Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

MODULE -1 MODERN PHYSICS AND QUANTUM MECHANICS

1.1 MODERN PHYSICS

Black body radiation spectrum

Black body is one which absorbs radiations of all wavelengths incident on it and emits the same
under suitable conditions. Electromagnetic waves emitted by a black body are known as the
black body radiations. The curve obtained by plotting intensity versus wavelength of the
electromagnetic waves emitted by a black body is known as the black body radiation spectrum.

The important characteristics of the black body radiation spectrum as mentioned below.

➢ Different spectra are obtained for different temperatures of the black body.
➢ At a given wavelength, energy emitted by the black body increases with increase in
temperature.
➢ Energy emitted by the black body per second per unit area of a black body is directly
proportional to 4th power of its absolute temperature. This is known as Stefan’s 4th
power law.
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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

i.e, E α T4 or E = σ T4 ,

Where, σ = 5.67 × 10-8 Wm-2 K-4 is Stefan’s constant.

➢ At a given temperature, distribution of energy is not uniform over a wide range of

wavelength. This shows that there is a non-uniform distribution of energy among
different wavelengths.
➢ At a given temperature, maximum energy can be obtained only one particular wavelength
called λm.
➢ As the temperature increases, the wavelength corresponding to maximum energy shifts
towards shorter wavelength side.

1
i.e.  m    or λmT = constant=2.898×10-3 mK
T 
➢ Also, Wien showed that the energy Em corresponding to λm is proportional to 5th power of
absolute temperature. i.e., Em α T5. This is known as Wien’s 5th power law.

Wien’s law

To explain the non-uniform distribution of energy in the black body spectrum, Wien derived an
expression based on classical physics. He assumed that the molecular oscillators serve as the
sources of radiation. Combining the displacement law and the 5th power law, Wien derived the
expression for energy density (energy per unit volume) in the wavelength range from λ to λ + dλ.

C 
− 2 
U  d = C1  e −5  T 
d

Where h- Planck’s constant, c – speed of light and T- absolute temperature of the black body.

This is known as Wien’s law.

Drawbacks of Wein’s law:

Wein’s law holds good for the shorter wavelength region and high temperature of the
source. It failed to explain gradual drop in intensity of radiation corresponding to longer
wavelength greater than the peak value.
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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

Rayleigh-Jeans Law:
Rayleigh derived an equation for the blackbody radiation on the basis of principle of
equipartition of energy. The principle of equipartition of energy suggests that an average energy
kT is assigned to each mode of vibration. The number of vibrations/unit volume whose
wavelength is in the range of λ and λ+dλ is given by 8πλ-4dλ.
The energy/unit volume in the wavelength range λ and λ + dλ is

Uλd λ = 8πkTλ-4dλ

Where k is Boltzmann constant= 1.38x10-23J/K.

This is Rayleigh-Jeans equation. Accordingly energy radiated by the blackbody decreases

with increasing wavelength.
Drawbacks of Rayleigh-Jeans Law: (or Ultra Violet Catastrophe)
Rayleigh-Jeans Law predicts to radiate all the energy at shorter wavelength side but it
does not happen so. A black body radiates mainly in the infra-red or visible region of
electromagnetic spectrum and intensity of radiation decreases down steeply for shorter
wavelengths. Thus, the Rayleigh-Jeans Law fails to explain the lower wavelength side of the
spectrum. This is referred to as ultra-violet Catastrophe.
Planck’s Law:
Planck assumed that
i) Walls of the experimental blackbody consists larger number of electrical oscillators.
Each oscillator vibrates with its own frequency.
ii) Each oscillator has an energy given by integral multiple of hυ. Where, h is Planck’s
constant & υ is the frequency of vibration.
E = nhυ where n = 1, 2, 3 . . . etc.
iii) An oscillator may lose or gain energy by emitting or absorbing respectively a
radiation of frequency υ where υ=ΔE/h, ΔE is difference in energies of the oscillator
before and after the emission or absorption take place.

