The industrial
revolution and the boom of manufacturing sector can be traced back to the development of various
machining operations. The dynamic impact of Machining in the metalworking industry is evident
through a wide range of present-day applications.

4.1.3 Advantages of Machining process

 A high surface finish can be obtained.

 Machining is not only performed on the metal but it also performs on wood, plastic,
composites, and ceramics.
 A variety of geometry features are possible, such a Screw threads, V and straight edges,
accurate round holes, etc.

4.1.4 Limitations of Machining Process

 The accuracy of the components produced is dependent on the efficiency of the operator.
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 Consistency in manufacturing is not present. Hence 100% inspection of the component is

required.
 Because of the large amount of Manpower involved, the labor problem will also be high.

4.1.5 Applications of Machining Process

 The machining can be performed on various components in the form of either conventional
or unconventional processes.
 The machining can be performed on a lathe machine, milling machine, ultrasonic
machining, etc.

4.1.6 Lathe Machine (Turning machine)

Figure 4.2: Major parts of a lathe machine

Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all over the world. It is commonly
known as the mother of all other machine tool. The main function of a lathe is to remove metal
from a job to give it the required shape and size. The job is secure1y and rigid1y held in the chuck
or in between centers on the lathe machine and then turn it against a single point cutting tool which
wi1l remove meta1 from the job in the form of chips.
Bed: It is cast into a single piece to serve as a foundation and hence to support remaining parts of
the lathe. The top of the bed is made perfectly smooth and flat. Two V-shaped guide ways are
machined over it. The outer one guides longitudinally the cutting tool holding unit called carriage.
The inner one aligns the live centre and the dead centre in line.
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Figure 4.3: Major components of lathe machine

Head stock: It is permanently fixed on the left-hand side of lathe bed. It supports the spindle of the
machine with the help of bearings on both the sides. It also houses the mechanism to drive the
spindle.

Tail stock: It is mounted on the inner guide ways on the right-hand side of the lathe bed. It can be
moved on these guide ways towards and away from the head stock and can be clamped at desired
position. The spindle inside the tail stock can be moved irrespective of the tail stock. It serves as a
support for the workpiece when turning operation is carried out and also houses the tools like drill,
reamer, taps, etc.

Carriage: The carriage is mounted on the outer guide ways and moves between head stock and
tailstock. It helps in feeding the cutting tool against the workpiece. Also, it houses the mechanism
for automatic feeding of the cutting tool.

The major parts related with the carriage are:

(a) Saddle: It is the base of the carriage which slides along the ways of the lathe bed
in a direction parallel to the lathe axis.
(b) Cross Slide: It is mounted on the saddle. It slides on the guide ways provided on
the saddle in a direction perpendicular to the lathe axis.
(c) Compound rest: It is mounted on the cross slide. It has a graduated base and can
be swiveled around the vertical axis. The tool can be fed in angular manner.
(d) Tool Post: It is mounted on the compound rest and can slide in a T-slot. A cutting
tool can be firmly held in it.
(e) Lead Screw: It is used in threading operation only. It can rotate by giving spindle
rotations to it. These rotations can be further converted into linear motion by split
nut mechanism.
(f) Apron Mechanism: It is an assembly of gears and clutches which converts rotary
motion of the feed rod into linear motion of the slides. It is used for giving
automatic longitudinal or cross feed to the tool.
(g) Feed rod: It also takes rotations from the spindle and converts the rotational
motion into linear motion by apron mechanism. Hence feed rod is used to give
automatic longitudinal and cross feed to the slides.
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4.1.7 Working Principle of Lathe

Figure 4.4: Working principle of lathe machine

When the cutting tool moves parallel to workpiece it produces cylindrical job. When the cutting
tool moves perpendicular to workpiece it produces flat job. When the cutting tool moves inclined
to workpiece it produces tapered surface.

4.1.8 Specification of Lathe

Lathe specified by one or more of the following criteria

 Distance between centers: it is the maximum length of the job that can be held
between the live center and dead center
 Swing diameter: it is the maximum diameter of workpiece that can revolve without
touching guideways. Some manufacturers specify height of centers instead of
swing diameter
 Height of centers: it is the height measured from bed to the lathe center axis
 Length of bed: it indicates the approximate floor space occupied by the lathe
 Range of spindle speeds

Figure 4.5: Lathe specifications

4.1.9 Various Lathe Operations

The various other operations that you can perform with the help of a Lathe Machine can include
turning, facing, threading, cutting, knurling, drilling.
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(i) Facing
Facing is defined as an operation performed on the lathe to generate either flat surfaced or
shoulders at the end of the work piece. In facing operation, the direction of feed given is
perpendicular to the axis of the lathe. The work piece is held in the chuck and the facing tool is
fed either from outer edge of the work piece progressing towards the centre or vice versa. The
cutting tool is held by a tool holder in a tool post.

Figure 4.6: Facing Operation

(ii) Turning
The work piece is supported in between the two centres which permit the rotation of the work
piece. A single point cutting tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of the work piece to a known
pre-determined depth of cut, and is then moved parallel to the axis of the work piece. This
operation will cut the material which comes out. This method of machining operation in which
the work piece is reduced to the cylindrical section of required diameter is called 'Turning’. It is a
process of removal of excess material from the workpiece in minimum time by applying
a high rate of feed and heavy depth of cut. The depth of cut is around 2 to 5 mm and the rate of
feed is 0.3 to 1.5 mm/revolution.

