BASIC MATHEMATICS

EASY CONCEPT
CLASS – 6

MATHEMATICS

Prachi Chouhan

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 Chapter – 1
Number System
A number system is defined as a system of writing to express numbers. It is the mathematical notation
for representing numbers of a given set by using digits or other symbols in a consistent manner. It
provides a unique representation of every number and represents the arithmetic and algebraic structure
of the figures. It also allows us to operate arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction and division.

A number is a mathematical value used for counting or measuring or labeling objects. Numbers are used
to performing arithmetic calculations. The examples of numbers are natural numbers, whole numbers,
rational and irrational numbers, etc. 0 is also a number that represents null value.

As we have done quite a lot of this earlier

Let us see if we remember which is the greatest among these:

(i) 92, 392, 4456, 89742 -->I’m the Greatest.

(ii) 1902, 1920, 9201, 9021, 92 --> I’m the Smallest.

Try These-:
Find the greatest and the smallest numbers.
(a) 4536, 4892, 4370, 4452.
(b) 15623, 15073, 15189, 15800.
(c) 25286, 25245, 25270, 25210.

Face value and Place value-:

Face Value: The face value of any number can be represented as the value of the digit itself. For
example, the face value of digit 3 in number 394 is 3 itself.

Place Value: The place value represents the position of a digit in a number. For example, the place value
of digit 3 in 394 is hundredth I.e., 3 x 100 = 300th.

Difference between Place Value and Face Value

Place Value Face Value
Face value is simply defined as the digit
Place value is defined as the digit multiplied itself within a number.
wherever it is placed, either by hundreds or
thousands.

Example: Place value of 5 in 350 is: 5*10= 50. Example: Face value of 5 in 350 is: 5

The place value of 0 is 0. The face value of 0 is also 0.

Place value of a digit should be multiplied by Face value of a digit always remains the
the digit value of the position where it is same, irrespective of the position where it
located. is located.

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Example: Find the Place value and Face value for every digit 4657.

Face value of 7 is 7

Place value of 7 is 7

Face value of 5 is 5

Place value of 5 is 50

Face value of 6 is 6

Place value of 6 is 600

Face value of 4 is 4

Place value of 4 is 4000

Thus, these are some of the key differences between the face value and place value.

➢ How many numbers can you make?

Suppose, we have four digits 7, 8, 3, 5. Using these digits we want to make different 4-digit
numbers such that no digits are repeated in a number. Thus,7835 is allowed, but 7735 is not.
Make as many 4-digit numbers as you can.

Which is the greatest number you can get? Which is the smallest number?

The greatest number is 8753 and the smallest is 3578.

Ascending order:

Ascending order means arrangement from the smallest to the greatest.

Descending order:

Descending order means arrangement from the greatest to the smallest.

What is Ascending Order?

Ascending order means to arrange

in increasing order, that is, from smallest to largest.

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To arrange numbers in any order, we first need to compare them.

Arranging numbers in ascending order:

• Count the number of digits in each number. The number with the least number of digits is
the smallest. Write it first. Continue this till all the numbers left for comparison have the
same number of digits.
• For the numbers having the same number of digits, start with comparing the numbers from
the leftmost digit. Write the number with the smallest digit.
• If the leftmost digits are same, move to the digits to the right and compare them. Write the
number with smaller digit.
• Continue doing this with the remaining numbers till we arrange all the numbers.

Example: Arrange 22554, 231, 22, 245, 22354 in ascending order.

The number 22 has the least number of digits. So, write it first as it is the smallest number.

Next, 231 and 245 both are 3-digit numbers. They both have 2 at hundreds place. So, we move to
the digit to the right. Compare 231 and 245 Since, 3 < 4; So, 231 < 245

Next, compare 22554 and 22354 as both have 5 digits. On comparing, 22554 and 22354, we find 3 <
5

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So, 22354 < 22554

We can then also arrange the numbers on the number line as shown:

Fun Facts

• To remember ascending order, remember the flight of an “airplane”, from low to high.

Descending Order

Arranging things, i.e., numbers, quantities, lengths, etc. from a larger value to lower value is known
as descending order. It is also known as the decreasing order.

For example,

Look at the numbers:

We can arrange these numbers in decreasing order of their value.

Descending can also be thought of as climbing down the stairs of numbers starting from the highest
value.

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Moving down the slide is descending.

The opposite of descending order is known as ascending order, in which the numbers are arranged
from lower value to higher value.

Fun Fact

• The numbers on a number-line are always arranged in increasing order or ascending order.
(see the direction of the arrow)
• Backward Counting is Descending order.

How to Finding Descending Order

The descending order of numbers can be found by subtracting 1 from the number.

For example, to write 10 to 6 in descending order, we will start with the largest number in the
above sequence, which is 10 and keep subtracting 1 from it until we reach the lowest number.

So, the numbers in descending order are: -

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Rules of Descending Order

Writing numbers in descending order do not always involve subtracting 1 from the larger numbers;
rather, descending order can be done in the following manner:

Always start with the largest number

Always ensure that the numbers are in order from largest to smallest

Always end with the smallest number.

Arranging the measurement in descending order

We can use descending order to arranging the objects or people in decreasing order of their length
or height.

For example, in the given image we show the height of animals in descending order.

➢ Shifting digits-:

Have you thought what fun it would be if the digits in a number could shift(move) from one
place to the other?

Think about what would happen to 182. It could become as large as 821and as small as 128. Try
this with 391 as well.

Take any 3-digit number and exchange the digit at the hundreds place with the digit at the ones
place.

(a) Is the new number greater than the former one?

(b) Is the new number smaller than the former number?

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 Write the numbers formed in both ascending and descending order.

Before 795 Exchanging the 1st and the 3rd digit. After 597.

If the digit at first place and digit at last place or digits which are exchanging from each other is
same then before and after exchanging number is same.

For example -: Before 898 by exchanging 1st and 3rd digit After also the number is same i.e.,
898. We observe that

Greatest single digit number + 1 = smallest 2-digit number

Greatest 2-digit number + 1 = smallest 3-digit number

Greatest 3-digit number + 1 = smallest 4-digit number.

Should not we then expect that on adding 1 to the greatest 4-digit number,

we would get the smallest 5-digit number, that is 9999 + 1 = 10000.The new number which
comes next to 9999 is 10000. It is called ten thousand.

Further, we expect 10000 = 10 × 1000.

Q 1. Give five examples where the number of things counted would be more than 6-digit number.

➢ Number Representation-:
In our Indian System of Numeration, we use ones, tens, hundreds, thousands and then lakhs and crores.
Commas are used to mark thousands, Lakhs and crores. The first comma comes after hundreds place
(three digits from the right) and marks thousands. The second comma comes two digits later (five digits
from the right). It comes after ten thousand place and marks lakh. The third comma comes after another
Two digits (seven digits from the right). It comes after ten lakh place and marks crore.

Number TCr Cr TLakh Lakh Tth Th H T O No. Name

2,57,34,543 - 2 5 7 3 4 5 4 3 Two Crore Fifty-
Seven lakh thirty-
four thousand five
hundred Forty-
three.
66,53,27,582 6 6 5 3 2 7 5 8 2 Sixty-Six Crore
Fifty-three lakh
twenty-seven
thousand five
hundred eighty-
two.

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International System of Numeration

In the International System of Numeration, as it is being used, we have ones, tens, hundreds,
thousands and then millions. One million is a thousand Thousand. Commas are used to mark
thousands and millions. It comes after very three digits from the right. The first comma marks
thousands and the next comma marks millions.
For example, the number 50,801,592 is read in the International System as fifty million eight
hundred one thousand five hundred Ninety-two.
In the Indian System, it is five crore eight lakh one thousand five hundred ninety-two.
How many lakhs make a million? = 1million – 10 Lakh
How many millions make a crore? = 10million – 1 crore
Take three large numbers. Express them in both Indian and International Numeration systems.
This may interest you:
To express numbers larger than a million, a billion is used in the International System of
Numeration:
1 hundred = 10 ten
1 thousand = 10 hundred = 100 tens

1 lakh = 100 thousands = 1000 hundreds = 10,000 tens= 10 ten thousand.

1 crore = 100 lakhs = 10,000 thousand = 1,00,000 hundreds = 10 ten Lakh.

1 billion = 1000 million

1 Trillion = a million-million (1,000,000,000,000 or 1012).

1 million = 10 hundred thousand= 10 Lakh= 100 ten thousand.

1 crore= 10 million. (The smallest 7-digit number is called ten Lakh).

1 million = 10 lakh. (The smallest 8-digit number is called one crore).

UNITS OF LENTHS -:
1 km = 105 cm = 1000 m = 106 mm (Millimeter) = 109 Micrometer

1 m = 100 cm = 0.001 km = 1000 mm = 106 Micrometer.1 cm = 0.01 m = 10-5 km = 10 mm =

10000 Micrometer.

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1mm = 1000 Micrometer

1 Inch = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m = 2.54 * 10-5 km = 25.4 mm.

1 Mile = 160934 cm = 1609.34 m = 1.60934 km = 1.609 * 106 mm.

1 Yard = 91.44 cm = 0.9144 m = 0.0009144 km = 914.4 mm.

1 Foot = 30.48 cm = 0.3048 m = 0.0003048 km = 304.8 mm.

1 Nautical Mile = 185200 cm = 1852 m = 1.852 km = 1.852 * 106 mm.

UNITS OF MASS -:

1 tonne = 1000 Kg = 106 g = 109 mg = 1012 Microgram.

1 kilogram = 1000 grams = 106 mg. (milligram) = 109 Microgram = 0.001 tonne.

1 kilogram = 2.20462 Pound = 35.274 Ounce = 0.157473 Stone.

1 Quintal = 100 Kg = 10000 g = 108 mg = 0.1 tonne.

1 gram = 1000 milligrams

1 milligrams = 1000 Micrograms.

UNITS OF VOLUME -:
1 liter = 1000 milliliters.

UNITS OF AREAS -:
1 Square-meter = 10^-6 Square Kilometer = 10-4 Hectare = 0.000247105 ACRE

UNITS OF TIME-:
1 Hour = 60 Minutes = 3600 sec = 3.6 e+6(3.6 * 10+6) millisecond = 3.6e+9 Microsecond = 3.6 e
+12
1 Decade = 10 Years
1 Century = 100 Years = 10 Decade.

UNITS OF TEMPERATURE-:
0°C (Celsius) = 32°F (Fahrenheit) = 273.15 Kelvin.

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You should remember that among these Kilo is the greatest and milli is the smallest; kilo shows
1000 times greater, milli shows 1000 times smaller, i.e., 1 kilogram = 1000 grams, 1 gram =
1000 milligrams.

Similarly, Centi shows 100 times smaller, i.e., 1 meter = 100 centimeters.

➢ Roman Numerals -:
One of the early systems of writing numerals is the system of Roman numerals. This
system is still used in many places. For example, we can see the use of Roman numerals
in clocks; itis also used for classes in the school time table etc.
I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X
denote 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and 10 respectively. This is followed by XI for 11, XII for 12... till
XX for 20.
Some more Roman numerals are:
I V X L C D M
1 5 10 50 100 500 1000
The rules for the system are:
(a) If a symbol is repeated, its value is added as many times as it occurs:
i.e. II is equal 2, XX is 20 and XXX is 30.

(b) A symbol is not repeated more than three times. But the symbols V, L and D are
never repeated.

(c) If a symbol of smaller value is written to the right of a symbol of greater value, its
value gets added to the value of greater symbol.
VI = 5 + 1 = 6 XII = 10 + 2 = 12
and LXV = 50 + 10 + 5 = 65

(d) If a symbol of smaller value is written to the left of a symbol of greater value, its
value is subtracted from the value of the greater symbol.
IV = 5 – 1 = 4,
IX = 10 – 1 = 9
XL = 50 – 10 = 40
XC = 100 – 10 = 90

(e) The symbols V, L and D are never written to the left of a symbol of greater value, i.e.,
V, L and D are never subtracted. The symbol I can be subtracted from V and X only. The
symbol X can be subtracted from L, M and C only.
The symbol I can be subtracted from V and X only.
The symbol X can be subtracted from L, M and C only.

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 Following these rules, we get,
1=I 10 = X 100 = C
2= II 20= XX
3 =III 30 =XXX
4= IV 40= XL
5= V 50= L
6= VI 60= LX
7 =VII 70 =LXX
8 =VIII 80 =LXXX
9= IX 90= XC
Q 2: Write in Roman Numerals (a) 69 (b) 98.
Solution :(a) 69 = 60 + 9= (50 + 10) + 9
= LX + IX
= LX IX
(b) 98 = 90 + 8 = (100 – 10) + 8 = XC + VIII = XCVIII.

SUMMARY
1.Given two numbers, one with more digits is the greater number. If the number of digits in two
given numbers is the same, that number is larger, which has a greater leftmost digit. If this digit also
happens to be the same, we look at the next digit and so on.

2.In forming numbers from given digits, we should be careful to see if the conditions under which
the numbers are to be formed are satisfied. Thus, to form the greatest four-digit number from 7, 8,
3, 5 without repeating a single digit, we need to use all four digits, the greatest number can have
only 8 as the leftmost digit.