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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

Planck derived the law which holds good for the entire spectrum of the blackbody radiation as
8hc  1 
Uλ dλ = 5  h / kT
d (since υ = c/λ) (1)
 e −1
This is Planck’s Radiation Law.
Reduction of Planck’s law to Wein’s law and Rayleigh Jeans law:
1) For shorter wavelengths, υ = c/λ is large.
When υ is large, ehυ/kT is very large.
... ehυ/kT >> 1
... (ehυ/kT-1) ≈ ehυ/kT = ehc/λkT
Substituting in eqn 1:
 − C2 
 
8hc  1 
Uλ dλ = 5  hc/kT  d = C1  e
−5  T 
d
 e 
Where C1 = 8πhc and C2 = hc/k
This is the Wein’s law of radiation.
2) For longer wavelengths υ = c/λ is small.
When υ is small hυ/kT is very small.
Expanding ehυ/kT as power series:
ehυ/kT = 1 + hυ/kT + (hυ/kT)2 + . . .
≈ 1 + hυ/kT.
. If hυ/kT is small, its higher powers are neglected.
..

h hc
... ehυ/kT-1 = =
kT kT
Substituting in eqn 1:
 
 8hc 
Uλ dλ =   d
 5  hc  
   kT  
 

 8kT 
=  4  d
  
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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

This is Rayleigh Jeans Law of Radiation.

Dual nature of matter

Light exhibits the phenomenon of interference, diffraction, photoelectric effect and

Compton Effect. The phenomenon of interference, diffraction can only be explained with the
concept that light travels in the form of waves. The phenomenon of photoelectric effect and
Compton Effect can only be explained with the concept of Quantum theory of light. It means to
say that light possess particle nature. Hence it is concluded that light exhibits dual nature namely
wave nature as well as particle nature.

de-Broglie Hypothesis

The duality of light made de-Broglie to propose a hypothesis known de-Broglie hypothesis of
matter waves, which states as follows.

If radiation (light) behaves as waves in some circumstances and as particles at other

circumstances, then one can even expect that entities which ordinarily behave as particles to
exhibit properties attributable to only waves under appropriate circumstances. OR

Since radiation behaves as both waves and particles, the material particles like electrons must
also behave as waves under suitable conditions.

de-Broglie’s Wavelength:

A particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘c’ possess energy given by

E = mc2 → (Einstein’s Equation) (1)

According to Planck’s quantum theory the energy of quantum of frequency ‘υ’ is

E = hυ → (2)

From (1) & (2)

mc2 = hυ = hc /λ since υ = c/λ

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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

λ= hc /mc2 = h/mc

λ= h/mv since v ≈ c

Relation between de-Broglie wavelength and kinetic energy

Consider an electron in an electric potential V, the energy acquired is given by

1 2 p2
E = eV = mv =
2 2m

Where ‘m’ is the mass, ‘v’ is the velocity and ‘p’ is the momentum of the particle. ‘e’ is charge
of an electron.

p = 2meV = 2mE

The expression for de-Broglie wavelength is given by

h h h h
= = = =
p mv 2meV 2mE

de-Broglie Wavelength of an Accelerated Electron:

An electron accelerated with potential difference ‘V’ has energy ‘eV’. If ‘m’ is the mass
and ‘v’ is the velocity of the electron.

Then eV = 1/2(mv2) → (1)

If ‘p’ is the momentum of the electron, then p=mv

Squaring on both sides, we have

p2 = m2v2

mv2 = p2/m

Using in equation (1) we have

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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

eV = p2/(2m) or p = (2meV)

According to de-Broglie λ = h/p

Therefore λ=  h = 1  h 

 2meV 
 V 
 2me 


λ= 1  6.626  10 −34 
V 

−19 
2  9.11  10  1.602  10 
−31

= 1.226  10
−9
m or λ = 1.226 nm
V V

1.2 QUNTUM MECHANICS

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:

According to classical mechanics a particle occupies a definite place in space and possesses a
definite momentum. If the position and momentum of a particle is known at any instant of time, it is
possible to calculate its position and momentum at any later instant of time. The path of the particle could
be traced. This concept breaks down in quantum mechanics leading to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
Principle according to which “It is impossible to measure simultaneously both the position and
momentum of a particle accurately. In any simultaneous determination of the position and
momentum of the particle, the product of the corresponding uncertainties inherently
present in the measurement is equal to or greater than h/4π”.

If ∆ x and Px are the uncertainties in the measurement of position and momentum of the

particle then the uncertainty can be written as

∆ x . Px ≥ (h/4π)

Similarly 1) ∆E.∆t ≥ h/4π

3) ∆L.∆θ ≥ h/4π

Significance:

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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

It is not possible to determine any physical quantity with good accuracy in the sub-
atomic world. Instead, one has to be satisfied with the most probable value.