Figure 4.7: Turning Operation

(iii) Taper Tuning

A taper is defined as a uniform decrease or increase in the diameter of a workpiece along with its
length. The operation by which a conical surface of the gradual reduction in diameter from a
cylindrical workpiece is produced is called taper turning.
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A tapering form may be done by any one of the following methods.

1. By swiveling the compound rest
2. Tail-stock set over method
3. By taper turning attachment
4. Taper turning by form tool

D d

D
d

Figure 4.8: Taper Turing operation

(iv) Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest

The compound tool rest is swiveled to the required taper angle and then locked in the angular
position. The carriage is also locked at that position. For taper turning, the compound tool rest is
moved linearly at an angle so that the cutting tool produces the tapered surface on the work piece.
This method is limited to short tapered lengths due to the limited movement of the compound
tool-rest.

Figure 4.9: Taper Turning by Swiveling the compound rest

The angle at which the compound rest to be swiveled is calculated using the equation
given below.

Where,
D = larger diameter of taper in mm,
d = smaller diameter of taper in mm,
L = length of taper in mm,
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α = half of taper angle in degree

(v) Tail-stock set over (offset) method

Set over of tail-stock from its center-line (h) is done equal to half taper. Job is held between the
centers. The length of the workpiece will be long enough. An only a small taper on a long job is
done by this process. It is used for external taper only.

Figure 4.10: Taper Turning by offsetting the compound rest

(vi) Threading
A thread is a helical ridge formed on a cylindrical or conical rod. It is cut on a lathe when a tool
ground to the shape of the thread, is moved longitudinally with uniform linear motion while the
work piece is rotating with uniform speed as shown in Figure. By maintaining an appropriate gear
ratio between the spindle on which the work piece is mounted, and the lead screw which enables
the tool to move longitudinally at the appropriate linear speed, the screw thread of the required
pitch can be cut. The pointed tool shown in Figure is employed to cut V-threads.
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Figure 4.12: Threading on a lathe

(vii) Knurling
knurling is a finishing process used to create any combination of horizontal, vertical or crossing
lines on the surface of a workpiece It is an operation of obtaining a diamond shape on the
workpiece for the gripping purpose. This is done to provide a better gripping surface when
operated by hands. It is done using a knurling tool. The tool consists of a set of hardened steel
roller, and it is held rigidly on the tool post.

Figure 4.12: Knurling operation

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(viii) Drilling
Drilling is the operation of producing circular holes on object by means of twist drill bit, In this
operation drill tool is holds in the tool post and glides on the bed, whereas work piece is placed in
3 jaw chuck and it is continuously rotating the drilled hole depth can be controlled by tailstock hand
wheel for moving sleeve. Drilling can perform only at one end of the work piece.

Figure 2.13: Drilling operation

4.2 MILLING
Milling is a manufacturing process in which the excess material from the work piece is removed by
a rotating multipoint cutting tool called milling cutter. The milling cutter is a multipoint cutting
tool. The work piece is mounted on a movable work table which will be fed against the revolving
milling cutter to perform the cutting operation.

4.2.1 Types of Milling Machines

Following are the types of Milling Machines commonly used
 Vertical Milling Machines
Often used for creating car parts, a column milling machine is one of the simplest types of milling
machine. They consist of 5 key parts the worktable, head, saddle, knee, and over arm and use a
vertically suspended drill.
 Horizontal Milling Machines
Named as it is positioned horizontal to the ground, horizontal milling machines work by moving
the bench the workpiece is placed on sideways whilst the cutting tool moves vertically.

4.2.2 Parts of Milling Machines

Figure 4.15: Horizontal and Vertical Milling machines

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Figure 4.15 (a): Schematics of Horizontal Milling machine

Figure 4.15(b): Schematics of Vertical Milling machine

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1. Base: It is a heavy casting and supports all other parts.

2. Column: It is box shaped main supporting frame located at one end of the base and is having
dovetail guide ways on the front face. It houses all the driving mechanism for spindle.
3. Knee: It is capable of sliding up and down on the guide ways of the column. The adjustment
is done by operating the elevating screw. It houses the feed mechanism for table. The top
face is the slide way for the saddle to provide cross travel of the table.
4. Saddle: This is placed on the top of knee. The top face provides guide ways for the table.
5. Table: This rests on the ways of the saddle. It is having T-slots. Longitudinal travel is
provided through lead screw. It moves perpendicular to the movements of saddle.
6. Spindle: It is vertical or perpendicular to the table. The cutter is fixed to one end of the
spindle and rotates about a vertical axis in the horizontal plane.

4.2.3 Principle of Milling: Up Milling and Down Milling:

Figure 4.16: Up milling and down milling schematic

The above figure shows the principle of milling process that is up milling and down milling.
The up milling is also called as conventional milling and down milling is called climb
milling. The milling cutter is mounted on a rotating shaft known as arbor. The work piece
which is mounted on the table can be fed either in the direction opposite to that of the
rotating cutter as shown in figure or in the same direction of the cutter as shown in figure.