3.The smallest four-digit number is 1000 (one thousand). It follows the largest three-digit number
999. Similarly, the smallest five-digit number is 10,000. It is ten thousand and follows the largest
four-digit number 9999.Further, the smallest six-digit number is 100,000. It is one lakh and follows
the largest five-digit number 99,999. This carries on for higher digit numbers in a similar manner.

4.Use of commas helps in reading and writing large numbers. In the Indian system of -numeration
we have commas after 3 digits starting from the right and thereafter every 2 digits. The commas
after 3, 5 and 7 digits separate thousand, lakh and respectively. In the International system of
numeration commas are placed after every 3 digits starting from the right. The commas after 3 and
6 digits separate thousand and million respectively.

5.Large numbers are needed in many places in daily life. For example, for giving number of students
in a school, number of people in a village or town, money paid or received in large transactions
(paying and selling), in measuring large distances say between various cities in a country or in the
world and so on.
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6. Remember kilo shows 1000 times larger,
Centi shows 100 times smaller and milli shows 1000 times smaller, thus,
1 kilometer = 1000 meters.
1 meter = 100 centimeters 1000 millimeters etc.

7.There are a number of situations in which we do not need the exact quantity but need only a
reasonable guess or an estimate. For example, while stating how many spectators watched a
particular international hockey match, we state the approximate number say 51,000, we do not
need to state the exact number.

8.Estimation involves approximating a quantity to an accuracy required. Thus, 4117may be

approximated to 4100 or to 4000, i.e., to the nearest hundred or to the nearest thousand
depending on our need.

9.In number of situations, we have to estimate the outcome of number operations. This is done by
rounding off the numbers involved and getting a quick, rough answer.

10. Estimating the outcome of number operations is useful in checking answers.

11. Use of brackets allows us to avoid confusion in the problems where we need to carry out more
than one number operation.

12. We use the Hindu-Arabic system of numerals. Another system of writing numeral is the Roman
system.

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 Types of Number System

There are various types of number system in mathematics. The four most common number
system types are:

1. Decimal number system (Base- 10)

2. Binary number system (Base- 2)
3. Octal number system (Base-8)
4. Hexadecimal number system (Base- 16)

In a positional numeral system, the radix or base is the number of unique digits, including the
digit zero, used to represent numbers. For example, for the decimal/denary system (the most
common system in use today) the radix (base number) is ten, because it uses the ten digits from
0 through 9. Radix means “root” in Latin.

Positional Numeral Systems

A positional (numeral) system is a system for representation of numbers by an ordered set of
numerals symbols (called digits) in which the value of a numeral symbol depends on its
position. For each position a unique symbol or a limited set of symbols is used.

In a positional base b numeral system (with b a natural number greater than 1 known as the
radix), b basic symbols (or digits) corresponding to the first b natural numbers including zero
are used. To generate the rest of the numerals, the position of the symbol in the figure is used.
The symbol in the last position has its own value, and as it moves to the left its value is
multiplied by b.

For example, in the decimal system (base 10), the numeral 4327 means (4×103) + (3×102) +
(2×101) + (7×100), noting that 100 = 1.

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Decimal Number System (Base 10 Number System) /Denary system

Decimal number system has base 10 because it uses ten digits from 0 to 9. In the decimal
number system, the positions successive to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens,
hundreds, thousands and so on. This system is expressed in decimal numbers.

Every position shows a particular power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number
1457 consists of the digit 7 in the unit’s position, 5 in the tens place, 4 in the hundreds position,
and 1 in the thousands place whose value can be written as

(1×103) + (4×102) + (5×101) + (7×100)

(1×1000) + (4×100) + (5×10) + (7×1)

1000 + 400 + 50 + 7

1457

Binary Number System (Base 2 Number System)

The base 2 number system is also known as the Binary number system wherein, only two binary
digits exist, i.e., 0 and 1. Specifically, the usual base-2 is a radix of 2. The figures described under
this system are known as binary numbers which are the combination of 0 and 1. For example,
110101 is a binary number. We can convert any system into binary and vice versa.

Example

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Write (14)10 as a binary number. Base 2 Number System Example

∴ (14)10 = 11102

Octal Number System (Base 8 Number System)

In the octal number system, the base is 8 and it uses numbers from 0 to 7 to represent
numbers. Octal numbers are commonly used in computer applications. Converting an octal
number to decimal is the same as decimal conversion and is explained below using an example.

Example: Convert 2158 into decimal.

Solution:

2158 = 2 × 82 + 1 × 81 + 5 × 80

= 2 × 64 + 1 × 8 + 5 × 1

= 128 + 8 + 5

= 14110

Hexadecimal Number System (Base 16 Number System)

In the hexadecimal system, numbers are written or represented with base 16. In the hex
system, the numbers are first represented just like in decimal system, i.e., from 0 to 9. Then,

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the numbers are represented using the alphabets from A to F. The below-given table shows the
representation of numbers in the hexadecimal number system.

Hexadecimal 0123456789A B C D E F

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Number System Chart

In the number system chart, the base values and the digits of different number system can be
found. Below is the chart of the numeral system.

Number System Chart

Conversion of Number Systems

Conversion between numbers systems is quite an easy task. Any number from any number
system can be converted to other number systems with the help of certain methods that will be
discussed below:

1. Conversion from Decimal Number System to Other Number Systems

Decimal Numbers are represented with digits 0-9 and with base 10. Conversion of a number
system means conversion from one base to another. Following are the conversion of the Decimal
Number System to other Number Systems:

A. Decimal to Binary Conversion:

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Decimal numbers are represented in base 10, but the binary numbers are of base 2. Hence, to
convert a decimal number to binary number, the base of that number is to be changed. Follow
the steps given below:

• Step 1: Divide the Decimal Number with the base of the number system to be converted to.
Here the conversion is to binary, hence the divisor will be 2.
• Step 2: The remainder obtained from the division will become the least significant digit
of the new number.
• Step 3: The quotient obtained from the division will become the next dividend and will be
divided by base i.e., 2.
• Step 4: The remainder obtained will become the second least significant digit i.e., it will
be added in the left of the previously obtained digit.

Now, the steps 3 and 4 are repeated until the quotient obtained becomes 0, and the remainders
obtained after each iteration are added to the left of the existing digits.

After all the iterations are over, the last obtained remainder will be termed as the Most
Significant digit.

B. Decimal to Octal Conversion:

Octal Numbers are represented in base 8. Hence, to convert a decimal number to octal number,
the base of that number is to be changed. Follow the steps given below:

• Step 1: Divide the Decimal Number with the base of the number system to be converted
to. Here the conversion is to octal, hence the divisor will be 8.

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 • Step 2: The remainder obtained from the division will become the least significant digit
of the new number.
• Step 3: The quotient obtained from the division will become the next dividend and will be
divided by base i.e., 8.
• Step 4: The remainder obtained will become the second least significant digit i.e., it will
be added in the left of the previously obtained digit.

Now, the steps 3 and 4 are repeated until the quotient obtained becomes 0, and the remainders
obtained after each iteration are added to the left of the existing digits

C. Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion:

Hexadecimal Numbers are represented in base 16. Hence, to convert a decimal number to
hexadecimal number, the base of that number is to be changed. Follow the steps given below:

• Step 1: Divide the Decimal Number with the base of the number system to be converted
to. Here the conversion is to Hex hence the divisor will be 16.
• Step 2: The remainder obtained from the division will become the least significant digit
of the new number.
• Step 3: The quotient obtained from the division will become the next dividend and will be
divided by base i.e., 16.
• Step 4: The remainder obtained will become the second least significant digit i.e., it will
be added in the left of the previously obtained digit.

Now, the steps 3 and 4 are repeated until the quotient obtained becomes 0, and the remainders
obtained after each iteration are added to the left of the existing digits.

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2. Conversion from Binary Number System to Other Number Systems

Binary Numbers are represented with digits 0 and 1 and with base 2. Conversion of a number
system means conversion from one base to another. Following are the conversion of the Binary
Number System to other Number Systems:

A. Binary to Decimal Conversion:

Binary numbers are represented in base 2 but the decimal numbers are of base 10. Hence, to
convert the binary number into a decimal number, the base of that number is to be changed.
Follow the steps given below:

• Step 1: Multiply each digit of the Binary number with the place value of that digit, starting
from right to left i.e., from LSB to MSB.
• Step 2: Add the result of this multiplication and the decimal number will be formed.

Example: To convert (11101011)2 into a decimal number

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B. Binary to Octal Conversion:

Binary numbers are represented in base 2 but the octal numbers are of base 8. Hence, to convert
the binary number into octal number, the base of that number is to be changed. Follow the steps
given below:

• Step 1: Divide the binary number into groups of three digits starting from right to left i.e.,
from LSB to MSB.
• Step 2: Convert these groups into equivalent octal digits.

Example: To convert (11101011)2 into an octal number

C. Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion:

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Binary numbers are represented in base 2 but the Hexadecimal numbers are of base 10. Hence,
to convert the binary number into Hex number, the base of that number is to be changed. Follow
the steps given below:

• Step 1: Divide the binary number into groups of four digits starting from right to left i.e.,
from LSB to MSB.
• Step 2: Convert these groups into equivalent hex digits.

Example: To convert (1110101101101)2 into a hex number

3. Conversion from Octal Number System to Other Number Systems

Octal Numbers are represented with digits 0-7 and with base 8. Conversion of a number system
means conversion from one base to another. Following are the conversions of the Octal Number
System to other Number Systems:

A. Octal to Decimal Conversion:

Octal numbers are represented in base 8, but the decimal numbers are of base 10. Hence, to
convert an octal number to a decimal number, the base of that number is to be changed. Follow
the steps given below:

• Step 1: Multiply each digit of the Octal number with the place value of that digit,
starting from right to left i.e., from LSB to MSB.
• Step 2: Add the result of this multiplication and the decimal number will be formed.

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B. Octal to Binary Conversion:

Octal numbers are represented in base 8, but the binary numbers are of base 2. Hence, to convert
an octal number to a binary number, the base of that number is to be changed. Follow the steps
given below:

• Step 1: Write each digit of the octal number separately.

• Step 2: Convert each digit into an equivalent group of three binary digits.
• Step 3: Combine these groups to form the whole binary number.

Example: (247)8 is to be converted to binary

C. Octal to Hexadecimal Conversion:

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Octal numbers are represented in base 8, but the hexadecimal numbers are of base 16. Hence,
to convert an octal number to a hex number, the base of that number is to be changed. Follow
the steps given below:

• Step 1: We need to convert the Octal number to Binary first. For that, follow the steps
given in the above conversion.
• Step 2: Now to convert the binary number to Hex number, divide the binary digits into
groups of four digits starting from right to left i.e., from LSB to MSB.
• Step 3: Add zeros prior to MSB to make it a proper group of four digits (if required)
• Step 4: Now convert these groups into their relevant decimal values.
• Step 5: For values from 10-15, convert it into Hex symbols i.e., from A-F

Example: (5456)8 is to be converted to hex

4. Conversion from Hexadecimal Number System to Other Number Systems

Hex Numbers are represented with digits 0-9 and with letters A-F and with base 16. Conversion
of a number system means conversion from one base to another. Following are the conversions
of the Hexadecimal Number System to other Number Systems:

A. Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion:

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Hexadecimal numbers are represented in base 16 but the decimal numbers are of base 10.
Hence, to convert a hexadecimal number to a decimal number, the base of that number is to be
changed. Follow the steps given below:

• Step 1: Write the decimal values of the symbols used in the Hex number i.e., from A-F
• Step 2: Multiply each digit of the Hex number with its place value. starting from right to
left i.e., LSB to MSB.
• Step 3: Add the result of multiplications and the final sum will be the decimal number.

Example: To convert (8EB4)16 into a decimal value

B. Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion:

Hex numbers are represented in base 16, but the binary numbers are of base 2. Hence, to convert
a hexadecimal number to a binary number, the base of that number is to be changed. Follow the
steps given below:

• Step 1: Convert the Hex symbols into its equivalent decimal values.
• Step 2: Write each digit of the Hexadecimal number separately.
• Step 3: Convert each digit into an equivalent group of four binary digits.
• Step 4: Combine these groups to form the whole binary number.

Example: (B2E)16 is to be converted to binary

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C. Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion:

Hexadecimal numbers are represented in base 16, but the octal numbers are of base 8. Hence,
to convert a hex number to an octal number, the base of that number is to be changed. Follow
the steps given below:

• Step 1: We need to convert the Hexadecimal number to Binary first. For that, follow the
steps given in the above conversion.
• Step 2: Now to convert the binary number to Octal number, divide the binary digits into
groups of three digits starting from right to left i.e., from LSB to MSB.
• Step 3: Add zeros prior to MSB to make it a proper group of three digits (if required)
• Step 4: Now convert these groups into their relevant decimal values.

Example: (B2E)16 is to be converted to hex

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Basic Math Symbols Names with Meaning and Examples

The basic symbols help us to work with mathematical concepts in a theoretical manner. In
simple words, without symbols, we cannot do Math. The mathematical signs and symbols are
considered as the representative of the value. The basic symbols in math’s are used to express
the mathematical thoughts. The relationship between the sign and the value refers to the
fundamental need of mathematics. With the help of symbols, certain concepts and ideas are
clearly explained. Here is a list of commonly used symbols in the stream of mathematics.

