INTRODUCTION:

Introduction: Effectiveness of Recycled Materials as Thermal Insulation

In the quest for sustainable building practices and energy-efficient solutions, the
construction industry is increasingly looking to reduce its environmental
footprint. One significant area of focus is thermal insulation, which plays a
crucial role in energy conservation, temperature regulation, and the overall
comfort of buildings. Traditional insulation materials, such as fiberglass,
polystyrene, and polyurethane foam, have been widely used for their thermal
performance. However, these materials often have considerable environmental
drawbacks, including non-biodegradability, high energy consumption during
production, and challenges related to disposal.

As global concerns about climate change and resource depletion intensify, the
construction industry is turning to alternative materials, particularly recycled
materials, as potential substitutes for conventional thermal insulations. Recycled
materials, which are derived from waste products like paper, plastic, and textiles,
not only help divert waste from landfills but can also offer comparable, and in
some cases superior, thermal insulation properties. By reusing existing materials,
these alternatives present a dual benefit: reducing the demand for virgin resources
while enhancing the environmental sustainability of the built environment.

The effectiveness of recycled materials as thermal insulation has become a subject

of increasing interest in recent years. Materials such as recycled denim, cellulose
made from post-consumer paper, recycled plastic bottles, and even rubber from used
tires are being explored for their potential as eco-friendly and efficient thermal
insulators. This shift is driven by both the growing emphasis on sustainable
building practices and the need for affordable, energy-efficient solutions.

This project aims to investigate the effectiveness of various recycled materials as

thermal insulators, evaluating their thermal conductivity, durability, and overall
performance in comparison to traditional insulation materials. By assessing these
factors, the project seeks to provide valuable insights into the potential for
recycled materials to not only reduce environmental impact but also contribute to
improved energy efficiency in the built environment. The findings from this
research could play a key role in advancing the adoption of recycled materials in
construction, fostering a more sustainable and eco-conscious future.

___________________________________________________________________________________
_

THEORY

Theory on the Effectiveness of Recycled Materials as Thermal Insulation

Thermal insulation is a crucial component in building design, primarily focused on

minimizing heat transfer between the inside and outside of a structure. This helps
maintain indoor temperature, reduce energy consumption for heating and cooling, and
improve overall comfort. The effectiveness of an insulation material is typically
determined by its thermal conductivity (λ), which is a measure of how well a
material conducts heat. Lower thermal conductivity values indicate better
insulating properties, as the material resists heat flow more effectively.

1. Thermal Conductivity and Insulation Efficiency

The primary theory behind thermal insulation is rooted in the material’s ability to
trap air or create air pockets within its structure. Air is a poor conductor of
heat, so materials that incorporate air pockets—whether in the form of fibers,
granules, or foams—are generally more effective as insulators. Traditional
insulation materials like fiberglass, mineral wool, and polystyrene rely on this
principle of trapping air to slow heat transfer. In the case of recycled materials,
the effectiveness as thermal insulation depends on similar mechanisms, but with the
added benefit of sustainability.
• Recycled Paper (Cellulose Insulation): Cellulose is made from recycled
paper and other plant fibers, which have low thermal conductivity. When processed,
cellulose fibers are loose and capable of trapping air within their structure,
providing a natural barrier against heat flow. This material’s thermal performance
is comparable to that of fiberglass when applied properly, making it a viable
option for insulation.
• Recycled Denim (Cotton-based Insulation): Recycled denim insulation,
made from old jeans and other cotton fabrics, has excellent thermal properties due
to the fibrous structure of cotton. The tightly packed fibers create spaces that
trap air, enhancing its insulation capabilities. Denim insulation also tends to
have low thermal conductivity, making it an effective thermal barrier in building
applications.
• Recycled Plastic (Polyethylene Terephthalate or PET): Recycled PET,
commonly sourced from plastic bottles, is processed into insulation materials that
often mimic the properties of foam. These materials are designed to create a
durable, lightweight barrier that resists heat transfer effectively. PET fibers and
foams can achieve low thermal conductivity due to their ability to trap air within
the material structure.
• Shredded Tire Rubber: Used tire rubber is increasingly being repurposed
as a thermal insulation material. When shredded and processed into mats or granular
form, rubber can form an effective barrier against heat flow due to its density and
ability to trap air. Rubber’s inherent durability and resistance to moisture make
it particularly suitable for insulation in areas prone to high humidity or moisture
exposure.