Up Milling Down Milling

The cutter rotates against the direction of The cutter rotates in the same direction of
travel of the work piece. travel of the work piece.

The chip thickness is minimum at the The chip thickness is maximum at the
beginning of the cut and increases to a beginning of the cut and or reduces to a
maximum when the cut terminates. minimum when the cut terminates.
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The cutting force is zero at the beginning of The cutting force is maximum when the cut
the cut and maximum at the end of the cut. begins and it reduces to a minimum when the
tooth leaves the work.

The cutting force is directed upward and this The cutting force is downwards which tends
tends to lift the work piece from the fixture. to seat the work piece firmly in the fixture.

Difficulty in pouring the coolant just on the The coolant can be poured directly at the
cutting edge, due to the typical nature of the cutting zone where cutting force is maximum.
cut.

4.2.4 Milling Operations

(i) Plain milling
Plane milling also called surface milling or slab milling in the operation producing a plane
horizontal surface with a miller cutter whose axis is parallel to the surface of workpiece being
machined. The cutter called plain or slab milling cutter is mounted on arbor of a horizontal milling
machine to carry out the machining operation, the cutter has straight or helical teeth on the
peripheral cylindrical surface, whereas helical tooth cutter removes greater amount of material then
straight tooth cutter

Figure 4.17: Plain Milling

(ii) End Milling

End milling is operation performed for producing flat surfaces, slots, grooves or finishing the edges
of the workpiece by means of a tool called end mill or end milling cutter. The tool has teeth at ends
and as well as periphery (Sides) and hence can be configured to cut with both its ends and the side
as shown in figure.

A flat surface produced by the end side of cutter only. The cutter is typically mounted vertically
and may have straight or spiral flutes. Straight flute cutter is used for milling both soft and tough
materials, while spiral flutes are used mostly for cutting steel. The surface produced by end mill
may horizontal, vertical or inclined with respect to top of machine table.
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Figure 4.18: End milling

(iii) Slot Milling

Slot milling is operation of producing various type of slots like T-slots, plane slots, dovetail slots.
Two separate milling cutters are required for milling T-slots. Initially a side cutter or an ed milling
cutter is used to cut throat (open slot) starting from one end of the workpiece to its other end. A T-
slot milling cutter is then used to cut the head space to the desired dimensions.

Figure 4.19: Slot milling

(v) Form Milling

Form milling is the operation of producing curved profiles with a verity of shapes like concave
convex spline etc., using cutters whose edge is shaped to produce a special configuration on the
surface of the workpiece.
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Figure 4.20: Form milling

From figure the cutter known as form mill has teeth on its periphery and designed in various shapes
to suit the type of surface being machined. Form mill is the gear tooth cutter, which is used to cut
gear teeth on workpieces.

(vi) Gang Milling

Gang milling is the operation in which two or more cutters are mounted on the same arbor, so that
different profile required on the work piece can be machined simultaneously in a single pass.
Following figure shows the gang milling operation. All the cutter used may be of same type or of
different types and it depends on the type of surface being machined.

Work piece

Figure 4.22: Gang milling

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5. COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINES (CNC)

5.1 Introduction

Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is a method of automating control of machine tools through
the use of software embedded in a microcomputer attached to the tool. With CNC, each object to
be manufactured gets a custom computer program, usually written in an international standard
language called G-code, stored in and executed by the machine control unit (MCU).The program
contains the instructions and parameters the machine tool will follow, such as the feed rate of
materials and the positioning and speed of the tool's components. Milling machines, lathes, routers,
laser cutters are common machine tools whose operations can be automated with CNC. It can also
be used to control non-machine tools, such as welding, electronic assembly machines. CNC is
considered to provide more precision, complexity and repeatability than is possible with manual
machining. Other benefits include greater accuracy, speed and flexibility, as well as capabilities
such as contour machining, which allows milling of contoured shapes, including those produced in
3D designs.

5.1.1 Components of CNC Machine

The main components of CNC machines are:
1. Input Devices: These are the devices which are used to input the part program in the CNC machine.
There are three commonly used input devices and these are punch tape reader, magnetic tape reader
and computer via RS-232-C communication.
2. Machine Control Unit (MCU): It is the heart of the CNC machine. It performs all the controlling
action of the CNC machine.

Figure 5.1 CNC block Diagram

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3. Machine Tool: A CNC machine tool always has a slide table and a spindle to control of the position
and speed. The machine table is controlled in X and Y axis direction and the spindle is controlled
in the Z axis direction. Depending upon the operation to be performed, the tool can be selected from
tool turret. Major type of tools used in milling operation are shown in the second picture.

Figure 5.2 CNC Turning centre

5.1.2 Working of CNC Machine

First, the part program is inserted into the MCU of the CNC. In MCU all the data process takes
place and according to the program prepared, it prepares all the motion commands and sends it to
the driving system. The drive system works as the motion commands are sent by MCU. The drive
system controls the motion and velocity of the machine tool. The feedback system records the
position and velocity measurement of the machine tool and sends a feedback signal to the MCU. In
MCU, the feedback signals are compared with the reference signals and if there are errors, it corrects
it and sends new signals to the machine tool for the right operation to happen. A display unit is used
to see all the commands, programs and other important data. It acts as the eye of the machine.