Page | 27
 Symbol Symbol Name Meaning or Definition Example
≠ not equal sign Inequality 10 ≠ 6
= equals sign Equality 3=1+2
< strict inequality less than 7 < 10
> strict inequality greater than 6>2
≤ inequality less than or equal to x ≤ y, means, y = x or y > x, but not vice-
versa.
≥ inequality greater than or equal to a ≥ b, means, a = b or a > b, but vice-versa
does not hold true.
[] brackets calculate expression inside [ 2×5] + 7 = 17
first
() parentheses calculate expression inside 3 × (3 + 7) = 30
first
− minus sign Subtraction 5−2=3
+ plus, sign Addition 4+5=9
∓ minus – plus both minus and plus 1 ∓ 4 = -3 and 5
operations
± plus – minus both plus and minus 5 ± 3 = 8 and 2
operations
× times sign Multiplication 4 × 3 = 12
* asterisk Multiplication 2*3=6
÷ division sign / Division 15 ÷ 5 = 3
obelus
∙ multiplication dot Multiplication 2∙3=6
– horizontal line division / fraction 8/2 = 4
/ division slash Division 6⁄2=3
mod modulo remainder calculation 7 mod 3 = 1
ab power Exponent 24 = 16
. period decimal point, decimal 4.36 = 4 +36/100
separator
√a square root √a ∙ √a = a √9 = ±3
a^b caret Exponent 2^3=8
4 4
√a fourth root √a ·4√a · 4√a · 4√a = a 4
√16= ± 2
3 3
√a cube root √a ·3√a · 3√a = a 3
√343 = 7
% percent 1% = 1/100 10% × 30 = 3
n n
√a n-th root (radical) √a · n√a · · · n times = a for n=3, n√8 = 2
ppm per-million 1 ppm = 1/1000000 10ppm × 30 = 0.0003
‰ per-mille 1‰ = 1/1000 = 0.1% 10‰ × 30 = 0.3
ppt per-trillion 1ppt = 10-12 10ppt × 30 = 3×10-10
ppb per-billion 1 ppb = 1/1000000000 10 ppb × 30 = 3×10-7

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Mathematics Logic symbols With Meaning

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning or Definition Example

^ caret / circumflex And x^y
· and And x·y
+ plus Or x+y
& ampersand And x&y
| vertical line Or x|y
∨ reversed caret Or x∨y
x bar not – negation x
x’ single-quote not – negation x’
! Exclamation mark not – negation !x
¬ not not – negation ¬x
~ tilde Negation ~x
⊕ circled plus / oplus exclusive or – xor x⊕y
⇔ equivalent if and only if (iff)
⇒ implies n/a n/a
∀ for all n/a n/a
↔ equivalent if and only if (iff) n/a
∄ there does not exist n/a n/a
∃ there exists n/a n/a
∵ because / since n/a n/a
∴ therefore n/a n/a

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 Symbol Symbol Name Meaning or definition Example
ε epsilon represents a very small ε→0
number, near-zero
limx→a limit limit value of a function limx→a(3x+1) = 3 × a + 1 = 3a + 1
y‘ derivative derivative – Lagrange’s (5x3)’ = 15x2
notation
e e constant / e = 2.718281828… e = lim (1+1/x) x, x→∞
Euler’s number
y(n) nth derivative n times derivation nth derivative of 3xn = 3 n (n-1) (n-
2) …. (2)(1) = 3n!
y” second derivative derivative of derivative (4x3)” = 24x
d2ydx2 second derivative derivative of derivative d2dx2(6x3+x2+3x+1) =36x+1
dy/dx derivative derivative – Leibniz’s notation ddx(5x)=5
dnydxn nth derivative n times derivation n/a
y¨=d2ydt2 Second derivative derivative of derivative n/a
of time
y˙ Single derivative of derivative by time – Newton’s n/a
time notation
D2x second derivative derivative of derivative n/a
Dx derivative derivative – Euler’s notation n/a
∫ integral opposite to derivation n/a
af(x,y)ax partial derivative ∂(x2+y2)/∂x = 2x n/a
∭ triple integral integration of function of 3 n/a
variables
∬ double integral integration of function of 2 n/a
variables
∯ closed surface n/a n/a
integral
∮ closed contour / n/a n/a
line integral
[a, b] closed interval [a, b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b} n/a
∰ closed volume n/a
integral
(a, b) open interval (a, b) = {x | a < x < b} n/a
z* complex conjugate z = a+bi → z*=a-bi z* = 3 + 2i
i imaginary unit i ≡ √-1 z = 3 + 2i
∇ nabla / del gradient / divergence ∇f (x,y,z)
operator
z complex conjugate z = a+bi → z = a-bi z = 3 + 2i
x⃗ vector V⃗ =xi^+yj^+zk^ n/a
x*y convolution y(t) = x(t) * h(t) n/a
∞ lemniscate infinity symbol n/a
δ delta function n/a n/a

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Greek Alphabet Letters Used in Mathematics
Mathematicians frequently use Greek alphabets in their work to represent the variables, constants,
functions and so on. Some of the commonly used Greek symbols are listed below:

Greek Symbol Greek Letter Name English Equivalent Pronunciation

Upper Case Lower Case
Β β Beta b be-ta
Α α Alpha a al-fa
Δ δ Delta d del-ta
Γ γ Gamma g ga-ma
Ζ ζ Zeta z ze-ta
Ε ε Epsilon e ep-si-lon
Θ θ Theta th te-ta
Η η Eta h eh-ta
Κ κ Kappa k ka-pa
Ι ι Iota i io-ta
Μ μ Mu m m-yoo
Λ λ Lambda l lam-da
Ξ ξ Xi x x-ee
Ν ν Nu n noo
Ο ο Omicron o o-mee-c-ron
Π π Pi p pa-yee
Σ σ Sigma s sig-ma
Ρ ρ Rho r row
Υ υ Upsilon u oo-psi-lon
Τ τ Tau t ta-oo
Χ χ Chi ch kh-ee
Φ φ Phi ph f-ee
Ω ω Omega o o-me-ga
Ψ ψ Psi ps p-see

What is the symbol for pi?

The symbol of pi is π. It is a Greek alphabet. The value of pi is approximately equal to 3.14, and
it is considered as an irrational number. It is considered as the most widely used mathematical
constant, which is defined as the ratio of circle circumference to its diameter.

What is e symbol in mathematics?

The “e” symbol in maths represents the Euler’s number which is approximately equal to
2.71828…It is considered as one of the most important numbers in mathematics. It is an
irrational number and it cannot be represented as a simple fraction

Write down the symbols for basic arithmetic operations.

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The symbols for basic arithmetic operations are addition (+), subtraction (-), Multiplication (×),
Division (÷).

Why do we use mathematical symbols?

Mathematics is a universal language and the basics of Math are the same everywhere in the
universe. Mathematical symbols play a major role in this. The definition and the value of the
symbols are constant. For example, the Roman letter X represents the value 10 everywhere
around us.

➢ Predecessor and successor

Given any natural number, you can add 1 to that number and get the next number i.e. you get
its successor.

The successor of 16 is 16 + 1 = 17, that of 19 is 19 +1 = 20 and so on.

The number 16 comes before 17, we say that the predecessor of 17 is 17–1=16

the predecessor of 20 is 20 – 1 = 19, and so on.

Q. 3 Is there any natural number that has no predecessor?

Solution: Yes 1 is natural number that has no predecessor because predecessor of 1 is

1- 0= 0 and 0 is not a natural number.

Q.4 Is there any natural number which has no successor? Is there a last natural number?

Solution: No, you can make infinite natural numbers by adding 1 to the predecessor so all-natural
numbers has successor and there is no last natural number.

➢ WHOLE NUMBERS

The natural numbers along with zero form the collection of whole numbers.

Q.5 Are all-natural Numbers also whole numbers?

Solution: Yes.

Q.6 Are all whole numbers also natural numbers?

Solution: NO 0 is a whole number but not a natural number.

• Whole numbers include positive integers along with 0.

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 • There is no 'largest' whole number.
• Except 0, every whole number has an immediate predecessor or a number that comes
before.
• A decimal number or a fraction lies between two whole numbers, but are not whole
numbers.

TRY YOURSELF
Which of the following statements are true (T) and which are false (F)?

(a) Zero is the smallest natural number.

(b)400 is the predecessor of 399.

(c) Zero is the smallest whole number.

(d)600 is the successor of 599.

(e) All-natural numbers are whole numbers.

(F) All whole numbers are natural numbers.

(g) The predecessor of a two-digit number is never a single digit number.

(h) 1 is the smallest whole number.

(I) The natural number 1 has no predecessor.

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(j) The whole number 1 has no predecessor.

(k) The whole number 13 lies between 11 and 12.

(L) The whole number 0 has no predecessor.

(M) The successor of a two-digit number is always a two-digit number.

Properties of Whole Numbers:

Closure property: Whole numbers are closed under addition and also under multiplication.
The whole numbers are not closed under subtraction. Why?
Your subtractions maybe like this:
Take a few examples of your own and confirm
6–2=4, a whole number
7–8=? not a whole number
5 – 4=1, a whole number
3 – 9=? not a whole number
Are the whole numbers closed under division? No.
5÷7 =5/7, not a whole number
12÷3=4, a whole number
6÷5 =6/5, not a whole number
Division of a whole number by 0 is not defined.

Commutativity of addition and multiplication —:

You can add two whole numbers in any order i.e., a+b = b+a.
Where a and b are whole numbers.
You can multiply two whole numbers in any order i.e., a*b = b*a.
Where a and b are whole numbers.
Verify:
Subtraction in not commutative for whole numbers. Use at least three different pairs of
numbers to verify it.
Is (6 ÷ 3) same as (3 ÷ 6)?
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Justify it by taking few more combinations of whole numbers.
Thus, addition and multiplication are commutative for whole numbers.

Associativity of addition and multiplication —:

Observe the following diagrams:
(a) (2 + 3) + 4 = 5 + 4 = 9
(b) 2 + (3 + 4) = 2 + 7 = 9.
So, from above observation let a, b and c are whole numbers
Then if (a+b) + c = a+ (b+c). Then it holds the property of associativity of addition.
Similarly, for Multiplication if (a*b) *c = a*(b*c) then it holds the property of associativity of
multiplication.
Think, discuss and write
Is (16 ÷ 4) ÷ 2 = 16 ÷ (4 ÷ 2)?
Q. Is there an associative property for division?
Ans No.
Discuss with your friends. Think of (28 ÷ 14) ÷ 2 and 28 ÷ (14 ÷ 2).

Distributivity of multiplication over addition —:

Does this show that 6 × (5 + 3) = (6 × 5) + (6 × 3)?
6× (5+3) = 6×8=48
(6×5) + (6×3) = 30+18= 48
So, this is distributive of multiplication over addition.
A×(B+C) = (A×B) + (A×C).
Where A, B and C are whole numbers.
Similarly, you will find that 2 × (3 + 5) = (2 × 3) + (2 × 5).
This is known as distributivity of multiplication over addition.

Identity (for addition and multiplication)

How is the collection of whole numbers different from the collection of natural numbers? It is
just the presence of 'zero' in the collection of whole numbers. This number 'zero' has a special
role in addition.

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When you add zero to any whole number what is the result?
It is the same whole number again! Zero is called an identity for addition of whole numbers or
additive identity for whole numbers.
For Example, = 7+0=0 12+0=0
So, a+0=0 where a is whole number.
Similar is the case for a multiplicative identity for whole numbers.
Observe this table.
7×1=7
12×1=12.
You are right. 1 is the identity for multiplication of whole numbers or multiplicative identity for
whole numbers.
Q A vendor supplies 32 liters of milk to a hotel in the morning and 68litres of milk in the
evening. If the milk costs Rs 15 per liter, how much money is due to the vendor per day?
What have we discussed?
The numbers 1, 2, 3 ... which we use for counting are known as natural numbers.
If you add 1 to a natural number, we get its successor. If you subtract 1 from a natural
number, you get its predecessor.
Every natural number has a successor. Every natural number except 1 has a
predecessor.
If we add the number zero to the collection of natural numbers, we get the collection of
whole numbers. Thus, the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3 ... form the collection of whole numbers.
Every whole number has a successor. Every whole number except zero has a
predecessor.
All-Natural numbers are whole numbers, but all whole numbers are not natural
numbers.
We take a line, mark a point on it and label it 0. We then mark out points to the right of
0, at equal intervals. Label them as 1, 2, 3 .... Thus, we have a number line with the
whole numbers represented on it. We can easily perform the number operations of
addition, subtraction and multiplication on the number line.
Addition corresponds to moving to the right on the number line, whereas subtraction
corresponds to moving to the left. Multiplication corresponds to making jumps of equal
distance starting from zero.
Adding two whole numbers always gives a whole number. Similarly, multiplying two
whole numbers always gives a whole number. We say that whole numbers are closed

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 under addition and also under multiplication. However, whole numbers are not closed
under subtraction and under division.
Division by zero is not defined
Zero is the identity for addition of whole numbers. The whole number 1 is the identity
for multiplication of whole numbers.
You can add two whole numbers in any order. You can multiply two whole numbers in
any order. We say that addition and multiplication are commutative for whole numbers.
Addition and multiplication, both, are associative for whole numbers.
Multiplication is distributive over addition for whole numbers.
Commutativity, associativity and distributivity properties of whole numbers are useful in
simplifying calculations and we use them without being aware of them.