Application of Uncertainty Principle:

Impossibility of existence of electrons in the atomic nucleus:

According to the theory of relativity, the energy E of a particle is: E = mc² =

mo c 2
1 − (v 2 / c 2 )

Where ‘mo’ is the rest mass of the particle and ‘m’ is the mass when its velocity is ‘v’.

mo2 c 4 mo2 c 6
i.e. E =
2
→ (1)
1 − (v 2 / c 2 ) c 2 − v 2
=

If ‘p’ is the momentum of the particle:

mo v
i.e. p = mv =
(
1 − v2 / c2 )
mo2 v 2 c 2
p² = 2
c − v2

Multiply by c²

mo2 v 2 c 4
p²c² = 2 → (2)
c − v2

Subtracting (2) by (1) we have

mo2 c 4 (c 2 − v 2 )
E² - p²c² =
c2 − v2

E² = p²c² + mo2c4 → (3)

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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that

h
∆ x . Px ≥ → (4)
4

The diameter of the nucleus is of the order 10-14m. If an electron is to exist inside the
nucleus, the uncertainty in its position ∆ x must not exceed 10-14m.

i.e. ∆ x ≤ 10-14m

The minimum uncertainty in the momentum

6.63  10−34
(Px )min ≥
h
≥ ≥ 0.5 × 10-20 kg. m/s → (5)
4 (x )max 4  10−14

By considering minimum uncertainty in the momentum of the electron

i.e., (Px )min ≥ 0.5 × 10-20 kg.m/s = p → (6)

Consider eqn (3)

E² = p²c² + mo2c4 = c2(p²+mo²c²)

Where mo= 9.11 × 10-31 kg

If the electron exists in the nucleus its energy must be

E² ≥ (3 × 108)2[(0.5 × 10-20)2 + (9.11 × 10-31)2(3 × 108)2]

i.e. E² ≥ (3 × 108)2[0.25 × 10-40 + 7.4629 × 10-44]

Neglecting the second term as it is smaller by more than the 3 orders of the magnitude
compared to first term.

Taking square roots on both sides and simplifying

1.5  10−12
E ≥ 1.5 × 10-12 J ≥ ev ≥ 9.4 Mev
1.6  10−19

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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

If an electron exists in the nucleus its energy must be greater than or equal to 9.4Mev. It is
experimentally measured that the beta particles ejected from the nucleus during beta decay have
energies of about 3 to 4 MeV. This shows that electrons cannot exist in the nucleus.

Wave Function:

A physical situation in quantum mechanics is represented by a function called wave

function. It is denoted by ‘ψ’. It accounts for the wave like properties of particles. Wave function
is obtained by solving Schrodinger equation. To solve Schrodinger equation it is required to
know

1) Potential energy of the particle

2) Initial conditions and

3) Boundary conditions.

There are two types of Schrodinger equations:

1) The time dependent Schrodinger equation: It takes care of both the position and time
variations of the wave function. It involves imaginary quantity i.
h2d 2 ih d
The equation is: − 2 + V = −
8 m dx 2
2 dt

2) The time independent Schrodinger equation: It takes care of only position variation of the
wave function.
d 2 8 2 m
The equation is: + 2 ( E − V ) = 0
dx 2 h

Time independent Schrodinger wave equation

Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’. The de-Broglie wavelength ‘λ’ is

h h
λ= = → (1)
mv P

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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

Where ‘mv’ is the momentum of the particle.

The wave eqn is

 = A ei ( kx − t ) → (2)

Where ‘A’ is a constant and ‘ω’ is the angular frequency of the wave.

Differentiating equation (2) with respect to ‘t’ twice

d 2
2
= − A 2 ei ( kx −t ) = − 2 → (3)
dt

The equation of a travelling wave is

d2y 1 d2y
=
dx 2 v 2 dt 2

Where ‘y’ is the displacement and ‘v’ is the velocity.

Similarly for the de-Broglie wave associated with the particle

d 2 1 d 2
= → (4)
dx 2 v 2 dt 2

where ‘ψ’ is the displacement at time ‘t’.