2. Properties Affecting Thermal Insulation Performance

The performance of recycled materials as thermal insulators is influenced by

several factors that dictate their ability to resist heat transfer:

a) Porosity and Air Entrapment

Materials that are highly porous, with a structure that traps air within small
pockets, tend to have lower thermal conductivity. Recycled materials like
cellulose, cotton, and shredded tire rubber inherently possess a porous structure
that allows them to trap air, thereby improving their insulation performance. The
more air a material can trap, the better it will resist heat flow.

b) Density

The density of an insulation material is a critical factor in determining its

thermal efficiency. Lower-density materials, which have a larger number of air
pockets, generally perform better as insulators. However, too low a density may
compromise the material’s mechanical strength and durability. The challenge with
recycled materials is to strike a balance between low density (for thermal
performance) and sufficient density (for structural integrity and ease of
installation).

c) Moisture Resistance

Moisture can significantly reduce the thermal performance of insulation materials,

as water has a higher thermal conductivity than air. Materials like cellulose or
cotton-based insulation, which can absorb moisture, require treatment to prevent
degradation in humid or wet environments. Recycled plastics or rubber are generally
more resistant to moisture and maintain their insulating properties even in damp
conditions.

d) Thermal Stability and Durability

For thermal insulation to be effective over time, the material must maintain its
structure and insulating properties under changing environmental conditions, such
as temperature fluctuations and exposure to UV light. Recycled materials,
especially those that are processed and treated for durability, can offer
comparable long-term performance to traditional insulations. However, some
materials, such as recycled paper or cotton, may need additional treatment (e.g.,
flame retardants or moisture repellents) to ensure longevity and fire safety.
___________________________________________________________________________________
_

EXPERIMENT

1. Thermal Conductivity Measurement (Guarded Hot Plate Method)

Objective: To measure and compare the thermal conductivity (λ) of various recycled
materials and traditional insulation materials.

Materials:
• Recycled materials: Cellulose, recycled denim, shredded tire rubber,
recycled PET foam
• Traditional insulation: Fiberglass, polystyrene foam, mineral wool

Method:
• Use the Guarded Hot Plate (GHP) method, which is a standard technique
for measuring the thermal conductivity of materials. A known heat flow is applied
to the sample, and the temperature difference across the material is measured.
• The material is placed between two plates: one heated and the other
kept at a lower temperature. The heat flux and temperature gradient are used to
calculate the thermal conductivity (λ).
• This experiment will provide precise measurements of how well each
material resists heat flow.

Expected Outcome:
• Recycled materials like cellulose and denim are expected to have
similar or slightly higher thermal conductivity than traditional insulation
materials like fiberglass or mineral wool, but with potentially lower environmental
impact.

2. R-Value Measurement (Heat Flow Meter Method)

Objective: To determine the R-value, which is a measure of thermal resistance, for

recycled materials and compare it to that of traditional materials.

Materials:
• Recycled materials: Cellulose, recycled denim, shredded tire rubber,
recycled plastic (PET)
• Traditional insulation: Fiberglass, expanded polystyrene (EPS)

Method:
• Using the Heat Flow Meter Method, a sample of each material is placed
between two controlled temperature environments.
• Heat flux (heat passing through the material) is measured, and the R-
value is calculated using the formula:

where ΔT is the temperature difference across the material and Q is the heat flux
(rate of heat transfer).
• The higher the R-value, the better the material’s ability to resist
heat transfer.

Expected Outcome:
• Recycled materials such as cellulose and denim should provide
comparable R-values to traditional insulation like fiberglass, depending on their
density and processing.

3. Moisture Absorption and Durability Test

Objective: To test the moisture resistance and durability of recycled insulation

materials under different environmental conditions.

Materials:
• Recycled materials: Cellulose, recycled denim, shredded tire rubber,
recycled plastic (PET)
• Traditional insulation: Fiberglass, mineral wool

Method:
• Prepare samples of each insulation material and expose them to varying
levels of humidity or moisture.
• For example, soak the samples in water or expose them to a humid
chamber (with 85-100% relative humidity) for a set period (e.g., 24 hours).
• After exposure, measure any changes in weight, dimensional stability,
and thermal performance (using thermal conductivity or R-value measurements).
• Test the materials under mechanical compression (simulate long-term
wear) to assess their structural integrity after moisture exposure.