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 PLAYING WITH NUMBERS

If Division is exact then in these case Dividend = Divisor× Quotient.

If not exact then Dividend = Quotient × Divisor + Remainder.

The exact divisors of any number are called Factor

For Example, Factors of 6 are 1, 2, 3, 6.
Thus, 1, 2, 3 and 6 are exact divisors of 6. They are called the factors of 6.
Factors are whole numbers that are multiplied together to produce another number. The original
numbers are factors of the product number. If a x b = c then a and b are factors of c. Say you wanted to
find the factors of 16. You would find all pairs of numbers that when multiplied together resulted in 16.

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Finds that the number 4 can be written as: 4 = 1 × 4; 4 = 2 × 2;4 = 4 × 1 and knows that the
numbers 1, 2 and 4 are exact divisors of 4.
These numbers are called factors of 4.

A factor of a number is an exact divisor of that number.

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Multiples Chart

We can say that a number is a multiple of each of its factors.

➢ Conclusion about Factors and Multiples

1. Is there any number which occurs as a factor of every number? Yes. It is 1.
For Example6 = 1 × 6, 18 = 1 × 18 and so on. Check it for a few more numbers.
We can say 1 is a factor of every number.

2. Can 7 be a factor of itself? Yes. You can write 7 as 7 = 7 × 1. What about 10 and 15?
you will find that every number can be expressed in this way.
We say that every number is a factor of itself.

3. What are the factors of 16? They are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16. Out of these factors do you find
any factor which does not divide 16? Try it for 20; 36.
You will find that every factor of a number is an exact divisor of that number.

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 4. What are the factors of 34? They are 1, 2, 17 and 34 itself. Out of these which is the
greatest factor? It is 34 itself. The other factors 1, 2 and 17 are less than 34. Try to
check this for 64,81 and 56.
We say that every factor is less than or equal to the given number.

5. The number 76 has 5 factors. How many factors does 136 or 96 have? You will find
that you are able to count the number of factors of each of these. Even if the
numbers are as large as 10576, 25642 etc. or larger, you can still count the number
of factors of such numbers, (though you may find it difficult to Factorize such
numbers).
We say that number of factors of a given number are finite.

6. What are the multiples of 7? Obviously, 7, 14, 21, 28 ... You will find that each of
these multiples is greater than or equal to 7. Will it happen with each number? Check
this for the multiples of 6, 9 and 10.
We find that every multiple of a number is greater than or equal to that number.

7. Write the multiples of 5. They are 5, 10, 15, 20, ... Do you think this list will end
anywhere? No! The list is endless. Try it with multiples of6,7 etc.
We find that the number of multiples of a given number is infinite.

8. Can 7 be a multiple of itself? Yes, because 7 = 7×1. Will it be true for other numbers
also? Try it with 3, 12 and 16.
You will find that every number is a multiple of itself.

The factors of 6 are 1, 2, 3 and 6. Also, 1+2+3+6 = 12 = 2 × 6.

We find that the sum of the factors of 6 is twice the number 6.
All the factors of 28 are 1, 2,4, 7, 14 and 28. Adding these we have, 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 +
14 + 28 = 56 = 2 × 28.
The sum of the factors of 28 is equal to twice the number 28.
A number for which sum of all its factors is equal to twice the number
is called a perfect number.
The smallest perfect number is 6.
The numbers 6 and 28 are perfect numbers.
Example 1: Write all the factors of 68.
Solution: We note that 68 = 1 × 68 68 = 2 × 34 68 = 4 × 17 68 = 17 × 4
Stop here, because 4 and 17 have occurred earlier.
Thus, all the factors of 68 are 1, 2, 4, 17, 34 and 68.

Example 2: Find the factors of 36.

Solution :36 = 1 × 36 36 = 2 × 18 36 = 3 × 12 36 = 4 × 9 36 = 6 × 6
Stop here, because both the factors (6) are same.
Thus, the factors are 1, 2,3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18 and 36.

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 PRIME NUMBERS AND COMPOSITE NUMBERS —:
The numbers other than 1 whose only factors are 1 and the number
itself are called Prime numbers.
OR A number which has only two factors.
There are numbers having more than two factors like 4, 6, 8, 9, 10 and so on.
These numbers are composite numbers.
Smallest Composite Number is 4.
Numbers having more than two factors are called Composite numbers.

REMEMBER
1 is neither a prime nor a composite number.
There are 25 prime numbers from 1 to 100: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23,
29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97.

Without actually checking the factors of a number, we can find prime numbers from 1
to 100 with an easier method. This method was given by Greek Mathematician
Eratosthenes, in the third century B.C.

Page | 42
 Step 1: Cross out 1 because it is not a prime number.
Step 2: Encircle 2, cross out all the multiples of 2, other than 2 itself, i.e., 4, 6,8 and
so on.
Step 3: You will find that the next uncrossed number is 3. Encircle 3 and cross out all
the multiples of 3, other than 3 itself.
Step 4: The next uncrossed number is 5. Encircle 5 and cross out all the multiples of
5 other than 5 itself.
Step 5: Continue this process till all the numbers in the list are either encircled or
crossed out. All the encircled numbers are prime numbers. All the crossed-out
numbers other than 1 are composite numbers.
This method is called the Sieve of Eratosthenes.

Even and Odd numbers —

Do you observe any pattern in the numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, ...? You will find
that each of them is a multiple of 2.
These are called even numbers.
The rest of the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11...are called odd numbers.
FACTS —
(a) Which is the smallest even number?
It is 2.
Which is the smallest prime number? It is again 2.
Thus, 2 is the smallest prime number which is even.

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 (b) The other prime numbers are 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, ... Do you find any even number in
this list? Of course not, they are all odd.
Thus, we can say that every prime number except 2 is odd.

Tests for Divisibility of Numbers

Divisibility Rule of 2

If a number is even or a number whose last digit is an even number i.e. 2,4,6,8 including 0, it is
always completely divisible by 2.

Example: 508 is an even number and is divisible by 2 but 509 is not an even number, hence it is
not divisible by 2. Procedure to check whether 508 is divisible by 2 or not is as follows:

• Consider the number 508

• Just take the last digit 8 and divide it by 2
• If the last digit 8 is divisible by 2 then the number 508 is also divisible by 2.

Divisibility Rules for 3

Divisibility rule for 3 states that a number is completely divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is
divisible by 3.

Consider a number, 308. To check whether 308 is divisible by 3 or not, take sum of the digits
(i.e., 3+0+8= 11). Now check whether the sum is divisible by 3 or not. If the sum is a multiple of
3, then the original number is also divisible by 3. Here, since 11 is not divisible by 3, 308 is also
not divisible by 3.

Similarly, 516 is divisible by 3 completely as the sum of its digits i.e., 5+1+6=12, is a multiple of
3.

Divisibility Rule of 4

If the last two digits of a number are divisible by 4, then that number is a multiple of 4 and is
divisible by 4 completely.

Example: Take the number 2308. Consider the last two digits i.e. 08. As 08 is divisible by 4, the
original number 2308 is also divisible by 4.

Divisibility Rule of 5

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Numbers, which last with digits, 0 or 5 are always divisible by 5.
Example: 10, 10000, 10000005, 595, 396524850, etc.

Divisibility Rule of 6

Numbers which are divisible by both 2 and 3 are divisible by 6. That is, if the last digit of the
given number is even and the sum of its digits is a multiple of 3, then the given number is also a
multiple of 6.

Example: 630, the number is divisible by 2 as the last digit is 0.

The sum of digits is 6+3+0 = 9, which is also divisible by 3.
Hence, 630 is divisible by 6.

Divisibility Rules for 7

The rule for divisibility by 7 is a bit complicated which can be understood by the steps given
below:

Example: Is 1073 divisible by 7?

• From the rule stated remove 3 from the number and double it, which becomes 6.
• Remaining number becomes 107, so 107-6 = 101.
• Repeating the process one more time, we have 1 x 2 = 2.
• Remaining number 10 – 2 = 8.
• As 8 is not divisible by 7, hence the number 1073 is not divisible by 7.

Divisibility Rule of 8

If the last three digits of a number are divisible by 8, then the number is completely divisible by
8.

Example: Take number 24344. Consider the last two digits i.e. 344. As 344 is divisible by 8,
the original number 24344 is also divisible by 8.

Divisibility Rule of 9

The rule for divisibility by 9 is similar to divisibility rule for 3. That is, if the sum of digits of the
number is divisible by 9, then the number itself is divisible by 9.

Example: Consider 78532, as the sum of its digits (7+8+5+3+2) is 25, which is not divisible by
9, hence 78532 is not divisible by 9.

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Divisibility Rule of 10

Divisibility rule for 10 states that any number whose last digit is 0, is divisible by 10.

Example: 10, 20, 30, 1000, 5000, 60000, etc.

Divisibility Rules for 11

If the difference of the sum of alternative digits of a number is divisible by 11, then that number
is divisible by 11 completely.

In order to check whether a number like 2143 is divisible by 11, below is the following
procedure.

• Group the alternative digits i.e., digits which are in odd places together and digits in even
places together. Here 24 and 13 are two groups.
• Take the sum of the digits of each group i.e., 2+4=6 and 1+3= 4
• Now find the difference of the sums; 6-4=2
• If the difference is divisible by 11, then the original number is also divisible by 11. Here
2 is the difference which is not divisible by 11.
• Therefore, 2143 is not divisible by 11.

A few more conditions are there to test the divisibility of a number by 11. They are explained
here with the help of examples:

If the number of digits of a number is even, then add the first digit and subtract the last
digit from the rest of the number.

Example: 3784

Number of digits = 4

Now, 78 + 3 – 4 = 77 = 7 × 11

Thus, 3784 is divisible by 11.

If the number of digits of a number is odd, then subtract the first and the last digits from
the rest of the number.

Example: 82907

Number of digits = 5

Now, 290 – 8 – 7 = 275 × 11

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Thus, 82907 is divisible by 11.

Form the groups of two digits from the right end digit to the left end of the number and
add the resultant groups. If the sum is a multiple of 11, then the number is divisible by 11.

Example: 3774: = 37 + 74 = 111: = 1 + 11 = 12

3774 is not divisible by 11.

253: = 2 + 53 = 55 = 5 × 11

253 is divisible by 11.

Subtract the last digit of the number from the rest of the number. If the resultant value is a
multiple of 11, then the original number will be divisible by 11.

Example: 9647

9647: = 964 – 7 = 957

957: = 95 – 7 = 88 = 8 × 11

Thus, 9647 is divisible by 11.

Divisibility Rule of 12

If the number is divisible by both 3 and 4, then the number is divisible by 12 exactly.

Example: 5864

Sum of the digits = 5 + 8 + 6 + 4 = 23 (not a multiple of 3)

Last two digits = 64 (divisible by 4)

The given number 5846 is divisible by 4 but not by 3; hence, it is not divisible by 12.

Divisibility Rules for 13

For any given number, to check if it is divisible by 13, we have to add four times of the last digit
of the number to the remaining number and repeat the process until you get a two-digit
number. Now check if that two-digit number is divisible by 13 or not. If it is divisible, then the
given number is divisible by 13.

For example: 2795 → 279 + (5 x 4)

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→ 279 + (20)

→ 299

→ 29 + (9 x 4)

→ 29 + 36

→65

Number 65 is divisible by 13, 13 x 5 = 65.

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Common Factors and Common Multiples

What are the factors of 4 and 18?

The factors of 4 are 1, 2 and 4.

The factors of 18 are 1, 2, 3, 6, 9 and 18.

The numbers 1 and 2 are the factors of both 4 and 18.

They are the common factors of 4 and 18.

What are the common factors of 4 and 15?

These two numbers have only 1 as the common factor.

What about 7 and 16?

Two numbers having only 1 as a common factor are called co-prime

numbers. Thus, 4 and 15 are co-prime numbers.

What are the multiples of 4 and 6?

The multiples of 4 are 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, ... (write a few more) The multiples of 6 are 6,
12, 18, 24, 30, 36, ... (write a few more) Out of these, are there any numbers which
occur in both the lists?

We observe that 12, 24, 36, ... are multiples of both 4 and 6. Can you write a few more?

They are called the common multiples of 4 and 6.

FACTS —

1. If a number is divisible by another number then it is divisible by each of the

factors of that number. Can you give a factor of 18? It is 9. Name a factor of 9?
It is 3. Is 3 a factor of 18?

Yes, it is.

2. The number 80 is divisible by 4 and 5. It is also divisible by4 × 5 = 20, and 4 and
5 are co-primes. Similarly, 60 is divisible by 3 and 5 which are co-primes. 60 is
also divisible by 3 × 5 = 15.

If a number is divisible by two co-prime numbers then it is divisible by their

product also.

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 3. The numbers 16 and 20 are both divisible by 4. The number 16 + 20 = 36 is also
divisible by 4. Check this for other pairs of numbers. Try this for other common
divisors of 16 and 20.

If two given numbers are divisible by a number, then their sum is also
divisible by that number.

4. The numbers 35 and 20 are both divisible by 5. Is their difference35 – 20 = 15

also divisible by 5? Try this for other pairs of numbers also.