5.1.3 Advantages of CNC machines

1. CNC Machining produces very little waste
2. Zero defects and greater accuracy is achieved
3. Faster and Efficient Production is achieved
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4. Enhanced personnel safety is achieved

5. Reduction in energy consumption
6. CNC Machining Leads to Lower Production Costs
7. Time taken to perform a job is very less
8. Very complex designs can be made
9. CNC machines can for 24 hours a day

5.1.5 CNC Turning centres

CNC turning centers and lathes may seem identical, but they generally refer to slightly different
machines. Lathes generally only turn while turning centers can be more advanced. These
machines can be capable of facing, threading, knurling, drilling, boring, reaming, and taper
turning. Horizontal CNC turning machines are more common, but vertical machines utilize
gravity. Between CNC turning, CNC turning centers, the different types of CNC machines.

5.1.6 CNC Machining centres

The CNC machine tool center is an advanced manufacturing machine tool that can perform a
variety of machining operations with high precision, high quality and high surface finish. A CNC
machine tool center can perform drilling, milling and lathe operations. The manufacture of
prismatic parts in the industry, such as gearboxes, partitions, frames, covers, etc., requires
different types of operations such as milling, boring, drilling, tapping and many other related
machining operations.

5.2 Part Program for CNC Turning Operations

5.2.1 Turning Program
The part program is a sequence of instructions, which describe the work, which has to be done on
a part, in the form required by a computer under the control of computer numerical control (CNC)
software. It is the task of preparing a program sheet from a drawing sheet. All data is fed into the
CNC system using a standardized format.
The machining data is as follows:

1. Machining sequence, classification of process, tool start up point, cutting depth, tool path,
etc.
2. Cutting conditions, spindle speed, feed rate, coolant, etc.
3. Selection of cutting tools.
CNC part program contains a combination of machine tool code and machine-specific instructions.
It consists of:
a. Information about part geometry
b. Motion statements to move the cutting tool
c. Cutting speed
d. Feed
e. Auxiliary functions such as coolant on and off, spindle direction
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5.2.2 Basics of CNC Programming

A CNC program consists of a number of lines, called blocks. Each block contains a number of
commands.

It tells the tool to move along a straight line to X100.0 Z50.0 at a feed rate of 0.2 mm/revolution.
A block consists of a set of words. Each word is a command. E.g., X100.0 is a word.
A word consists of an alphabet called the address, followed by a number. In X100.0, X is an address.

Other than coordinates, the most commonly used words in a program are the G-codes and M-codes.
G codes mostly involve tool motion commands like rapid motion, feed motion, circular motion,
dwell, and canned cycle codes.
M codes mostly involve machine actions like spindle on / off, tool change and coolant on / off.

5.2.3 Common addresses

N Block number (Block Identification number) - specifies the start of the block
G Preparatory functions
M Miscellaneous functions
X X-axis coordinate
Z Z-axis coordinate
I X-axis location of arc center
K Z-axis location of arc center
R Radius of arc
S Spindle speed or Cutting speed
F Feed rate
T Tool number
U Incremental length in X axis
W Incremental length in Z axis

5.2.4 Feed-Speed-Tool (F, S, T) commands

Feed rate
The feed rate is specified in mm per revolution.
Format
F_
Example
F0.25
This means a feed rate of 0.25 mm / rev
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Spindle rotation
Spindle rotation is started by specifying a spindle direction command and a spindle speed command.

Spindle direction:
This is specified by an M code.
M03: Spindle clockwise (CW)
M04: Spindle counter-clockwise (CCW)
M05: Spindle stop

Spindle speed:
The spindle speed is specified either as a constant surface speed or as a constant spindle speed.

Constant surface speed

This is commanded by G96, and is always accompanied by a limiting spindle speed command G50.
Example:
G96 S225 M03
G50 S3000
The first line commands a constant surface speed of 225 m/ min (meters per minute) with the spindle
rotating CW.
The second one commands a limiting spindle speed of 3000 rpm.

Constant spindle speed

This is commanded by G97.
Example:
G97 S1350 M04
This results in a spindle speed of 1350 rpm, spindle rotating CCW.

Tool change
The tool change command includes the tool number and the tool offset number of the commanded
tool. When the command is executed, the tool changer causes the commanded tool to come to the
cutting position. E.g., if the tool changer is a turret, it indexes so that the commanded tool comes to
the active position.

Format
Taabb
aa is the tool number
bb is the tool offset number.
The tool number and offset number must be written with leading zeros. E.g., tool number 6 is
written as 06.
Example
T0303
This means tool number 3 and offset number 3
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5.2.5 The axes of CNC Lathe

Lathe has the coordinate system to designate the positions required for machining the workpiece.
As shown below, the vertical direction is called X axis, and the horizontal direction is called Z
axis. The X axis and the Z axis form the right angle.

Figure 5.3: Axis reference for turning models.

2.2.6 Structure of part program

Header File (Speed, feed, Units, Tool)

Machining file (values of dimensions in

terms of X and Z)

Footer files (Stop the spindle, Close the

Program)

Figure 5.4: General Structure of a CNC Program.