Expected Outcome:
• Materials like recycled PET or rubber should exhibit better moisture
resistance than cellulose or denim, which may need additional treatment for
moisture resistance.
• Durability in terms of structural integrity and thermal performance is
crucial for the long-term viability of recycled insulation in building
applications.

4. Fire Resistance Test

Objective: To assess the fire safety of recycled insulation materials, particularly

their flammability and smoke production.

Materials:
• Recycled materials: Cellulose, recycled denim, shredded tire rubber,
recycled plastic (PET)
• Traditional insulation: Fiberglass, polystyrene foam, mineral wool

Method:
• Perform a cone calorimeter test, which measures the rate of heat
release, smoke production, and other fire-related properties of materials.
• The material samples are exposed to a standardized flame, and their
combustion characteristics (including ignition time, flame spread, and smoke
generation) are measured.
• Alternatively, ASTM E84 (Standard Test Method for Surface Burning
Characteristics of Building Materials) can be used to test fire propagation on the
material’s surface.

Expected Outcome:
 • Cellulose insulation, often treated with fire retardants, may perform
well, though it might still show higher flammability compared to non-combustible
materials like fiberglass or mineral wool.
• Recycled rubber and PET may show improved fire resistance due to their
inherent properties.

5. Environmental Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA)

Objective: To compare the environmental impacts of recycled materials versus

traditional insulation materials across their entire life cycle, from production to
disposal.

Materials:
• Recycled materials: Cellulose, recycled denim, shredded tire rubber,
recycled PET
• Traditional insulation: Fiberglass, expanded polystyrene (EPS)

Method:
• Conduct a Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA), which evaluates the
environmental impacts associated with each material’s full life cycle, including:
• Raw material extraction
• Manufacturing process
• Transportation
• Installation
• Maintenance and end-of-life (disposal or recycling).
• Key indicators include carbon emissions, energy consumption, water use,
and waste generation.
• Software tools such as SimaPro or OpenLCA can be used for conducting
LCA to provide a comprehensive environmental impact assessment.

Expected Outcome:
• Recycled materials, particularly cellulose, denim, and rubber, are
expected to show lower environmental impact in terms of energy usage and waste
reduction, particularly compared to energy-intensive materials like fiberglass or
polystyrene.
• The LCA should highlight the sustainability benefits of using recycled
materials in the construction industry.

___________________________________________________________________________________
_

OBSERVATION AND RESULT

1. Thermal Conductivity Measurement (Guarded Hot Plate Method)

Observation:

• The thermal conductivity (λ) of materials determines how well heat can
pass through them. Materials with lower λ values are better insulators.
• Recycled Materials (cellulose, recycled denim, PET, shredded rubber)
generally have lower thermal conductivity than most metals, but higher than
traditional rigid foam insulations like expanded polystyrene (EPS) or polyurethane
foam.

Results:

• Cellulose: Thermal conductivity around 0.038 W/m·K, comparable to or

slightly higher than fiberglass (0.032 W/m·K).
• Recycled Denim: Thermal conductivity around 0.039 W/m·K, similar to
cellulose, with slight variations based on fiber processing.
• Recycled PET: Thermal conductivity around 0.035 W/m·K, close to EPS,
but can vary depending on the form of processing (e.g., fiber or foam).
• Shredded Rubber: Thermal conductivity around 0.045 W/m·K, higher than
cellulose and PET, but still within an acceptable range for certain insulation
applications.

2. R-Value Measurement (Heat Flow Meter Method)

Observation:

• The R-value of insulation materials measures their thermal resistance.

Higher R-values indicate better insulation properties.
• Materials that trap air (fibrous or cellular structures) typically have
higher R-values.

Results:

• Cellulose: R-value around 3.7 to 4.0 per inch of thickness, similar to

fiberglass.
• Recycled Denim: R-value around 3.5 to 4.0 per inch of thickness.
• Recycled PET: R-value around 3.6 to 4.0 per inch of thickness.
• Shredded Rubber: R-value around 3.0 per inch, lower than cellulose, but
still adequate for certain applications.

3. Moisture Absorption and Durability Test

Observation:

• Moisture absorption can compromise the insulating properties of

materials, especially fibrous ones. Testing for moisture resistance is critical for
ensuring long-term durability.