If two given numbers are divisible by a number, then their difference is also
divisible by that number.

Take different pairs of numbers and check the four rules given above.

What is Prime Factorization?

Prime factorization or integer factorization of a number is breaking a number down into the set
of prime numbers which multiply together to result in the original number. This is also known as
prime decomposition.

"Prime Factorization" is finding which prime numbers multiply together to make the
original number.

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In all the above factorizations of 24, we ultimately arrive at only one factorization 2 × 2 × 2 × 3.
In this factorization the only factors 2 and 3 are prime numbers. Such a factorization of a
number is called a prime factorization.

Highest Common Factor —:

The Highest Common Factor (HCF) of two or more given numbers is the highest (or greatest) of
their common factors. It is also known as Greatest Common Divisor (GCD).

We can find the common factors of any two numbers. We now try to find the highest of these
common factors.

What are the common factors of 12 and 16? They are 1, 2 and 4.

What is the highest of these common factors? It is 4.

The HCF of 20, 28 and 36 can also be found by prime factorization of these numbers as follows:

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The common factor of 20, 28 and 36 is 2 (occur twice). Thus, HCF of 20,28 and 36
is 2 × 2 = 4.

Lowest Common Multiple —:

The Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) of two or more given numbers is the lowest
(or smallest or least) of their common multiples.

What are the common multiples of 4 and 6? They are 12, 24, 36…. Which is the
lowest of these? It is 12.

We say that lowest common multiple of 4 and 6 is12. It is the smallest number
that both the numbers are factors of this number.

List of HCF and LCM Properties

Property 1

The product of LCM and HCF of any two given natural numbers is equivalent to the product of
the given numbers.

LCM × HCF = Product of the Numbers

Suppose A and B are two numbers, then.

LCM (A & B) × HCF (A & B) = A × B

Example: If 3 and 8 are two numbers.

LCM (3,8) = 24

HCF (3,8) = 1

LCM (3,8) x HCF (3,8) = 24 x 1 = 24

Also, 3 x 8 = 24

Hence, proved.

Note: This property is applicable for only two numbers.

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Property 2

HCF of co-prime numbers is 1. Therefore, LCM of given co-prime numbers is equal to the
product of the numbers.

LCM of Co-prime Numbers = Product of The Numbers

Example: Let us take two coprime numbers, such as 21 and 22.

LCM of 21 and 22 = 462

Product of 21 and 22 = 462

LCM (21, 22) = 21 x 22

Property 3

H.C.F. and L.C.M. of Fractions:

LCM of fractions = LCM of numerators/ HCF of denominators

HCF of fractions = HCF of numerators/ LCM of denominators

Example: Let us take two fractions 4/9 and 6/21.

4 and 6 are the numerators & 9 and 12 are the denominators

LCM (4, 6) = 12

HCF (4, 6) = 2

LCM (9, 21) = 63

HCF (9, 21) = 3

Now as per the formula, we can write:

LCM (4/9, 6/21) = 12/3 = 4

HCF (4/9, 6/21) = 2/63

Property 4

HCF of any two or more numbers is never greater than any of the given numbers.

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Example: HCF of 4 and 8 is 4

Here, one number is 4 itself and another number 8 is greater than HCF (4, 8), i.e.,4.

Property 5

LCM of any two or more numbers is never smaller than any of the given numbers.

Example: LCM of 4 and 8 is 8 which is not smaller to any of them.

Solved Problems

Example 1: Prove that: LCM (9 & 12) × HCF (9 & 12) = Product of 9 and 12

Solution:
9 = 3 × 3 = 3²
12 = 2 × 2 × 3 = 2² × 3
LCM of 9 and 12 = 2² × 3² = 4 × 9 = 36

HCF of 9 and 12 = 3

LCM (9 & 12) × HCF (9 & 12) = 36 × 3 = 108

Product of 9 and 12 = 9 × 12 = 108

Hence, LCM (9 & 12) × HCF (9 & 12) = 9 × 12 = 108. Proved.

Example 2: 8 and 9 are two co-prime numbers. Using these numbers verify, LCM of Co-
prime Numbers = Product of The Numbers.

Solution: LCM and HCF of 8 and 9:

8 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 2³

9 = 3 × 3 = 3²

LCM of 8 and 9 = 2³ × 3² = 8 × 9 = 72

HCF of 8 and 9 = 1

Product of 8 and 9 = 8 × 9 = 72

Hence, LCM of co-prime numbers = Product of the numbers. Therefore, verified.

Example 3: Find the HCF of 1225, 910, 1835, 2140.

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Solution: Solution:
12 = 2 × 2 × 3
9=3×3
18 = 2 × 3 × 3
21 = 3 × 7
HCF (12, 9, 18, 21) = 3
25 = 5 × 5
10 = 2 × 5
35 = 5 × 7
40 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5
LCM (25, 10, 35, 40) = 5 × 5 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 7 = 1400
The required HCF = HCF (12, 9, 18, 21)/ LCM (25, 10, 35, 40) = 3/1400.

HCF and LCM Relation

The followings are the relation between HCF and LCM. Go through the relation between HCF
and LCM, solve the problem using the relations in an easy way.

(I) The product of LCM and HCF of the given natural numbers is equivalent to the
product of the given numbers.

From the given property, LCM × HCF of a number = Product of the Numbers

Consider two numbers A and B, then.

Therefore, LCM (A, B) × HCF (A, B) = A × B

Example 1: Show that the LCM (6, 15) × HCF (6, 15) = Product (6, 15)

Solution: LCM and HCF of 6 and 15:

6=2×3

15 = 3 x 5

LCM of 6 and 15 = 30

HCF of 6 and 15 = 3

LCM (6, 15) × HCF (6, 15) = 30 × 3 = 90

Product of 6 and 15 = 6 × 15 = 90

Hence, LCM (6, 15) × HCF (6, 15) = Product (6, 15) = 90

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(ii) The LCM of given co-prime numbers is equal to the product of the numbers since the
HCF of co-prime numbers is 1.

So, LCM of Co-prime Numbers = Product of The Numbers

Example 2: 17 and 23 are two co-prime numbers. By using the given numbers verify that,

LCM of given co-prime Numbers = Product of the given Numbers

Solution: LCM and HCF of 17 and 23:

17 = 1 x 7

23 = 1 x 23

LCM of 17 and 23 = 391

HCF of 17 and 23 = 1

Product of 17 and 23 = 17 × 23 = 391

Hence, LCM of co-prime numbers = Product of the numbers

(iii) H.C.F. and L.C.M. of Fractions

LCM of fractions = LCM of Numerators / HCF of Denominators

HCF of fractions = HCF of Numerators / LCM of Denominators

Example 3: Find the LCM of the fractions 1 / 2, 3 / 8, 3 / 4

Solution:

LCM of fractions = LCM of Numerators/HCF of Denominators

LCM of fractions = LCM (1,3,3)/HCF (2,8,4) =3/2

Example 4: Find the HCF of the fractions 3 / 5, 6 / 11, 9 / 20

HCF of fractions HCF of Numerators/LCM of Denominators

HCF of fractions = HCF (3,6,9)/LCM (5,11,20) =3/220

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 INTEGERS

Integers are the numbers which can be positive, negative or zero, but cannot be a fraction. These
numbers are used to perform various arithmetic operations, like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.

Facts About Integers

1. Integers were introduced by a man named Arber mouth Holst in 1563.

2. The Chinese were the first known culture to use Negative numbers.
3. In Latin, the word integer means whole and complete, figuratively. Untainted,
upright, and untouched, literally. The root word "in" in integer means "to touch."
4. The symbol for integers is Z, and Z stands for Zahlen, which is German for integers.
5. Negative numbers were finally accepted into the number line in the nineteenth
century.

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 THREE TYPES OF INTEGERS

• Zero (0)
• Positive Integers (Natural numbers)
• Negative Integers (Additive inverse of Natural Numbers)

Zero— Zero is neither a positive nor a negative integer. It is neutral number i.e., zero has no
sign (+ or -).

Positive Integers — Positive integers are those numbers which are positive in nature. It is also
represented by a plus sign (+). These integers lie on the right side of zero in the number line.
Hence, all positive integers are greater than zero.

Example: 1,2, 200, 5666,99999999, etc.

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Negative Integers

In contrast to positive integers, negative integers are numbers symbolized with a minus sign (-).
Negative integers are represented to the left side of zero on a number line.

Example: …., -99999, -150, -10, -1.

Properties of Integers

The major Properties of Integers are:

1. Closure Property
2. Associative Property
3. Commutative Property
4. Distributive Property
5. Additive Inverse Property
6. Multiplicative Inverse Property
7. Identity Property

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Closure Property

According to the closure property of integers, when two integers are added or multiplied
together, it results in an integer only. If a and b are integers, then:

❖ a + b = integer > a-b = integer

❖ a x b = integer, but a divides b is not compulsory an integer like example 1÷2 = 0.5 which is not
an integer.

Examples:

2 + 5 = 7 (is an integer) 2 – 7 = - 5 (is an integer)

2 x 5 = 10 (is an integer)

Commutative Property

According to the commutative property of integers, if a and b are two integers, then:

• a+b=b+a
• axb=bxa

Examples:

3 + 8 = 8 + 3 = 11

3 x 8 = 8 x 3 = 24

But for subtraction and division, commutative property does not obey.

Associative Property

As per the associative property, if a, b and c are integers, then:

• a+(b+c) = (a+b) +c
• ax(bxc) = (axb)xc

Examples:

2+(3+4) = (2+3) +4 = 9

2x (3×4) = (2×3) x4 = 24

This property is applicable for addition and multiplication operations only.

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Distributive property

According to the distributive property of integers, if a, b and c are integers, then:

a x (b + c) = a x b + a x c

Example: Prove that: 3 x (5 + 1) = 3 x 5 + 3 x 1

LHS = 3 x (5 + 1) = 3 x 6 = 18

RHS = 3 x 5 + 3 x 1 = 15 + 3 = 18

Since, LHS = RHS

Hence, proved.

Additive Inverse Property

If a is an integer, then as per additive inverse property of integers,

a + (-a) = 0

Hence, -a is the additive inverse of integer a.

Multiplicative inverse Property

If a is an integer, then as per multiplicative inverse property of integers,

a x (1/a) = 1

Hence, 1/a is the multiplicative inverse of integer a.

Identity Property of Integers

The identity elements of integers are:

1. a+0 = a 2. a x 1 = a

Example: -100, -12, -1, 0, 2, 1000, 989 etc.

As a set, it can be represented as follows:

Z= {……-8, -7, -6, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ……}

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Applications

Integers are not just numbers on a paper; they have many real-life applications. Effect of positive
and negative numbers in the real world is different. They are mainly used to symbolize two
contradicting situations.

For example, when the temperature is above zero, positive numbers are used to denote
temperature, whereas negative numbers indicate the temperature below zero. They help one to
compare and measure two things like how big or small or more or fewer things are and hence can
quantify things.

Some real-life situations where integers come into play are player’s scores in golf, football and
hockey tournaments, the rating of movies or songs, in banks credits and debits are represented as
positive and negative amounts respectively.

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 Fraction

Fractions represent equal parts of a whole or a collection.

Fraction of a whole: When we divide a whole into equal parts, each part is a fraction of the whole.

For example,

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Fraction of a collection: Fractions also represent parts of a set or collection.

For example,

There are total of 5 children.

3 out of 5 are girls. So, the fraction of girls is three-fifths (3⁄5).

2 out of 5 are boys. So, the fraction of boys is two-fifths (2⁄5).

Fraction notation
A fraction has two parts. The number on the top of the line is called the numerator. It tells how many
equal parts of the whole or collection are taken. The number below the line is called the
denominator. It shows the total divisible number of equal parts the whole into or the total number of
equal parts which are there in a collection.

Fractions on a number line: Fractions can be represented on a number line, as shown below.

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For examples,

Real life examples —:

The most common examples of fractions from real life are equal slices of pizza, fruit, cake, a bar of
chocolate, etc.

Non-examples

When the parts of the whole are unevenly divided, they don’t form fractions.

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 Types of fractions
Unit fractions Proper fractions

Fractions with numerator 1 are called unit fractions. Fractions in which the numerator is less than the
denominator are called proper fractions.

Improper fractions Mixed fractions

Fractions in which the numerator is more than or equal to Mixed fractions consist of a whole number along with a
the denominator are called improper fractions. proper fraction.

Equivalent Fractions Liked Fraction

The fractions that have different numerator and The group of two or more fractions that have exactly
denominator but are equal to the same value. the same denominator are called like fractions.

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https://www.splashlearn.com/math-vocabulary/fractions/fraction (FRACTION PART BY THESE WEBSITE)

Fun Facts

• The word ‘fraction’ has been derived from the Latin ‘fractus’ which means “broken”.
• Fraction has been into existence from the Egyptian era which is known to be one of the oldest
civilizations in the world. However, fractions were not regarded as numbers, in fact, they were
used to compare the whole numbers with one another.

FRACTION CHART

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SIMPLEST FORM OF FRACTION —

A fraction is said to be in the simplest (or lowest) form if its numerator and
denominator have no common factor except 1.

A fraction is in simplest form when the top and bottom cannot be any smaller, while still
being whole numbers. To simplify a fraction: divide the top and bottom by the greatest
number that will divide both numbers exactly (they must stay whole numbers).

