Time

● Time can be measured using a stopwatch or stopclock which are usually

accurate to one or two decimal places
● The units of time normally used are seconds or minutes although other units may
be used for extremely slow reactions (e.g. rusting)
● 1 minute = 60 seconds

Temperature

● Temperature is measured with a thermometer or digital probe

● Laboratory thermometers usually have a precision of a half or one degree
● Digital temperature probes are available which are more precise than traditional
thermometers and can often read to 0.1 oC
● Traditional thermometers rely upon the uniform expansion and contraction of a
liquid substance with temperature; digital temperature probes can be just as, if
not, more accurate than traditional thermometers
● The units of temperature are degrees Celsius (ºC)

Mass

● Mass is measured using a digital balance which normally gives readings to two
decimal places
● Balances must be tared (set to zero) before use
● The standard unit of mass in kilograms (kg) but in chemistry grams (g) are most
often used
● 1 kilogram = 1000 grams

Volume-liquids

● The volume of a liquid can be determined using several types of apparatus,

depending on the level of accuracy needed
● For approximate volumes where high accuracy is not an important factor,
measuring ( or graduated) cylinders are used
● These are graduated (have a scale so can be used to measure) and are
available typically in a range of sizes from 10 cm3 to 1 litre (1 dm3)
● Volumetric pipettes are the most accurate way of measuring a fixed volume of
liquid, usually 10 cm3 or 25 cm3
○ They have a scratch mark on the neck which is matched to the bottom of
the meniscus to make the measurement
 ● Burettes are the most accurate way of measuring a variable volume of liquid
between 0 cm3 and 50 cm3 (e.g. in a titration)
● The tricky thing with burettes is to remember to read the scale from top to bottom
as 0.00 cm3 is at the top of the column
● Whichever apparatus you use, you may see markings in ml(millilitre) which is the
same as a cm3

Diagram of a burette with conical flask and pipette with filler

Volume-gases

● The volume of a gas sometimes needs to be measured and is done by collecting

it in a graduated measuring apparatus
● A gas syringe is usually the apparatus used
● A graduated cylinder inverted in water may also be used, provided the gas isn't
water-soluble
● If the gas happens to be heavier than air and is coloured, the cylinder can be
used upright
 Diagram of the set-up for an experiment involving gas collection

Advantages & Disadvantages of Methods & Apparatus

● In the lab we often have choices of different apparatus to do the same job
● Evaluating what is the best one to use is part of good experimental planning and
design
● This means appreciating some of the advantages and disadvantages of
laboratory apparatus

Table showing examples of Advantages and Disadvantages of Lab Apparatus

Five pieces of apparatus that can be used to measure the volume of a liquid.
planning your investigation.

1. Independent Variable: The variable you will change

 2. Dependent Variable: The variable you will measure.
3. Control Variable: Variables that you will keep the same.

Key things which helps to guide your response:

● If large lumps, you must state “use a pestle and mortar to crush”. This will get
you 2 marks.
● Stating the apparatus + exact volume/mass + name of chemical/substance,
always!
○ E.g. Use a measuring cylinder to measure 50cm3 of hydrochloric acid
● Draw a labelled diagram (even if it doesn’t directly tell you to do this)
○ You may also get some marks from labels
● State the type of experiment you will carry out (e.g.
chromatography/crystallisation)

Example Question: Full 6

marks response:

Prepare all the apparatus needed for this investigation. Weigh the same mass of the

Cadmium metal and placed it in a beaker. Add 30cm^3 of dilute hydrochloric acid in to

the beaker, where its concentration remains the same. Observe the reaction in a set

time of 2 minutes and record the gas produced using a gas syringe connected. Repeat

the investigation using Cobalt and Vanadium. An a conclusion can be made by

comparing the which metal produces the largest gas volume produced and placed it

accordingly from least reactive to most reactive

 Chromatography
● Principle: Difference in solubility separates different pigments

○ Drop substance to center of filter paper and allow it to dry

○ Drop water on substance, one drop at a time

○ Paper + rings = chromatogram.

● Stationary phase: material on which the separation takes place

● Mobile phase: mixture you want to separate, dissolved in a solvent (water or

ethanol)

● Interpreting simple chromatograms:

○ Number of rings/dots = number of substances

○ If two dots travel the same distance up the paper they are the same

substance.

○ Pure substance only shows one dot on the chromatogram.