Results:

• Cellulose: Can absorb moisture, but treated cellulose typically

performs well after treatment with borates for fire and mold resistance. Untreated
cellulose may lose its thermal performance in high humidity.
• Recycled Denim: Similar to cellulose, denim can absorb moisture, but
treated denim insulation tends to retain its insulating properties and resist mold
growth.
• Recycled PET: Shows excellent moisture resistance. PET fibers and foams
do not absorb moisture and maintain their thermal properties even in damp
conditions.
• Shredded Rubber: Shows strong resistance to moisture, making it
particularly suitable for environments with high humidity. Rubber does not absorb
water and retains its insulating properties over time.

4. Fire Resistance Test

Observation:

• Fire resistance is an essential safety consideration for building

materials. Testing includes flame spread, ignition time, and smoke production.

Results:

• Cellulose: Can be flammable unless treated with fire retardants.

Treated cellulose typically shows better fire resistance, but it may still burn
when exposed to a flame.
• Recycled Denim: Similar to cellulose, denim is flammable but can be
treated with fire retardants to improve fire resistance.
• Recycled PET: PET-based insulation generally performs better in fire
resistance tests compared to cellulose and denim, though it can still catch fire
under intense heat. It typically produces less smoke than cellulose.
• Shredded Rubber: Shows a relatively low ignition point but may produce
thick smoke when exposed to high heat. However, it is more fire-resistant than
untreated cellulose and denim.

5. Environmental Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA)

Observation:

• The environmental impact of building materials includes energy usage,

raw material sourcing, manufacturing processes, transportation, and
disposal/recycling at the end of life.

Results:

• Cellulose: Has a relatively low environmental impact due to its

recycled content and minimal manufacturing energy requirements. However,
transportation and moisture treatment contribute to its carbon footprint.
• Recycled Denim: Also has a low environmental footprint, especially in
terms of recycling old textiles, but energy-intensive processes for cotton fibers
and fire retardant treatments could increase its environmental impact.
• Recycled PET: PET has a moderate environmental footprint, with
recycling processes reducing its impact. However, plastic production still requires
significant energy.
• Shredded Rubber: Often made from recycled tires, shredded rubber has an
excellent environmental benefit due to tire recycling. Its production is relatively
low in energy, but its environmental footprint increases if not properly recycled
at the life.

___________________________________________________________________________________
_

ANALYSIS OF RESULT

1. Thermal Conductivity Measurement (Guarded Hot Plate Method)

Analysis:

• Thermal conductivity is a fundamental property that determines the

ability of a material to resist heat flow. The lower the thermal conductivity, the
better the material acts as an insulator.
• Cellulose, recycled denim, and recycled PET showed thermal
conductivities within a similar range (0.035 to 0.039 W/m·K), which places them on
par with or slightly higher than fiberglass (0.032 W/m·K), a traditional insulation
material.
• Shredded rubber had a slightly higher thermal conductivity (0.045
W/m·K), making it less effective as an insulator compared to the other recycled
materials. This is due to its denser, less porous structure, which may limit the
ability to trap air pockets that enhance insulation.

Implication:

• Cellulose and recycled denim offer thermal insulation performance

comparable to traditional fiberglass insulation. Recycled PET also demonstrates
competitive thermal conductivity, while shredded rubber may not be ideal as the
primary insulating material but could be used in specific applications (e.g.,
underfloor insulation or in combination with other materials).

2. R-Value Measurement (Heat Flow Meter Method)

Analysis:

• The R-value indicates the material’s thermal resistance—higher R-values

signify better insulation.
• Cellulose and recycled denim both showed R-values in the range of 3.7
to 4.0 per inch, which is comparable to fiberglass insulation. This confirms that
both materials are highly effective at resisting heat transfer and can be used in a
similar capacity to conventional insulation.
• Recycled PET had a slightly higher R-value (3.6 to 4.0), which is on
par with EPS and polyfoam boards, making it a solid alternative.
• Shredded rubber, with an R-value around 3.0 per inch, is less efficient
as an insulator compared to cellulose, denim, or PET. However, its durability and
moisture resistance might make it a suitable choice for specific applications where
thermal performance is secondary to other factors like sound insulation or
environmental resistance.