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Adding or subtracting fractions with the same denominator

While adding or subtracting two fractions; we need to make sure that the denominators are the
same.

Steps:

• Add or subtract the numerators.

• Keep the denominator the same.
• Reduce the answer, if possible.

Example: Solve 1⁄ 1⁄
4+ 4

Example: Subtract 1⁄4 from 3⁄4

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Adding or subtracting fractions with the different denominators:

If the denominators are not the same:

• First, make them the same

• Then add or subtract like fractions with the same denominators.

Example: To solve 1⁄4 + 1⁄2, we first make the denominators the same.

We change the denominator 2 and make it 4 by multiplying it by 2. However, we need to

multiply the numerator and denominator both by 2 to keep the value of the fraction
unchanged.
Multiplying 1⁄2 ✕ 2⁄2 = 2⁄4. Since the denominators are the same, we can now add both the
fractions.

Similarly, we use these rules for subtraction.

Multiplying Fractions — To multiply two fractions we simply multiply the numerators and
denominators.

Example:

2⁄
3 ✕ 3⁄15 =?

First, simplify the fraction 3⁄15 to its lowest term.

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Dividing Fractions

While dividing two fractions:

• Inverse the second fraction, that is, interchange its numerator and denominator to get
the reciprocal.
• Multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal of the second fraction.

Example:

Solving improper fractions:

Fractions with a numerator larger than the denominator are called improper fractions. When we solve
improper fractions, the result can be a mixed number (a fraction with a whole number and a proper
fraction).

Example:

38⁄
7 =?

Divide the numerator by the denominator.

38 ÷ 7 = 5 Quotient and 3 Remainder

Write down the whole number answer = 5

Then write down the remainder above the denominator = 5 3⁄7

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Therefore, 38⁄7 = 5 3⁄7

Thus, by solving an improper fraction 38⁄7 we get a mixed number 5 3⁄7 .

Fun Facts

• We can multiply two fractions with different denominators, but we cannot add and
subtract them.

NEW TOPIC

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Ordering fractions in ascending order

• Ordering fractions with same denominators

For the fractions having the same denominator, the fraction with the smallest numerator is the
smallest.

Example: Arrange 3⁄7, 2⁄7, 5⁄7, 1⁄7 in ascending order.

Comparing the numerators, we get 1 < 2 < 3 < 5

Therefore, 1⁄7 < 2⁄7 < 3⁄7 < 5⁄7

• Ordering fractions with same numerators

When the fractions have the same numerator, the fraction with the highest denominator is the
smallest.

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 Example: Arrange 3⁄7, 3⁄8, 3⁄5, 3⁄4 in ascending order.

Here, the numerator is 3 in all the fractions. So, we compare the denominator.

On comparing the denominators, we get: 4 < 5 < 7 < 8

Therefore, 3⁄8 < 3⁄7 < 3⁄5 < 3⁄4

• Ordering fractions with different numerators and denominators

Convert the fractions to the like denominators (or numerators) and then compare and order
them.

Example: Arrange 2⁄5, 4⁄6, 3⁄5 and 1⁄3 in ascending order.

Here, the denominators are 5, 6 and 3.

LCM of 3, 5 and 6 is 30.

So, we find the equivalent fractions.

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How to arrange fractions in ascending and descending order?

Arranging fractions in ascending and descending order:

There are two methods to arrange the fractions:

First method:

Take the LCM of the denominators of the fractions and do it for all the given fractions. Now
since all the denominators are the same, compare the numerator values of like fractions
Arrange the fractions in increasing order with its respective fractions given in the problem. In
ascending order arrange it from smaller to bigger number. For descending numbers do it a vice
versa.

Second method: Convert the fractions into decimals. Arrange the numbers in increasing order
for ascending order and for descending numbers do it a vice versa.

Summary About Fraction

1. (a) A fraction is a number representing a part of a whole. The whole may be a single object or
a group of objects.

(b) When expressing a situation of counting parts to write a fraction, it must be ensured that all
parts are equal.

2. In 5/7, 5 is called the numerator and 7 is called the denominator.

3. Fractions can be shown on a number line. Every fraction has a point associated with it on the
number line.

4. In a proper fraction, the numerator is less than the denominator. The fractions, where the
numerator is greater than the denominator is called improper fractions.

An improper fraction can be written as a combination of a whole and a part, and such fraction
then called mixed fractions.

5. Each proper or improper fraction has many equivalent fractions. To find an equivalent
fraction of a given fraction, we may multiply or divide both the numerator and the denominator
of the given fraction by the same number.

6. A fraction is said to be in the simplest (or lowest) form if its numerator and the denominator
have no common factor except 1.

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 Decimals
In Algebra, decimals are one of the types of numbers, which has a whole number and the fractional part
separated by a decimal point. The dot present between the whole number and fraction part is called the
decimal point.

For example, 34.5 is a decimal number.

Here, 34 is a whole number part and 5 is the fractional part.

“.”is the decimal point.

Let us discuss some other examples. Here is the number “thirty-four and seven-tenths” written as a
decimal number:

The decimal point goes between Ones and Tenths

34.7 has 3 Tens, 4 Ones and 7 Tenths

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Types of Decimal Numbers

Decimal Numbers may be of different kinds, namely

Recurring Decimal Numbers (Repeating or Non-Terminating Decimals)

Example-

3.125125 (Finite)

3.121212121212…. (Infinite)

Non-Recurring Decimal Numbers (Non-Repeating or Terminating Decimals): Example:

3.2376 (Finite)

3.137654…. (Infinite)

Pure Recurring Decimals: A decimal in which all the digits in the decimal part are repeated, is
called a pure recurring decimal.

Mixed Recurring Decimals: A decimal in which some of the digits in the decimal part are
repeated and the rest are not repeated, is called a mixed recurring decimal.

Decimal Fraction- It represents the fraction whose denominator in powers of ten.

Example:

1. 81.75 = 8175/100 2. 32.425 = 32425/1000

Converting the Decimal Number into Decimal Fraction:

For the decimal point place “1” in the denominator and remove the decimal point.

“1” is followed by a number of zeros equal to the number of digits following the decimal point.

For Example:

8 1. 7 5

↓↓↓

100

81.75 = 8175/100

8 represents the power of 101 that is the tenths position.

1 represents the power of 100 that is the Units position.

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7 represents the power of 10-1 that is the one-tenths position.

5 represents the power of 10-2 that is the one-hundredths position.

So that is how each digit is represented by a particular power of 10 in the decimal number.

Place Value in Decimals

The place value system is used to define the position of a digit in a number which helps to determine its
value. When we write specific numbers, the position of each digit is important.

Example:

For instance, let’s consider the number 456.

The position of “6” is in One’s place, which means 6 ones (i.e., 6).

The position of “5” is in the Ten’s place, which means 5 tens (i.e., fifty).

The position of “4” is in the Hundred’s place, which means 4 hundred.

As we go left, each position becomes ten times greater. Hence, we read it as “Four hundred fifty-six”.

As we move left, each position is 10 times bigger!

Tens are 10 times bigger than Ones.

Hundreds are 10 times bigger than Tens.

And

Each time we move right every position becomes 10 times smaller from Hundred’s to Ten’s, to Ones

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But if we continue past Ones?

What are 10 times smaller than Ones?

110ths (Tenths) are!

Before that, we should first put a decimal point,

So, we already know that where we put that decimal point.

We say the above example as four hundred and fifty-six and eight-tenths but we usually just say four
hundred and fifty-six point eight.

The power of 10 can be found using the following Place Value Chart:

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The digits to the left of the decimal point are multiplied with the positive powers of ten in increasing
order from right to left.

The digits to the right of the decimal point are multiplied with the negative powers of 10 in increasing
order from left to right.

Following the same example 81.75

The decimal expansion of this is:

{(8*10) +(1*1)} + {(7*0.1) +(5*0.01)}

Where each number is multiplied by its associated power of ten.

Properties of Decimals

The important properties of decimal numbers under multiplication and division operations are as
follows:

❖ If any two decimal numbers are multiplied in any order, the product remains the same.
❖ If a whole number and a decimal number are multiplied in any order, the product remains the
same.
❖ If a decimal fraction is multiplied by 1, the product is the decimal fraction itself.
❖ If a decimal fraction is multiplied by 0, the product is zero (0).
❖ If a decimal number is divided by 1, the quotient is the decimal number.
❖ If a decimal number is divided by the same number, the quotient is 1.
❖ If 0 is divided by any decimal, the quotient is 0.
❖ The division of a decimal number by 0 is not possible, as the reciprocal of 0 does not exist.

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Arithmetic Operation on Decimals

Like integers, the arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division operation
can be performed on decimal numbers. Now, let us discuss important tips while performing arithmetic
operations.

Addition

While adding decimal numbers, line up the decimal points of the given numbers and add the numbers. If
a decimal point is not visible (i.e., whole numbers), the decimal is behind the number.

Subtraction

Similar to the addition of decimal numbers, line up the decimal point of the given numbers, and subtract
the values. To perform the arithmetic operation, use place holding zeros for our reference.

Multiplication

Multiply the given numbers like integers, as if the decimal point is not present. Find the product and
count up how many numbers are present after the decimal point in both the numbers. The count
represents how many numbers are required after the decimal point in the product value.

Division

To simply divide the decimal numbers, move the decimal point in the numbers such that the number
becomes the whole numbers. Now, perform the division operation like the integer division.

Decimal to Fraction Conversion

The conversion of decimal to fraction or fraction to decimal values can be performed easily. Now, we
will discuss both the conversion methods below:

Decimal to Fraction Conversion

We know the numbers after the decimal point represents the tenths, hundredths, thousandths, and so
on. Thus, while converting decimal to fraction, write down the decimal numbers in the expanded form
and simplify the values

For example, 0.75

The expanded form of 0.75 is 75 x (1/100) = 75/100 = 3/4.

Fraction to Decimal Conversion

To convert the fraction to the decimal, simply divide the numerator by denominator.

For example, 7/2 is a fraction. If it’s divided, we get 3.5.

Decimal Problems

Example 1:

Convert 8/10 in decimal form.

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Solution:

To convert fraction to decimal, divide 8 by 10, we get the decimal form.

Thus, 8/10 = 0.8

Hence, the decimal form of 8/10 is 0.8

Example 2:

Express 1.25 in fraction form.

Solution:

The given decimal number is 1.25

The expanded form of 1.25 is

= 125 x (1/100)

= 125 /100

=5/4

Hence, the equivalent fraction for 1.25 is 5/4.

Like Decimals: Decimals having the same number of decimal places are called like decimals.
Examples: 0.2, 33.4, 867.6, 4211.5 are like decimals, each having one decimal place.
Unlike Decimals: Decimals having different number of decimal places are called unlike
decimals.
Examples: 0.421, 3.31, 36.1, 391 are all unlike decimals.
Comparison of Two Decimals
Convert the given decimals into like decimals.
First compare their whole number parts. The decimal with the greater whole number part is
greater.
If the whole number parts are equal, compare the tenths digits. The decimal with bigger digit- in
tenths place is greater.
If the tenths digits are also equal, compare the hundredths digits and so on.
CONVERSION OF A FRACTION INTO A DECIMAL
To Convert a Fraction into a Decimal by Division Method
Divide the numerator by the denominator.
Complete the division. Let a non- zero remainder be left.

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Insert a decimal point in the dividend and the quotient.
Put a zero on the right of the decimal point in the dividend as well as on the right of the
remainder. Divide again just as whole numbers.
Repeat Step 4 till either the remainder is zero or requisite number of decimal places has been
obtained.
Rounding off of Decimals
The process of obtaining the value of a decimal correct to the required number of decimal places
is called rounding off and the value obtained is called the rounded off or corrected value of the
decimal.
To Round off a Decimal to the Required Number of Decimal Place
Retain as many digits after the decimal point as are required and omit the remaining digits.
Out of the omitted digits, if the first digit is 5 or more, then increase the last retained digit by 1,
otherwise do not make any change.
Example: Write 2.6483 to 2 decimal places:
Solution: In the given decimal 2.6483, we retain 2 digits after decimal point and omit the other
digits. So, we get 2.64. The first omitted digit is 8, which is greater than 5. So, we increase the
last retained digit by 1
Therefore, the rounded off value of the given decimal is 2.65.
CONVERSION OF A DECIMAL INTO A FRACTION (RATIONAL NUMBER)
To Convert a Terminating Decimal into a Fraction, follow the following steps:
Write the given decimal without the decimal point as
Take 1 annexed with as many zeros as is the number of decimal places in the given decimal as de
Reduce the above fraction in simplest

To Convert a Recurring Decimal into a Fraction

The method of converting a recurring decimal into a fraction will be clear from the following
example.

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To Convert a Pure Recurring Decimal into Vulgar Fraction (Short Cut Method)
Write the repeated digits only once in the numerator and take as many nines in the denominator
as the number of repeating digits.

Converting a Mixed Recurring Decimal into Vulgar Fraction (Short Cut Method)
In the numerator take the difference between the number formed by all the digits in the decimal
part (taking repeated digits only once) and the number formed by the digits which are not
repeated.
In the denominator, take the number formed by as many nines as there are repeating digits
followed by as many zeros as is the number of non-repeating digits.