● You can calculate the Rf value to identify a substance, given by the formula:

● �� �����= Distance moved by soluteDistance moved by

solvent
● Rf Value=
● Distance moved by solvent
● Distance moved by solute
● ​

● To make colorless substances visible

○ Dry chromatogram in an oven

 ○ Spray it with a locating agent

○ Heat it for 10 minutes in the oven

Separation
Techniques
● Filtration

○ Mixture goes in a funnel with filter paper, into a flask.

○ Residue is insoluble and filtrate goes through

 ● Crystallization

○ Some water in the solution is evaporated so solution becomes more

concentrated.

○ Solution is left to cool and crystallise (solubility decreases as

temperature decreases)

○ Crystals are filtered to remove solvent.

Common Question: How can we obtain pure dry

crystals from the filtrate?

1. Pour the filtrate in the evaporating basin and heat

2. Leave to evaporate and let it cool to crystallisation point

3. Wash the crystals with distilled water

4. Dry it between the filter paper.

Simple distillation:
● Impure liquid is heated

● It boils, and steam rises into the condenser

● Impurities are left behind

● Condenser is cold so steam lcondenses to the pure liquid and it drops into the

beaker

Fractional distillation:
● Removes a liquid from a mixture of liquids, because liquids have different b.p.s

● Mixture is heated to evaporate substance with lowest b.p.

● some of the other liquid(s) will evaporate too.

● Beads are heated to boiling point of lowest substance, so that substance being

removed cannot condense on beads.

 ● Other substances continue to condense and will drip back into the flask

● The beaker can be changed after every fraction.

● The thermometer is placed on the top to measure the temperature of the

vapour instead of the liquid

Acid-Base Titration
1. Place known volume of alkali using volumetric pipette into a conical flask

2. Add indicator (e.g. thymolphthalein)

3. Titration: add acid using burette until end point has reached

4. Record volume of acid added

5. Repeat without indicator

6. Transfer to evaporating basin

7. Heat with bunsen burner

 8. Leave to cool to crystallisation point

9. Wash crystals with distilled water

10. Dry crystals on filter paper

Choosing a suitable method:

Method of separation Used to separate

Filtration A solid from a liquid

Evaporation A solid from a solution

Crystallization A solid from a solution

Simple Distillation A solvent from a solution

Fractional Distillation Liquids from each other

Chromatography Different substances from a solution

Making Salts

Starting with a metal:

1. Warm acid (increases speed of reaction)
 2. Add excess of reactant + stir

3. Filter mixture

4. Transfer to evaporating basin

5. Heat using bunsen burner

6. Leave to cool to crystallisation point

7. Wash crystals with distilled water

8. Dry crystals on filter paper

Starting with an insoluble base:

● Add insoluble base to acid and heat gently, it will dissolve

● Keep adding until no more dissolves (reaction is done)

● Filter out the insoluble (excess) base

Precipitation:
● Mix the two soluble salts, so they react together

● Filter the mixture to separate the products produced (soluble and insoluble salt

produced)

● Wash the insoluble salt on the filter paper

 ● Dry the insoluble salt between the filter paper

Indicators:
Indicators Color in acid Color in alkaline

Thymolphthalein Colorless Blue

Methyl orange Red Yellow

Litmus Paper Red Blue

Universal Indicator Red Blue

pH Scale:
 Test for Anions and Cations
Cations Test
Cation Sodium Hydroxide Ammonia

Aluminum Soluble white ppt, White ppt, insoluble in

(Al3+) gives colourless excess

solution

Ammonium Ammonia gas - damp N/A

(NH4+) red litmus turns blue

Calcium White ppt, Insoluble in No ppt.

(Ca2+) excess
Chromium Green ppt, soluble in Green ppt, insoluble in

(Cr3+) excess excess

Copper Light blue ppt, Light blue, soluble

(Cu2+) Insoluble in excess ppt, giving dark blue

Iron(II) (Fe2+) Green ppt, Insoluble in Green ppt, Insoluble in

excess, turns brown excess, turns brown

near surface near surface

Iron(III) Red-brown ppt, Red-brown ppt,

(Fe3+) insoluble insoluble

Zinc (Zn2+) White soluble ppt, White soluble ppt,

giving colourless giving colourless

solution solution

Anions Test
 Anion Test Test result

Carbonate Add dilute nitric acid Limewater goes cloudy

(CO32-)

Chloride Add nitric acid, then White ppt.

(Cl-) aqueous silver nitrate

Bromide Cream ppt.

(Br-)

Iodide (I-) Yellow ppt.