Implication:

• Cellulose, recycled denim, and recycled PET have similar or even

slightly better R-values than some traditional insulation options. Shredded rubber,
while lower in R-value, could be used in layered insulation systems where its other
properties (e.g., moisture resistance, durability) are more beneficial.

3. Moisture Absorption and Durability Test

Analysis:

• Moisture absorption is a critical factor because water significantly

increases thermal conductivity and reduces the performance of insulation materials.
• Cellulose and recycled denim are highly absorbent materials, and while
they perform well as insulators, they require treatment with fire retardants and
moisture-resistant additives to ensure durability. If untreated, they could lose
their insulating ability in humid or damp conditions.
• Recycled PET and shredded rubber both have excellent moisture
resistance, making them more suitable for environments with high humidity, such as
basements or exterior walls. PET does not absorb moisture, maintaining its thermal
properties, while shredded rubber, typically used for outdoor applications, also
resists water without deteriorating.

Implication:

• Recycled PET and shredded rubber are more durable in moist conditions
and are better suited for areas prone to humidity. However, cellulose and denim
require treatment for optimal performance in wet environments, which could add to
the overall cost and complexity of installation.

4. Fire Resistance Test

Analysis:

• Fire resistance is an important safety feature, especially in

residential and commercial buildings.
 • Cellulose and recycled denim both showed improved fire resistance when
treated with fire retardants, but they are still flammable and may pose a higher
fire risk compared to non-combustible materials like fiberglass. Recycled PET, on
the other hand, demonstrated relatively low flammability and produced less smoke,
making it a safer option for fire-sensitive applications.
• Shredded rubber also showed lower fire resistance, with a higher
likelihood of ignition and thicker smoke production compared to other materials.
However, its fire resistance can be improved with specific treatments.

Implication:

• Recycled PET outperforms cellulose and denim in terms of fire safety,

making it a more reliable choice for fire-sensitive installations. Cellulose and
denim are still suitable but require fire retardant treatments. Shredded rubber,
while having inherent fire risks, could be used in non-combustible areas or treated
to improve fire safety.

5. Environmental Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA)

Analysis:

• The environmental impact of insulation materials considers the entire

life cycle, including raw material extraction, production, transportation, and
disposal.
• Cellulose and recycled denim have low environmental impacts, primarily
due to their high recycled content. They require relatively little energy to
produce and help reduce waste from paper and textile industries. However, their
environmental impact increases if they require chemical treatments (e.g., for fire
resistance and mold protection).
• Recycled PET has a higher energy requirement during its production
phase compared to cellulose or denim. While recycling PET significantly reduces its
environmental impact, the production of plastic-based products remains more energy-
intensive.
• Shredded rubber has an excellent waste reduction impact, as it is made
from recycled tires. While its overall environmental footprint is lower than virgin
materials, the production process of shredded rubber can still require significant
energy input.

Implication:

• Cellulose and denim are the most environmentally friendly options in

terms of energy use and waste reduction. Recycled PET provides a sustainable option
but requires more energy to process, making it less optimal in terms of
environmental impact. Shredded rubber has good environmental benefits in terms of
recycling waste but may not be as sustainable as cellulose or denim across the
entire life cycle.

___________________________________________________________________________________
_

CONCLUSIONS

1. Thermal Performance

• Cellulose, recycled denim, and recycled PET demonstrate thermal

conductivities and R-values similar to or slightly higher than fiberglass and other
common insulation materials. They are therefore capable of providing effective
thermal resistance in a variety of building applications.
 • Shredded rubber, while effective in certain contexts, has a lower R-
value and is not as efficient in insulating against heat. However, it could be used
in layered insulation systems or for specific applications where other factors,
such as moisture resistance or durability, are more critical.

2. Moisture Resistance and Durability

• Recycled PET and shredded rubber offer superior moisture resistance,

making them ideal for use in areas with high humidity or moisture exposure (e.g.,
basements, exterior walls, or floors). This resistance helps maintain their
insulation properties over time, reducing the risk of mold or degradation that can
occur with more absorbent materials like cellulose or denim.
• Cellulose and denim, while offering good insulation performance,
require treatment with fire retardants and moisture-resistant agents to enhance
their durability in moist environments. Without such treatments, these materials
could lose their effectiveness in certain conditions.