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Figure 5.5: CNC Program Structure

G Codes

G90 Absolute programming

G91 Incremental programming
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M Codes

5.2.7 Absolute, Incremental coordinates

In Absolute programming the end point of a motion is programmed with reference to the program
zero point. Coordinates are specified as X, Z. X coordinate is the diameter of the part. In Incremental
programming the end point is specified with reference to the current tool position. Coordinates are
specified as U, W, U is the incremental diameter of the part.

5.2.8 G00 - Rapid traverse

When the tool is moving to a position preparatory to executing a cutting motion or when it is moving
to the tool change position, the motion is a essentially a waste of time and is executed as fast as
possible. The motion is called Rapid traverse. The time taken to execute a rapid motion is also
called the Air cut time. Typical rapid traverse rates are 20 to 40 m /min., but can be as high as 80
m/min.
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5.2.9 G01 - Linear interpolation

The tool moves along a straight line in one or two axis simultaneously at a programmed linear
speed, the feed rate.

G01 need not be repeated in the second line because it is a 'modal command' – it stays active till it is changed
by a different motion command.

5.2.10 Canned Cycles - single cut

A single cut canned cycle executes a sequence of motions required to perform a cut – rapid approach to the
start position, cutting motion, and rapid departure. A single block replaces 4 motions - 1 cutting and 3 rapid.
Operations normally involve the removal of material in multiple cuts, so these cycles are seldom used. The
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multi-cut canned cycles are the ones generally used. Turning cycle - G90 This cycle does a single turning
cut (along the part axis).

Format
G90 X_ Z_ F_
X = X coordinate of end point of cut, absolute
Z = Z coordinate of end point of cut, absolute
F = Feed rate
The end point can be specified by incremental coordinates instead of absolute coordinates. In this
case:
1. Use addresses U and W instead of X and Z.
2. Use appropriate signs with the end point, since incremental coordinates are specified with
reference to the start point.

Taper Turning
Format
G90 X_ Z_ R_ F_
X = X coordinate of end point of cut, absolute
Z = Z coordinate of end point of cut, absolute
R = Taper amount, radial.
F = Feed rate
The cut starts at point P1, ends at point P2.
R = (Diameter at start of cut – Diameter at end of cut) / 2
R must be specified with the proper sign.
The end point can be specified by incremental coordinates instead of absolute coordinates. In this
case:
1. Use addresses U and W instead of X and Z.
2. Use appropriate signs with the end point, since incremental coordinates are specified with
reference to the start point.
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5.2.11 CNC Turning Program

Program 1: Prepare a part program for the geometry given below.

O001
N010 G21 G98
N020 G28 U0 W0
N030 M03 S1200
N040 M06 T0101
N050 G00 X35 Z2
N060 G90 X32 Z-45 F50
N070 X31
N080 X30
N090 X29
N100 X28
N110 X27
N120 X26
N130 X25
N140 X24
N150 X23
N160 X22
N170 G28 U0 W0
N180 M05
N190 M30
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Program 02: Prepare a part program for the geometry given below.

O002
N001 G21 G98
N002 G28 U0 W0
N003 M03 S1000
N004 M06 T0101
N005 G00 X32 Z2
N006 G90 X30 Z-40 F50
N007 X29
N008 X28
N009 X27
N010 X26
N011 X25
N012 X24
N013 X23
N014 X22
N015 X21
N016 X20
N017 X19 Z-20
N018 X18
N019 X17
N020 X16
N021 X15
N022 X14
N023 X13
N024 X12
N025 X11
N026 X10
N027 G28 U0 W0
N180 M05
N190 M30
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Program 03: Prepare a part program for the geometry given below.

O003
N001 G21 G98
N002 G28 U0 W0
N003 M03 S5000
N004 M06 T0101
N005 G00 X33 Z2
N006 G90 X32 Z-50 F40
N007 X31
N008 X30
N009 X29
N010 X28
N011 X27 Z-35
N012 X26
N013 X25
N014 X24
N015 X23
N016 X22
N017 X21 Z-20
N018 X20
N019 X19
N020 X18
N021 X17
N022 X16
N023 X15 Z-10
N024 X14
N025 X13
N026 X12
N027 G28 U0 W0
N028 M05
N029 M30
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Program 04: Prepare a part program for the geometry given below.

Taper radius, R = (Diameter at initial point – Diameter at final point)/2 = (20 - 40)/2 = -10 mm

O004
N001 G21 G98
N002 G28 U0 W0
N003 M03 S5000
N004 M06 T0101
N005 G00 X42 Z2
N006 G90 X40 Z-50 R0 F40
N007 R-1
N008 R-2
N009 R-3
N010 R-4
N011 R-5
N012 R-6
N013 R-7
N014 R-8
N015 R-9
N016 R-10
N017 G28 U0 W0
N018 M05
NO19 M30
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Program 05: Prepare a part program for the cylindrical geometry given below.

Taper radius, R = (Diameter at initial point – Diameter at final point)/2 = (40-20)/2 = 10 mm

O005
N001 G21 G98
N002 G28 U0 W0
N003 M06 T0101
N004 M03 S1000
N005 G00 X40 Z2
N006 G90 X20 Z-30 R0 F60
N007 R1
N008 R2
N009 R3
N010 R4
N011 R5
N012 R6
N013 R7
N014 R8
N015 R9
N016 R10
N017 G28 U0 W0
N018 M05
N019 M30
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Program 06: Prepare a part program for the geometry given below.