From eqns (3) & (4)

d 2 2
=− 2
dx 2 v

But ω = 2πυ and v =υ λ where ‘υ’ is the frequency and ‘λ’ is the wavelength.

d 2 4 2 1 1 d 2
= − 2  or 2 = − 2 → (5)
dx 2   4  dx 2

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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

1 2 m2 v2 P 2
K .E = mv = = → (6)
2 2m 2m

h2
= → (7)
2m2

Using eqn (5)

h2  1  d 2 h 2 d 2
K .E = − 2  2 =− 2 → (8)
2m  4   dx 8 m  dx 2

Total Energy E = K.E + P.E

h 2 d 2
E=− +V
8 2 m dx 2

h 2 d 2
E −V = −
8 2 m dx 2

d 2 8 2 m
= − (E − V )
dx 2 h2

d 2 8 2 m
+ (E − V ) = 0
dx 2 h2

Which is the time independent Schrodinger wave equation.

Physical significance of wave function:

Probability density: If ψ is the wave function associated with a particle, then |ψ|² is the
probability of finding a particle in unit volume. If ‘τ’ is the volume in which the particle is
present but where it is exactly present is not known. Then the probability of finding a particle in
certain elemental volume dτ is given by |ψ|2dτ. Thus |ψ|² is called probability density. The
probability of finding an event is real and positive quantity. In the case of complex wave
functions, the probability density is |ψ|² = ψ * ψ where ψ* is Complex conjugate of .

12
Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

Normalization:

The probability of finding a particle having wave function ‘ψ’ in a volume ‘dτ’ is ‘|ψ|²dτ’.
If it is certain that the particle is present in finite volume ‘τ’, then

 | | ² d = 1
0

If we are not certain that the particle is present in finite volume, then


 | | ²d = 1
−

In some cases  |  | ²d  1 and involves constant.

The process of integrating the square of the wave function within a suitable limits and equating it
to unity the value of the constant involved in the wavefunction is estimated. The constant value
is substituted in the wavefunction. This process is called as normalization. The wavefunction
with constant value included is called as the normalized wavefunction and the value of constant
is called normalization factor.

Properties of the wave function:

A system or state of the particle is defined by its energy, momentum, position etc. If the
wave function ‘ψ’ of the system is known, the system can be defined. The wave function ‘ψ’ of
the system changes with its state. To find ‘ψ’
Schrodinger equation has to be solved. As it is a second order
differential equation, there are several solutions. All the solutions
may not be correct. We have to select those wave
functions which are suitable to the system. The
acceptable wave function has to possess the following
properties:

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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

1) ‘ψ’ is single valued everywhere: Consider the function f( x ) which varies with position as
represented in the graph. The function f(x) has three values f1, f2 and f3 at x = p. Since f1 ≠ f2≠
f3 it is to state that if f( x ) were to be the wave function. The probability of finding the particle
has three different values at the same location which is not true. Thus the wave function is not
acceptable.

2) ‘ψ’ is finite everywhere: Consider the function f( x ) which varies with position as
represented in the graph. The function f( x ) is not finite at x =R but f( x )=∞. Thus it indicates
large probability of finding the particle at a location. It violates uncertainty principle. Thus the
wave function is not acceptable.

3) ‘ψ’ and its first derivatives with respect to its variables are continuous everywhere:
Consider the function f( x ) which varies with position as represented in the graph. The function
f( x ) is truncated at x =Q between the points A & B, the state of the system is not defined. To
obtain the wave function associated with the system, we have to solve Schrodinger wave
equation. Since it is a second order differential wave equation, the wave function and its first
derivative must be continuous at x=Q. As it is a discontinuous wave function, the wave function
is not acceptable.
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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

4) For bound states ‘ψ’ must vanish at potential boundary and outside. If ‘ψ*’ is a complex
function, then ψ* ψ must also vanish at potential boundary and outside.

The wave function which satisfies the above 4 properties are called Eigen functions.

Eigen functions:

Eigen functions are those wave functions in Quantum mechanics which possesses the
properties:

1. They are single valued.

2. Finite everywhere and
3. The wave functions and their first derivatives with respect to their variables are continuous.
Eigen values:

Energy values correspond to Eigen functions are called Eigen energy values.

Application of Schrodinger wave equation: Energy Eigen values of a particle in one

dimensional, infinite potential well (potential well of infinite depth) or of a particle in a box.
Y-Axis

V= V=0 V=

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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof. Particle x=0 x x=a X-Axis
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

Consider a particle of a mass ‘m’ free to move in one dimension along positive x-
direction between x =0 to x =a. The potential energy outside this region is infinite and within
the region is zero. The particle is in bound state. Such a configuration of potential in space is
called infinite potential well. It is also called particle in a box. The Schrödinger equation outside
the well is

d 2 8 2 m
+ (E − ) = 0 → (1) ∵V = ∞
dx 2 h2

For outside, the equation holds good if ψ = 0 & |ψ|² = 0. That is particle cannot be found outside
the well and also at the walls

The Schrodinger’s equation inside the well is:

d 2 8 2 m
+ E = 0 → (2) ∵V = 0
dx 2 h2

h2 d 2
− = E → (3)
8 2 m dx 2

This is in the form Ĥψ = Eψ

This is an Eigen-value equation.