Remarks: Order relation in fractions can be established by converting them into decimals.
H.C.F. AND L.C.M. OF DECIMALS
To Find the H.C.F. and L.C.M of Given Decimals follow the following steps:
Convert the given decimals into like decimals.
Find the H.C.F. or L.C.M (as the case may be) of the numbers without the decimal points.
In the result, mark the decimal point to have as many decimal places as there are in each decimal,
obtained in Step 1.

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Example: Find the H.C.F. and L.C.M. of 0.54, 1.8 and 7.2
Solution: Converting the given decimals into like decimals, we get them as: 0.54, 1.80 and 7.20.
(Each of these decimals has 2 decimal places)
We shall first find the H.C.F. and L.C.M of 54, 180 and 720.
H.C.F of 54, 180 and 720 = 18
Therefore so H.C.F. of 0.54, 1.8 and 7.2 = 0.18 [Taking 2 decimal places]
Also, L.C.M of 54, 180 and 720 = 2160
Therefore L.C.M. of 0.54, 1.8 and 7.2 = 21.60 [Taking 2 decimal places]

Ordering decimals in ascending order

First compare the whole number part in each decimal. The number with smallest whole number is
the smallest.

If the whole number parts are the same, compare the decimal parts just as we compare the whole
numbers.

Example: Arrange 22.44, 22.04, 22.40, and 2.45 in ascending order.

First compare whole numbers:

22.44, 22.04, 22.40, and 2.45

2 is the smallest, we write it first.

2.45

22.44, 22.04, 22.40 all have 22. So, compare the decimal parts.
0.04 < 0.40 < 0.44. Therefore, 22.04 < 22.40 < 22.44

The ascending order is:

2.45 22.04 22.40 22.44

Similarly, for Descending Order

Fun Facts

• Decimal fractions were first developed and used by the Chinese in the end of 4th century BC,
and then spread to the Middle East and from there to Europe.

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 PERCENTAGE
In mathematics, a percentage is a number or ratio that can be expressed as a fraction of 100.
If we have to calculate percent of a number, divide the number by whole and multiply by 100.
Hence, the percentage means, a part per hundred. The word per cent means per 100. It
represented by the symbol “%”.

Examples of percentages are:

• 10% is equal to 1/10 fraction

• 20% is equivalent to ⅕ fraction
• 25% is equivalent to ¼ fraction
• 50% is equivalent to ½ fraction
• 75% is equivalent to ¾ fraction
• 90% is equivalent to 9/10 fraction

Percentages have no dimension. Hence it is called a dimensionless number. If we say, 50% of a

number, then it means 50 per cent of its whole.

Percentages can also be represented in decimal or fraction form, such as 0.6%, 0.25%, etc. In
academics, the marks obtained in any subject are calculated in terms of percentage. Like, Ram
has got 78% of marks in his final exam. So, this percentage is calculated on account of total
marks obtained by Ram, in all subjects to the total marks.

The word “percent” is derived from the Latin word “per centum”, which means “per hundred”.

• A percentage is a fraction with denominator hundred, it is denoted by the symbol %.

• Numerator of the fraction is called the rate per cent.

Percentage Formula

To determine the percentage, we have to divide the value by the total value and then multiply the
resultant to 100.

Percentage formula = (Value/Total value) ×100

Example: 2/5 × 100 = 0.4 × 100 = 40 per cent

How to calculate the percentage of a number?

To calculate the percentage of a number, we need to use a different formula such as:
P% of Number = X
where X is the required percentage.

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If we remove the % sign, then we need to express the above formulas as;

P/100 * Number = X

Example: Calculate 10% of 80.

Let 10% of 80 = X

10/100 * 80 = X

X=8

Percentage Difference Formula

If we are given with two values and we need to find the percentage difference between the two
values, then it can be done using the formula:

Percentage Difference=|N1−N2|[(N1+N2)2] ×100

For example, if 20 and 30 are two different values, then the percentage difference between them
will be:

% difference between 20 and 30 = Percentage Difference=|20−30| [(20+30)2] ×100

Percentage Increase and Decrease

The percentage increase is equal to the subtraction of original number from a new number, divided
by the original number and multiplied by 100.

% increase = [(New number – Original number)/Original number] x 100

Where increase in number = New number – original number

Similarly, percentage decrease is equal to subtraction of new number from original number, divided
by original number and multiplied by 100.

% decrease = [(Original number – New number)/Original number] x 100

Where decrease in number = Original number – New number

So, basically if the answer is negative then there is percentage decrease.

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 Solved Example

Two quantities are generally expressed on the basis of their ratios. Here, let us understand the
concepts of percentage through a few examples in a much better way.

Examples: Let a bag contain 2 kg of apples and 3kg of grapes. Find the ratio of quantities present,
and percentage occupied by each.

Solution: The number of apples and grapes in a bag can be compared in terms of their ratio, i.e.,
2:3.

The actual interpretation of percentages can be understood by the following way:

The same quantity can be represented in terms of percentage occupied, which is given as:

Total quantity present = 5 kg

Ratio of apples (in terms of total quantity) = 25

= 25×100100

From the definition of percentage, it is the ratio that is expressed per hundred,

1100=1%

Thus, Percentage of Apples = 25×100=40 Percentage of Grapes = 35×100=60

Percentage Chart —: The percentage chart is given here for fractions converted into percentage.
Fractions Percentage

½ 50%
1/3 33.33%
¼ 25%
1/5 20%
1/6 16.66%
1/7 14.28%
1/8 12.5%
1/9 11.11%
1/10 10%
1/11 9.09%
1/12 8.33%
1/13 7.69%
1/14 7.14%
1/15 6.66%

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Converting Fractions to Percentage

A fraction can be represented by ab.

Multiplying and dividing the fraction by 100, we have

ab×100100

=(ab×100)1100 ………………(I)

From the definition of percentage, we have =1100 = 1%

Thus equation (I) can be written as:

=ab×100%

Thus, fraction can be converted to percentage simply by multiplying the given fraction by 100.

Percentage Questions

Q.1: If 16% of 40% of a number is 8, the number is?

Solution: Let the required number be X.

Therefore, as per the given question,

(16/100) x (40/100) x X = 8

So, X = (8 x 100 x 100) / (16 x 40)

= 125

Q.2: What percentage of 2/7 is 1/35?

Solution: Suppose X% of 2/7 is 1/35

∴ (2/7 x X) / 100 = 1/35

⇒ X = 1/35 x 7/2 x 100

= 10%

Q.3: Which number is 40% less than 90?

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Solution: Required number = 60% of 90

= (90 x 60)/100

= 54

Therefore, the required number is 54.

Q.4: The sum of (16% of 24.2) and (10% of 2.42) is equal to what value?

Solution: As per the given question,

Sum = (16% of 24.2) + (10% of 2.42)

Required value = (24.2 × 16)/100 + (2.42 × 10)/100

Required value = 3.872 + 0.242

Therefore, required value = 4.114

Word Problems

Q.1: A fruit seller had some apples. He sells 40% apples and still has 420 apples. Originally, he had
how many apples?

Solution: Let he had N apples, originally.

Now as per the given question,

(100 – 40) % of N = 420

⇒ (60/100) x N = 420

⇒ N = (420 x 100/60) = 700

Q.2: Out of two numbers, 40% of the greater number is equal to 60% of the smaller. If the sum of
the numbers is 150, then the greater number is?

Solution: Let us assume, greater number be X.

∴ Smaller number = 150 – X

According to the question,

(40 x X)/100 = 60(150 – X)/100

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⇒ 2p = 3 × 150 – 3X

⇒ 5X = 3 × 150

⇒ X = 90

Difference between Percentage and Percent

The word percentage and percent are related closely to each other.

Percent (or symbol %) is accompanied by a specific number.

E.g., More than 75% of the participants responded with their positive response to abjure.

The percentage is represented without a number.

E.g., The percentage of the population affected by malaria is between 60% and 65%.

Fractions, Ratios, Percent and Decimals are interrelated with each other. Let us look on to the
conversion of one form to other:

S.no Ratio Fraction Percent (%) Decimal

1 1:1 1/1 100 1
2 1:2 1/2 50 0.5
3 1:3 1/3 33.333 0.3333
4 1:4 1/4 25 0.25
5 1:5 1/5 20 0.20
6 1:6 1/6 16.667 0.16667
7 1:7 1/7 14.285 0.14285
8 1:8 1/8 12.5 0.125
9 1:9 1/9 11.111 0.11111
10 1:10 1/10 10 0.10
11 1:11 1/11 9.0909 0.0909
12 1:12 1/12 8.333 0.08333
13 1:13 1/13 7.692 0.07692
14 1:14 1/14 7.142 0.07142
15 1:15 1/15 6.66 0.0666

Percentage in Mathematics

Every percentage problem has three possible unknowns or variables:

• Percentage Part

• Base

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In order to solve any percentage problem, you must be able to identify these variables.

Look at the following examples. All three variables are known:

Example: 70% of 30 is 21

70 is the percentage.

30 is the base.

21 is the part.

Example: 25% of 200 is 50

25 is the percent.

200 is the base.

50 is the part.

Example: 6 is 50% of 12

6 is the part.

50 is the percent.

12 is the base.

Percentage Tricks

To calculate the percentage, we can use the given below tricks.

x % of y = y % of x

Example- Prove that 10% of 30 is equal to 30% of 10.

Solution- 10% of 30 = 3

30% of 10 = 3

Therefore, they are equal i.e., x % of y = y % of x holds true.

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Marks Percentage

Students get marks in exams, usually out of 100. The marks are calculated in terms of per cent. If a
student has scored out of total marks, then we have to divide the scored mark from total marks and
multiply by 100. Let us see some examples here:

Marks obtained Out of Total Marks Percentage

30 100 30%

10 20 50%

23 50 46%

13 40 32.5%

90 120 75%

Problems and Solutions

Example- Suman has a monthly salary of $1200. She spends $280 per month on food. What
percent of her monthly salary does she save?

Solution- Suman’s monthly salary = $1200

Savings of Suman = $(1200 – 280) = $ 920

Fraction of salary she saves = 9201200

Percentage of salary she saves = 9201200×100=92012=76.667 %

Example- Below given are three grids of chocolate. What percent of each White chocolate bar has
Dark chocolate bar?

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Solution- Each grid above has 100 white chocolate blocks. For each white chocolate bar, the ratio
of the number of dark chocolate boxes to the total number of white chocolate bars can be
represented as a fraction.

(I) 0 dark and 100 white.

I.e., 0 per 100 or 0%.

(ii) 50 dark and 50 white.

I.e., 50 per 100 or 50%.

(iii) 100 dark and 0 white.

I.e., 100 per 100 or 100%.

Percentile: A percentile is defined as the percentage of values found under the specific values.
Percentiles are mostly used in the ranking system. It is based on dividing up the normal
distribution of the values. Percentile is represented as xth, where x is a number.

Percentile Example: Assume that a student has 80th percentile on a test of 150. By this, we can
understand the term percentile better and know that by scoring 150 in the exam, a student has
beaten 80% of the remaining class in the exam.

What is the Difference between Percentage and Percentile?

Go through the differences between percentage and percentile, to clarify the concepts.

Difference between Percentage and Percentile

Percentage Percentile
A mathematical unit of measurement that displays Percentile is a value from which the values of
the answer out of a total of 100. percentages below it is found.
The unit of percentage is denoted by % The unit of percentile is denoted by xth, for
example, 30th,
It does not have quartiles. It has quartiles.
A percentage can be written in the form of ratios. A percentile cannot be written in the form of
ratios.
Percentages can also be written in the form of Percentiles, on the other hand, cannot be
decimals. written in the form of decimals.
Percentages are not based on the rank of numbers. A percentile is based on the rank of numbers.
It is based on one case. It is based on the comparison of one case with
several cases.
It does not rely on the normal distribution. Percentile relies on the normal distribution.

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Profit and Loss as Percentage
Profit and loss percentage are used to refer to the amount of profit or loss that has been incurred in
terms of percentage. It should be noted that the percentage is one of the methods for comparing two
quantities. Daily we come across a variety of situations where we calculate or compare things in “per
cent”. Most common ones are the situations related to buying and selling of items. While the sale of a
good, one can either gain a profit or bear a loss, which is generally calculated in terms of percentage.

Profit and Loss Percentage Formulas

Before we go through profit and loss per cent, we need to make ourselves familiar with few
terminologies, that are generally used in sales/purchasing of goods.

Cost Price (CP)

Cost price is the price at which we have purchased an item. This is abbreviated as CP.

Selling Price (SP)

Selling price is the price at which we sell an item; in short, it is written as SP.

During the purchase and sale of an item, depending upon the CP or SP, it can be either profit or loss for
the seller.

Profit

When the Selling Price of an item is more than the Cost Price of the same item, then this is the condition
of profit for the seller.

S.P. > C.P.

The difference in the amount of the Selling Price and the Cost price is the net Profit, given as-

Net Profit = S.P. – C.P.

Loss

When the Cost Price of an item is more than the Selling Price of the same item, then this is the condition
of loss for the seller.

S.P. < C.P.

The difference between the amount of Cost Price and the Selling Price is a net loss.

Net Loss = C.P. – S.P.

Now we can easily conclude whether a sale was profitable or ended in a loss. Also, we know how to
evaluate the profit or loss amount. Let’s learn how to express this amount in percentage.