O005
N001 G21 G98
N002 G28 U0 W0
N003 M03 S1800
N004 M06 T0101
N005 G00 X42 Z2
N006 G90 X40 Z-40 F50
N007 X39
N008 X38
N009 X37
N010 X36
N011 X35
N012 X34
N013 X33
N014 X32
N015 X31
N016 X30
N017 X29
N018 X28
NO19 X27
N020 X26
N021 X25
N022 X24
N023 X23
N024 X22
N025 X21
N026 X20
N027 G00 X41 Z-40
N028 G90 X40 Z-70 R0 F50
NO29 R-1
N030 R-2
N031 R-3
N032 R-4
N033 R-5
N034 R-6
N035 R-7
N036 R-8
N037 R-9
N038 R-10
 31

N039 G28 U0 W0
N040 M05
N041 M30
 32

6 ROBOTICS

6.1 Industrial Robotics

6.1.1 Introduction
An industrial robot is a general-purpose, programmable machine. It possesses some
anthropomorphic characteristics, i.e. human-like characteristics that resemble the human physical
structure. The robots also respond to sensory signals in a manner that is similar to humans.
Anthropomorphic characteristics such as mechanical arms are used for various industry tasks.
Sensory perceptive devices such as sensors allow the robots to communicate and interact with other
machines and to take simple decisions.

6.1.2 The general commercial and technological advantages of robots are listed below
• Robots are good substitutes to the human beings in hazardous or uncomfortable work
environments.
• A robot performs its work cycle with a consistency and repeatability which is difficult for human
beings to attain over a long period of continuous working.
• Robots can be reprogrammed. When the production run of the current task is completed, a robot
can be reprogrammed and equipped with the necessary tooling to perform an altogether different
task.
• Robots can be connected to the computer systems and other robotics systems. Nowadays robots
can be controlled with wire-less control technologies. This has enhanced the productivity and
efficiency of automation industry.

6.1.3 Robot anatomy

The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links (Fig. 6.1). Robot
anatomy deals with the study of different joints and links and other aspects of the manipulator’s
physical construction. A robotic joint provides relative motion between two links of the robot. Each
joint, or axis, provides a certain degree-of-freedom (DOF) of motion.

In most of the cases, only one degree-of freedom is associated with each joint. Therefore the robot’s
complexity can be classified according to the total number of degrees-of-freedom they possess. An
industrial robot consists of a mechanical manipulator and a controller to move it and perform other
related functions.
• The mechanical manipulator consists of joints and links to position and orient the end of the
manipulator relative to its base
• The controller operates the joints in a coordinated fashion to execute a programmed work cycle
• A robot joint is similar to a human body joint it provides relative movement between two parts of
the body
• Typical industrial robots have five or six joints, Manipulator joints: classified as linear or rotating
 33

Figure 6.1 Robot joints and Links

6.1.4 Robotic Joints

1. Based on Translational motion

 Linear joint (type L)
 Orthogonal joint (type O)
2. Based on Rotary motion
 Rotational joint (type R)
 Twisting joint (type T)
 Revolving joint (type V)

a) Linear joint (type L joint)

The relative movement between the input link and the output link is a translational sliding motion,
with the axes of the two links being parallel.

b) Orthogonal joint (type U joint)

This is also a translational sliding motion, but the input and output links are perpendicular to each
other during the move.
 34

c) Rotational joint (type R joint)

This type provides rotational relative motion, with the axis of rotation perpendicular to the axes of
the input and output links.

d) Twisting joint (type T joint)

This joint also involves rotary motion, but the axis or rotation is parallel to the axes of the two
links.

e) Revolving joint (type V-joint, V from the “v” in revolving)

In this type, axis of input link is parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint. However the axis of
the output link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

6.1.5 Classification of robots Based on Physical Configuration

The following are the important physical configuration of industrial robots

1. Polar configuration
2. Cylindrical configuration
3. Cartesian co-ordinate robot
 35

4. Jointed-arm robot
5. SCARA

(i) Polar configuration:

 This configuration also goes by the name “spherical coordinate” because the workspace
within which it can move its arm is a partial sphere as shown in figure. The robot has a
rotary base and a pivot that can be used to raise and lower a telescoping arm
 It consists of a sliding arm L-joint, actuated relative to the body, which rotates around both
a vertical axis (T-joint), and horizontal axis (R-joint).
 The work volume of polar configuration is hemisphere

Figure 6.2 Polar Configuration

(ii) Cylindrical configuration:
 In this configuration, the robot body is a vertical column that swivels about a vertical axis.

Figure 6.3 Cylindrical Configuration

 36

 The arm consists of several orthogonal slides which allow the arm to be moved up or down
and in and out with respect to the body. This is illustrated schematically in figure.
 Common configuration is to use a T-joint to rotate the column about its axis. An L-joint is
used to move the arm assembly vertically along the column, while an O-joint is used to
achieve radial movement of the arm.
 Work volume of this robot is cylindrical

(iii) Cartesian configuration:

 A robot which is constructed around this configuration consists of three orthogonal slides,
as shown in fig. the three slides are parallel to the x, y, and z axes of the Cartesian coordinate
system.
 It is also known as rectilinear robot and x-y-z robot. It consists of three sliding joints, two
of which are orthogonal O-joints.
 By appropriate movements of these slides, the robot is capable of moving its arm at any
point within its three-dimensional rectangular spaced work space.