Nitrate Add aqueous sodium Ammonia gas produced

(NO3-) hydroxide then add turns damp red litmus

aluminum paper blue

Sulfate Add nitric acid, then White ppt.

(SO42-) add aqueous barium

nitrate

Sulfite Add acidified aqueous Purple to colourless.

(SO32-) potassium manganate

(VII)

Flame Tests For

Metal Ions
● Lithium = Red

● Sodium = Yellow

● Potassium = Lilac

● Calcium = Orange-Red

● Barium = Light Green

● Copper (II) = Blue Green

 Gas Test and test result

Ammonia (NH3) Damp red litmus paper turns blue

Carbon dioxide Bubble gas through limewater - from

(CO­2) colourless to cloudy

Chlorine (Cl2) Bleaches red/blue litmus paper

Hydrogen (H2) Place lighted splint, squeaky pop

Oxygen (O2) Place glowing splint, splint relights

Sulfur Dioxide Turns Acidified Aqueous Potassium

(SO2) Manganate (VII) from purple to colourless

Flame Tests
Substance Test and test result

Water White anhydrous copper (II) sulphate turns

blue

Anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride turns pink

Alkene Add to bromine water; from orange to

colourless

Alkane Add to bromine water; remains orange

Acid Blue litmus paper turns red

Add a metal carbonate; bubbles of CO­2

Base Red litmus paper turns blue

Common Errors and Improvements
Errors Improvements

No Repeats Repeat Three Times

Different Colour Changes Use a colorimeter

The measuring cylinder is inaccurate Use a burette because it is more

accurate

Adding past endpoint Add volume in smaller quantities

Temperature/Heat Loss Use a thermostatically controlled

water bath

Same measuring cylinder used in multiple Use different measuring cylinders

investigations

Collecting Gases
 Method Downward Upward Collection Gas
Delivery Delivery Over water syringe

Use Gas more dense Gas less Gas is To

when... than air dense than sparingly measure
air soluble in the
water volume

Apparatus

Examples Carbon-dioxide, Ammonia, Carbon Any gas

chlorine, sulfur hydrogen dioxide,
dioxide, hydrogen,
hydrogen oxygen
chloride

Drawing Graphs
Drawing Graphs in IGCSE Sciences is such an important skill as it is worth full of free

marks up for grabs in these questions. Here are the rules and requirements to earn the

full mark.

1. Use a sharp pencil

2. Label both axes with units (IV on x-axis, DV on y-axis)
3. Labels should be in the form “quantity/units”
4. Choose appropriate scale
5. Use crosses “x” to mark the data points (for scatter graphs)
6. Graph should cover at least half the grid
7. Include an appropriate title
8. Include a line of best fit
9. Circle anomalous results

Common Question: Why does the graph level off?

The reaction is finished and ALL of the [named reactant] has reacted

Common Question: Why must the graph line past through (0,0)?

It is because when no [named reactant] is added, there is no reaction

 General
Information on
Tables and
Graphs
This applies to Biology, Chemistry and Physics: Practical/Alternative to Practical

(Paper 5 & 6). Scheme through the requirements CIE wants from candidates in

tabulating data.

Tables
• Each table column should have the physical quantity and the appropriate units.

• The table's column headings can be directly transferred to the axes of a constructed

graph.

Graphs
• Unless instructed otherwise, the independent variable should be plotted on the

x-axis (horizontal axis) and the dependent variable plotted on the y-axis (vertical

axis).

• Each axis should be labelled with the physical quantity and the appropriate unit, e.g.

time / s.

• Unless otherwise instructed, the scales for the axes should allow more than half of the

graph grid to be used in both directions and be based on sensible ratios, e.g. 2 cm on

the graph grid representing 1, 2 or 5 units of the variable.

• The graph is the diagrammatic presentation, including the best-fit line when

appropriate. It may have one or more sets of data plotted on it.

• Points on the graph should be marked as crosses (×) or encircled dots (⊙).

• Large ‘dots’ are penalised. Each data point should be plotted to an accuracy of over

one-half of each of the smallest squares on the grid.

• A best-fit line (trend line) should be a single, thin, smooth straight line or curve.

The line does not need to coincide exactly with any of the points; where there is scatter

evident in the data, Examiners would expect a roughly even distribution of points on
either side of the line over its entire length. Anomalous points should be ignored when

drawing the best-fit line.

Numerical Results
• Data should be recorded so as to reflect the precision of the measuring instrument.
• The number of significant figures given for calculated quantities should be appropriate

to the least number of significant figures in the raw data used.