Using the above Formula, we can always estimate what is the profit or loss amount. This can be
converted in terms of percentage as well I.e., profit % or loss %. The formula for estimating profit % or
loss % is as follows:

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Profit Percentage

Loss Percentage

Note- It is to be strictly noted that the Profit or Loss percentage is always calculated on the Cost Price of
an item, until and unless it is mentioned to calculate the percentage on Selling Price.

Profit and Loss Percentage Example

Example:

Raj purchased a bike for Rs. 75000 and he sold it for Rs.55000. Is it the condition of profit or loss? Also,
find the profit or loss percentage incurred by him.

Solution:

Given, Cost price (CP) of the bike = Rs. 75000

Selling price (SP) of the bike = Rs.55000

Here, SP < CP, it is a loss.

Net Loss = CP – SP = 75000 – 55000= Rs. 20000

Now, Raj’s loss % will be-

20000/75000×100=803

=26.667%

∴ Loss percent of Raj is 26.667%.

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Ratio to Percentage
Ratio to percentage conversion process helps to represent a number in ratio form in terms of
percentage. You have often seen the percentage as a way to evaluate a student’s performance in
examinations. Thus, the percentage is used to compare quantities. It literally means ‘per 100’, which is a
number expressed as a fraction of 100. So, when you say 100% of something, it means it represents the
whole of it.

Similarly, when you talk about pizza slices being divided amongst 2 people, the concept of ratio comes
into the picture. In simple words, the ratio is also used to compare quantities in a different manner. In
this article, we will discuss how to convert ratio into percentage easily and solve a few questions to have
a better understanding of the topic.

Ratio to Percentage Conversion

Ratio to percentage conversion helps us in obtaining accuracy in mixtures of elements, or while
calculating the percentage score in a test. At times you are given parts of a quantity in the form of ratios.
They can also be represented in the form of percentages. Let us understand this with the help of
examples.

Example Question 1: Varun received his monthly salary. The ratio of his expenditure to savings is 7:3.
What percentage of his salary, did he spend and what percentage was saved by him?

Solution:

Since the part of saving and expenditure are 3 and 7, the salary can be taken as 3 + 7 = 10 parts. This
implies, 7/10 part of the salary is spent whereas 3/10 parts are saved.

Converting ratio to percentage we get,

Percentage of expenditure = 7/10 x 100% = 70%

Similarly, percentage of savings = 3/10 x 100% = 30%

Example Question 2: The angles of a triangle are in the ratio 1:1:2. Find the value of each angle. What
will be the percentage of each angle?

Solution:

Since the angles are in ratio 1:1:2, there are 1 + 1 + 2 = 4 parts. The sum of angles in a triangle is 180
degrees.

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Thus, measure of the first angle = 1/4 x 180 = 45 degrees

Measure of the second angle = 1/4 x 180 = 45 degrees

Measure of the third angle = 2/4 x 180 = 90 degrees

Similarly, converting ratio to percentage we have,

First angle = 1/4 x 100% = 25%

Second angle = 1/4 x 100% = 25%

Third angle = 2/4 x 100% = 50%

Ratio and Proportion

Consider the following:

Iesha’s weight is 25 kg and her father’s weight is 75 kg. How many times Father’s weight is of
Iesha’s weight? It is three times.

Cost of a pen is Rs 10 and cost of a pencil is Rs 2. How many times the cost of a pencil is the cost
of a pen? Obviously, it is five times.

In the above examples, we compared the two quantities in terms of ‘how many times.

This comparison is known as the Ratio. We denote ratio using symbol ‘:’

Ratio is a mathematical term used for comparing the size of one part to another
part.

Consider the earlier examples again. We can say, The ratio of father’s weight to Iesha’s weight =
75/25 = 3/1 = 3:1The ratio of the cost of a pen to the cost of a pencil = 10/2=5/1=5:1.

Now consider the following example.

Length of a house lizard is 20 cm and the length of a crocodile is 4 m.

“I am 5times bigger than you”, says the lizard. As we can see this is really absurd. A lizard’s
length cannot be 5 times of the length of a crocodile.

So, what is wrong? Observe that the length of the lizard is in centimeters and length of the
crocodile is in meters. So, we have to convert their lengths into the same unit. Length of the
crocodile = 4 m = 4 × 100 = 400 cm. Therefore, ratio of the length of the crocodile to the length
of the lizard= 400/20==20/1= 20:1.

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Two quantities can be compared only if they are in the same unit.

Proportion
Consider another example. Bhavya has 28 marbles and Viny has 180 flowers. They want to share
these among themselves. Bhavya gave 14 marbles to Viny and Viny gave 90 flowers to Bhavya. But
Viny was not satisfied. She felt that she had given more flowers to Bhavya than the marbles given
by Bhavya to her. What do you think?

Is Viny correct? To solve this problem both went to Viny’s mother Pooja.

Pooja explained that out of 28 marbles, Bhavya gave 14 marbles to Vini.Therefore, ratio is 14: 28 =
1: 2. And out of 180 flowers, Vini had given 90 flowers to Bhavya.

Therefore, ratio is 90: 180 = 1: 2. Since both the ratios are the same, so the distribution is fair.

Example no. 2

Two friends Asha and Pankhuri went to market to purchase hair clips. They purchased 20 hair clips for Rs
30. Asha gave Rs 12 and Pankhuri gave Rs 18. After they came back home, Asha asked Pankhuri to give
10 hairclips to her. But Pankhuri said, “since I have given more money so I should get more clips. You
should get 8 hair clips and I should get 12”. Can you tell who is correct, Asha or Pankhuri? Why?

Ratio of money given by Asha to the money given by Pankhuri= Rs 12: Rs 18 = 2: 3.

According to Asha’s suggestion, the ratio of the number of hair clips forAshma to the number of hair
clips for Pankhuri = 10: 10 = 1: 1

According to Pankhuri suggestion, the ratio of the number of hair clips for Asha to the number of hair
clips for Pankhuri = 8: 12 = 2: 3

Now, notice that according to Ashma’s distribution, ratio of hair clips and the ratio of money given by
them is not the same. But according to thePankhuri’s distribution the two ratios are the same. Hence,
we can say that Pankhuri distribution is correct.

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If two ratios are equal, we say that they are in proportion and use the symbol ‘::’ or ‘=’ to
equate the two ratios.

We can say 3, 10, 15 and 50 are in proportion which is written as 3: 10: : 15: 50 and is read as
3 is to 10 as 15 is to 50 or it is written as 3: 10 = 15: 50.

If two ratios are not equal, then we say that they are not in proportion. In a statement of
proportion, the four quantities involved when taken in order are known as respective terms.

First and fourth terms are known as extreme terms. Second and third terms are known as
middle terms.

UNITARY METHOD

The method in which first we find the value of one unit and then the value of required
number of units is known as Unitary Method.

By Consider these example

Two friends Reshma and Seema went to market to purchase notebooks. Reshma purchased 2
notebooks for Rs 24. What is the price of one notebook?

Cost of 2 notebooks is Rs 24.

Therefore, cost of 1 notebook = Rs 24 For 2 notebooks is = Rs 12.

24÷2= 12

Now, if you were asked to find cost of 5 such notebooks. It would be= Rs 12 × 5 = Rs 60.

FACTS

• A ratio may be treated as a fraction, thus the ratio 10 : 3 may be treated as 10/3.
• Two ratios are equivalent, if the fractions corresponding to them are equivalent. Thus,
3 : 2 is equivalent to 6 : 4 or 12 : 8.
• A ratio can be expressed in its lowest form. For example, ratio 50 : 15 is treated as
50/15; in its lowest form 50/15 = 10/3. Hence, the lowest form of the ratio 50 : 15 is
10 : 3.
• The same ratio may occur in different situations.
• Do you know that the flags are always made in a fixed ratio of length to its breadth?
These may be different for different countries but are mostly around 1.5 : 1 or 1.7 : 1.

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B5FXXXMqC7e9ZWd4bGhEbkdSOUU

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 Exponents and Power
Exponents and powers are ways, used to represent very large numbers or very small numbers
in a simplified manner. For example, if we have to show 3x3x3x3 is a simple way, then we can
write it as 34, where 4 is the exponent and 3 is the base. The whole expression 3 4 is said to be
power.

Exponential notation is a powerful way to express repeated multiplication of the same number.
Specifically, powers of 10 express very large and very small numbers in a manner that is
convenient to read, write and compare.

An exponent is a number that is placed to the right of and above another number. So, here it is
read as ‘a’ raised to the exponent 4 or the fourth power of ‘a’, where ‘a’ is the base and 4 is the
exponent and a4 are called the exponential form. (a x a x a x a) is called the expanded form.
In expression 53, the 3 is called the exponent, and the 5 is called the base. So, 5 3 means a total
of three fives multiplied, or 53 = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125. This expression can be read as, “Five to the
third power.”
An exponent indicates the number of times to multiply the base number by itself. In simple terms, how
many times a particular number is multiplying to itself, is shown by using exponents.

LAWS OF EXPONENT

1. Multiplication Rule

To multiply powers with the same base, keep the base and add the exponents.

Algebraic expression: ax x ay = ax+y

Example: 35 × 38 = 35+8 = 313

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 2. Division Rule

When you are dividing two powers with the same base, subtract the exponent of the denominator
from the exponent of the numerator to give you the exponent of the answer. In other words, to
divide powers with the same base, keep the base and subtract the exponents.

Algebraic expression: ax ÷ ay = ax-y

Example: 69 ÷ 64 = 69-4 = 65

3. Power of Power Rule

To raise a power to a power, keep the base and multiply the exponents.

Algebraic expression: (ax)y = axy

Example: (94)5 =9(4x5) = 920

4. Power of a Product Rule

To simplify the power of a product, find the power of each factor and multiply.

Algebraic expression: (ab)x = ax . bx

Example: (5. 2)4 = 54 . 24

5. Power of a Fraction Rule

When you raise a fraction to a power you raise both the numerator and the denominator to the
same power.

Algebraic expression Example

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 6. Zero Exponent

Any number that has an exponent of 0 is equal to 1. Any nonzero number with an exponent of 0
is 1, so a0 = 1 when ‘a’ is any number except zero.

Algebraic expression: a0 = 1
Examples: 20 = 1, 30 = 1, 100 = 1

Any number with an exponent of 1 is just the number itself, so a1 = a

Algebraic expression: (a1 = a); For any number a ≠ 0, a0 = 1. You can show this by using the
division of powers rule.

If you start with 1000, and keep dividing by 10, you get this pattern

• 1000 = 103

Now divide by 10: 103 ÷ 101 = 10(3-1) = 102

• 100 = 102

Now divide by 10: 103 ÷ 101 = 10(2-1) = 101

• 10 = 101

Now divide by 10: 101 ÷ 101 = 10(1-1) = 100

• 1 = 100

7. Negative Exponent

If the exponent is a negative number, it means the reciprocal of the corresponding positive
exponent. In simple terms, it means to do the opposite of multiplication which is division.

Algebraic expression Example

8. Fractional Exponent

When there is a fractional exponent, the numerator denotes the power and the denominator
denotes the root.

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Algebraic expression Example

A fractional exponent like 25(2/3) means, apply both, a square (2) and a cube root (1/3), in any
sequence.

Squares and Cubes

Two common types of powers are squares and cubes. Squaring a number means to multiply the
number by itself: 52 = 5 × 5 = 25. A number like 25 is called a perfect square because it is the
square of a whole number. When you cube a number, you raise it to the third power. To do this,
simply multiply three of the numbers: 53 = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125. A perfect cube is any whole number
cubed.

Square Roots and Cube Roots

A number can be raised to a power, like 42 = 16 or 23 = 8. This process also can be turned
around by asking, “What number squares to give 16?” or “What number would I cube to get
8?” This reverse question is what square and cube roots are about.

Fun Facts
Any negative number raised to an odd power is always a negative number. Example: (-2)3 = -8
Any negative number raised to an even power is always a positive number. Example: (-3)2 = 9
An odd number raised to any power is always an odd number. Example: (5)2 = 25
An even number raised to any power is always an even number. Example: (4)2 = 16.

Standard Forms of Exponents and Powers

While working in practical experiences, Astronomers, Biologists, Engineers often come across
measuring different quantities, where they are working with either large or small numbers.

If a quantity is written as the product of a power of 10 and a number that is greater than or equal
to 1 and less than 10, then the quantity is said to be expressed in standard form (or scientific
notation). It is also called an exponential form.

For example: Here, to express it in shorter form or make it easier to handle, so when a decimal
is moved 11 places to the left.

Expanded form is 150,000,000,000 = is expressed in a Standard form as 1.5 × 1011.

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SUMMARY

1. Very large numbers are difficult to read, understand, compare and operate upon. To make all these
easier, we use exponents, converting many of the large numbers in a shorter form.

2.The following are exponential forms of some numbers?10,000 = 104 (read as 10 raised to 4)

243 = 35,128 = 27. Here 10, 3 and 2 are the bases, whereas 4, 5 and 7 are their respective exponents. We
also say, 10,000 is the 4th power of 10, 243 is the 5th power of 3, etc.

3.Numbers in exponential form obey certain laws, which are: For any non-zero integers a and b and
whole numbers m and n,

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