Figure 6.4: Cartesian Configuration

(iv) Jointed-arm configuration:

 Is combination of cylindrical and articulated configurations?
 This is similar in appearance to the human arm, as shown in fig. the arm consists of several
straight members connected by joints which are analogous to the human shoulder, elbow,
and wrist.
 The robot arm is mounted to a base which can be rotated to provide the robot with the
capacity to work within a quasi-spherical space
 It is similar to the configuration of a human arm. It consists of a vertical column that swivels
about the base using a T-joint. Shoulder joint (R-joint) is located at the top of the column.
The output link is an elbow joint (another R joint).
 37

Figure 6.5 Jointed Arm Configuration

(v) SCARA

Its full form is ‘Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm'. It is similar in construction to the
jointer-arm robot, except the shoulder and elbow rotational axes are vertical. It means that the arm
is very rigid in the vertical direction, but compliant in the horizontal direction.

Robot wrist assemblies consist of either two or three degrees-of-freedom. A typical three-degree-
of-freedom wrist joint is depicted in Figure. The roll joint is accomplished by use of a T-joint. The
pitch joint is achieved by recourse to an R-joint. And the yaw joint, a right-and-left motion, is gained
by deploying a second R-joint.

Figure 6.6 Selective Compliance Articulated Robot Arm (SCARA)

6.1.6 End Effectors

An end effector is usually attached to the robot’s wrist, and it allows the robot to accomplish a
specific task. This means that end effectors are generally custom engineered and fabricated for each
different operation. There are two general categories of end effectors viz. grippers and tools.
Grippers grasp and manipulate the objects during the work cycle. Typically objects that grasped are
the work parts which need to be loaded or unloaded from one station to another. Grippers may be
custom-designed to suit the physical specifications of work parts.

The robot end effecter may also use tools. Tools are used to perform processing operations on the
work-piece. Typically, the robot uses the tool relative to a stationary or slowly-moving object. For
 38

example, spot welding, arc welding, and spray painting robots use a tool for processing the
respective operation. Tools also can be mounted at robotic manipulator spindle to carry out
machining work such as drilling, routing, grinding, etc.

1. Grippers:
Grippers are generally used to grasp and hold an object and place it at a desired location. Grippers
can be classified as follows.

Figure 6.7: Robot Grippers

 39

2. Tools: a robot is required to manipulate a tool to perform an operation on a work part. Here the
tool acts as end-effectors. Spot-welding tools, arc-welding tools, spray painting nozzles, and
rotating spindles for drilling and grinding are typical examples of tools used as end-effectors.

 The camera is mounted either on the robot or in a fixed position above the robot so that its
field of vision includes the robots work volume. The computer software enables the vision
system to sense the presence of an object and its position and orientation.
 Vision capability would enable the robot to carry out the following kinds of operations.
Retrieve parts which are randomly oriented on a conveyor Recognize particular parts which
are intermixed with other objects Perform assembly operations which require alignment.

6.1.9 ROBOT APPLICATIONS

There are numerous applications which need to replace human labor by robots:

• Work environment hazardous for human beings

• Repetitive tasks
• Boring and unpleasant tasks
• Multi shift operations
• Infrequent changeovers
• Performing at a steady pace
• Operating for long hours without rest
• Responding in automated operations
• Minimizing variation

Industrial Robot Applications can be divided into:

 Material-handling applications:
• Involve the movement of material or parts from one location to another.
• It includes part placement, palletizing and/or depalletizing, machine loading and
unloading.
 Processing Operations:
• Requires the robot to manipulate a special process tool as the end effectors.
• The application includes spot welding, arc welding, riveting, spray painting,
machining, metal cutting, debarring, polishing.
 40

 Assembly Applications:
• Involve part-handling manipulations of a special tools and other automatic tasks
and operations.

 Inspection Operations:
• Require the robot to position a work part to an inspection device.
• Involve the robot to manipulate a device or sensor to perform the inspection.
 41

 Material Handling Applications:

(a) This category includes the following:
Part Placement, (b) Palletizing and/or de-palletizing
 Part Placement:
 The basic operation in this category is the relatively simple pick-and-place
operation.
 This application needs a low-technology robot of cylindrical coordinate type.
 Only two, three, or four joints are required for most of the applications.
 Pneumatically powered robots are often used.