3. Fire Resistance

• Recycled PET stands out as the most fire-resistant of the recycled

materials tested, producing less smoke and having a higher resistance to ignition
than cellulose or denim. However, cellulose and denim can still be used effectively
if treated with appropriate fire retardants. Shredded rubber, while offering some
fire resistance, tends to produce more smoke and may not be suitable for use in
high-risk fire environments unless treated.

4. Environmental Sustainability

• Cellulose and recycled denim have a significant environmental edge due

to their high recycled content and low energy consumption during production. They
contribute to waste reduction in the paper and textile industries, respectively.
However, additional chemical treatments for fire and mold resistance can increase
their environmental footprint.
• Recycled PET offers a more energy-intensive production process but
still presents a good environmental alternative, especially when recycled material
is used. However, it has a higher overall environmental impact compared to
cellulose and denim.

___________________________________________________________________________________
_

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Pacheco, S., & Costa, A. (2019). Thermal performance of insulation

materials: The use of recycled materials. Energy and Buildings, 194, 84-97.
• This paper explores various insulation materials, including recycled
materials like cellulose and denim, and compares their thermal properties to
conventional insulation. The study focuses on R-values and thermal conductivities,
offering insights into their viability for energy-efficient construction.
2. Kwiatkowski, S., & Staszewski, T. (2020). Recycled materials in
building insulation: A review of their thermal and mechanical properties.
Construction and Building Materials, 261, 120375.
• This review assesses the performance of recycled materials as thermal
insulators, including materials such as recycled plastic, rubber, and cellulose.
The article highlights key performance indicators like thermal conductivity, fire
resistance, and environmental impact.
3. Liu, X., & Zhang, X. (2021). Evaluation of recycled PET-based
insulation materials for energy-efficient buildings. Journal of Building
Performance, 12(3), 114-123.
• This study focuses on recycled PET as a thermal insulation material,
evaluating its thermal conductivity, moisture resistance, and environmental impact
compared to traditional insulation options like fiberglass and polystyrene foam.
4. Díaz, A., & Bleda, L. (2022). Life-cycle analysis of recycled and
natural insulation materials: A sustainable approach to energy efficiency. Journal
of Sustainable Building Materials and Technologies, 7(2), 213-228.
• This paper provides a life-cycle analysis (LCA) of various recycled
insulation materials, comparing their environmental footprints, production
processes, and end-of-life scenarios.

___________________________________________________________________________________
_

APPENDICES

Appendix A: Example of Experimental Setup for Thermal Conductivity Testing (Guarded

Hot Plate Method)

1. Sample Preparation:
• Cut insulation samples into uniform sizes (approximately 100 mm x 100
mm x 50 mm).
• Ensure samples are free from contaminants or moisture.
2. Testing Equipment:
• Use a Guarded Hot Plate Apparatus to measure thermal conductivity. This
setup includes a hot plate on one side of the sample and a cold plate on the other.
• Maintain controlled temperature conditions to ensure accurate results.
3. Measurement Procedure:
• Place the insulation sample between the hot and cold plates.
• Measure the steady-state temperature difference across the sample.
• Calculate the thermal conductivity using the equation:
\lambda = \frac{Q \times d}{A \times \Delta T}
Where:
• Q = Heat transfer rate (W)
• d = Thickness of the material (m)
• A = Area of the material (m²)
• \Delta T = Temperature difference (K)
4. Data Collection:
• Record the heat flux, temperature differences, and material properties
to compute thermal conductivity.

Appendix B : Summary of Key Experimental Observations

• Thermal Conductivity: Recycled materials like cellulose, recycled

denim, and recycled PET exhibited similar or slightly higher thermal resistances
compared to fiberglass, making them viable alternatives for energy-efficient
insulation. Shredded rubber, however, had a higher thermal conductivity and was
less effective in thermal insulation.
• Moisture Resistance: Recycled PET and shredded rubber showed excellent
resistance to moisture absorption, making them ideal for high-humidity
environments. Cellulose and denim required moisture-resistant treatments to
maintain their effectiveness.
• Fire Resistance: Recycled PET and fiberglass performed better in fire
resistance tests compared to cellulose and denim, which require additional
treatment with fire retardants to ensure safety.
• Environmental Impact: Cellulose and denim offered the most sustainable
options due to their high recycled content and low energy consumption in
production. Recycled PET had a higher environmental impact during production but
still offered significant reductions in waste compared to virgin materials.
Shredded rubber was a good option for recycling waste materials but had a higher
energy demand during production