 Processing operations:
 Robot performs a processing procedure on the part.
 The robot is equipped with some type of process tooling as its end effectors.
 Manipulates the tooling relative to the working part during the cycle.
 Industrial robot applications in the processing operations include:
(a) Spot welding, (b) Continuous arc welding
 42

6.1.7 Sensors in Robots

There are generally two categories of sensors used in robotics. These are sensors for internal
purposes and for external purposes. Internal sensors are used to monitor and control the various
joints of the robot. They form a feedback control loop with the robot controller. Examples of
internal sensors include potentiometers and optical encoders, while tachometers of various types
are deployed to control the speed of the robot arm. External sensors are external to the robot itself,
and are used when we wish to control the operations of the robot. External sensors are simple
devices, such as limit switches that determine whether a part has been positioned properly, or
whether a part is ready to be picked up from an unloading bay.
For certain robot application, the type of workstation control using interlocks is not adequate the
robot must take on more human like senses and capabilities in order to perform the task in a
satisfactory way these senses and capability includes vision and hand eye coordination, touch,
hearing accordingly we will divide the types of sensors used in robotics into the following three
categories.
1. Vision sensors
2. Tactile and proximity sensors
3. Voice sensors

(i) Vision Sensors

 This is one of the areas that is receiving a lot of attention in robotics research computerized
visions systems will be an important technology in future automated factories.
 Robot vision is made possible by means of video camera a sufficient light source and a
computer programmed to process image data.
 The camera is mounted either on the robot or in a fixed position above the robot so that its
field of vision includes the robots work volume. The computer software enables the vision
system to sense the presence of an object and its position and orientation.
 Vision capability would enable the robot to carry out the following kinds of operations.
1. Retrieve parts which are randomly oriented on a conveyor
2. Recognize particular parts which are intermixed with other objects
3. Perform assembly operations which require alignment

(ii) Tactile and Proximity Sensors

Tactile sensors provide the robot with the capability to respond to contact forces between
Itself and other objects within its work volume. Tactile sensors can be divided into two types:
1. Touch sensors
2. Stress sensors

 Touch Sensors are used simply to indicate whether contact has been made with an object.
A simple micro switch can serve the purpose of a touch sensor. Stress sensors are used to
measure the magnitude of the contact force. Strain gauge devices are typically employed in
force measuring sensors.
 Potential use of robots with tactile sensing capabilities would be in assembly and inspection
operations.
 43

 In assembly, the robot could perform delicate part alignment and joining operations. In
inspection, touch sensing would be used in gauging operations and dimensional measuring
activities.
 Proximity sensors are used to sense when one object is close to another object. On a robot,
the proximity sensors would be located n or near the end effectors.
 This sensing capability can be engineered by means of optical proximity devices, eddy-
current proximity detectors, magnetic field sensors, or other devices.
 In robotics, proximity sensors might be used to indicate the presence or absence of a work
part or other object. They could also be helpful in preventing injury to the robots human co-
workers in the factory.

(iii) Voice Sensors

 Another area of robotics research is voice sensing or voice programming. Voice
programming can be defined as the oral communication of commands to the robot or other
machine.
 The robot controller is equipped with a speech recognition system which analyzes the voice
input and compares it with a set of stored word patterns when a match is found between the
input and the stored vocabulary word the robot performs some actions which corresponds
to the word. Voice sensors could be useful in robot programming to speed up the
programming procedure just as it does in NC programming.
 It would also be beneficial in especially in hazardous working environments for performing
unique operations such as maintenance and repair work.
 The robot could be placed in hazardous environment and remotely commanded to perform
the repair chores by means of step-by-step instructions.

6.1.8 Actuators used in the Robotics

1. Hydraulic drive: gives a robot great speed and strength. These systems can be designed to
actuate linear or rotational joints. The main disadvantage of a hydraulic system is that it occupies
floor space in addition to that required by the robot.

2. Electric drive: compared with a hydraulic system, an electric system provides a robot with less
speed and strength. Accordingly, electric drive systems are adopted for smaller robots. However,
robots supported by electric drive systems are more accurate, exhibit better repeatability, and are
cleaner to use.

3. Pneumatic drive: are generally used for smaller robots. These robots, with fewer degrees of
freedom, carry out simple pick-and-place material handling operations.

The comparative advantages and dis advantages of these three drive systems are listed below:

Parameter Hydraulic Pneumatic System Electric System

Accuracy Medium Low High
Leakage High low Nil
Load carrying High Low Medium
capacity
 44

Maintenance High Low Medium

Range of Speed High Low Medium
Noise High Low Medium
Work Area Un Clean Clean Clean
Floor Space More Medium Less
Repeatability Medium Low High

Review Questions:
1. Describe the specifications of lathe machine with a line diagram.

2. Explain the working principle of turning machine.

3. Discuss any 5 operations done on lathe machine.

4. With the help of a neat sketch, explain threading operation on a lathe.

5. Describe with a diagram, taper turning by tool offset method.

6. Explain taper turning operation done on lathe by compound rest swiveling technique.

7. Enumerate the construction and working of milling machine.

8. Discuss the classification of milling machines.

9. Explain any five milling operation with a line diagrams.

10. Differentiate up milling with down milling processes.

11. Explain the major components of CNC machining units with a block diagram.

12. List and explain any three G codes and M codes with their significance.

13. Write a part program in word address format to simulate a box turning from round rod of 50
mm diameter, 100 mm length to 40 mm diameter for portion of length 40 mm.

14. Explain the general structure of a CNC part program.

15. Discuss the anatomy of a robot with a neat diagram.

16. Describe the polar configuration robot with a diagram and mention its applications.

17. Explain the types of sensors used in robotic systems with their functions.

18. Describe the robot configurations with their applications.

19. Explain the Industrial applications of robots.