8 2 m
Let 2
E = k 2 in eqn (2)
h

d 2
2
+ k 2 = 0
dx

The solution of this equation is:

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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

ψ = C cos k x + D sin k x → (4)

using boundary condition we solve C and D values as

at x =0→ψ=0

0 = C cos 0 + D sin 0

∴C=0

Also x=a→ψ=0
0 = C cos ka + D sin ka

But C = 0

∴D sin ka = 0 (5)

D0 (because the wave concept vanishes)

i.e. ka = nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4… (quantum number)

n
k= → (6)
a

Using this in eqn (4)

n
 n = D sin x → (7)
a

Which gives permitted wave functions.

To find out the value of D, normalization of the wave function is to be done.

i.e.   n dx = 1 → (8)
2

using the values of ψn from eqn (7)

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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

n
a

D xdx = 1
2
sin 2
0
a
1 − cos(2n / a ) x 
a
D2   dx = 1
0    1 − cos 2 
2
 sin 2  =  
D2 
a a
2n   2 
 dx −  cos xdx = 1
2 0 0
a 
2n 
a
D2  a
2  x − 2n sin a x  = 1
0

D2
a − 0 = 1
2
D2
a =1
2
2
D=
a

Hence the normalized wave functions of a particle in one dimensional infinite potential well is:

2 n
n = sin x → (9)
a a

Energy Eigen values:

From Eq. 6 &2

8 2 m n 2 2
E = k 2
=
h2 a2
n2h2
Implies E=
8ma 2
Alternative Method (Operator method)

Energy Eigen values are obtained by operating the wave function ‘ψ’ by the energy operator
(Hamiltonian operator).

h2 d2
Ĥ= − +V
8 2 m dx 2

Inside the well 0 < x < a, V=0

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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

d2h2
Ĥ= − 2 → (10)
8 m dx 2

The energy Eigen value eqn is

Ĥψ=Eψ →(11)

From equation (10) and (11)

h2 d 2 n
− = E
8 2 m dx 2

d 2 n
h2
i.e. − 2 = E n → (12)
8 m dx 2

It is the Eigen value equation.

Differentiating eqn (9)

d n 2 n n
= cos x
dx a a a

Differentiating again

d 2 n 2  n  n
2

=−   sin x
dx 2
a a  a

d 2 n  n 
2

= −  n
 a 
2
dx

Using this eqn. in (12)

h 2  n 
2

   n = E n
8 2 m  a 

n2h2
E= → (13)
8ma 2
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Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

It gives the energy Eigen values of the particle in an infinite potential well.

n = 0 is not acceptable inside the well because ψn = 0. It means that the electron is not
present inside the well which is not true. Thus the lowest energy value for n = 1 is called zero
point energy value or ground state energy.

h2
i.e. Ezero-point =
8ma 2

The states for which n >1 are called exited states.

Wave functions, probability densities and energy levels for particle in an infinite potential
well:

Let us consider the most probable location of the particle in the well and its energies for
first three cases.

Case I → n=1

It is the ground state and the particle is normally present in this state.

The Eigen function is

2 
ψ1= Sin x ∵from eqn (7)
a a

ψ1 = 0 for x = 0 and x = a
But ψ1 is maximum when x = a/2.

1 1
2

x=0 a/2 x=a x=0 a/2 x=a

The plots of ψ1 versus x and | ψ1|2 verses x are shown in the above figure.

20
Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

|ψ1|2 = 0 for x = 0 and x = a and it is maximum for x = a/2. i.e. in ground state the particle
cannot be found at the walls, but the probability of finding it is maximum in the middle.

The energy of the particle at the ground state is

h2
E1 = = E0
8ma 2

Case II → n=2

In the first excited state the Eigen function of this state is

2 2
ψ2 = Sin x
a a

ψ2= 0 for the values x = 0, a/2, a.

Also ψ2 is maximum for the values x = a/4 and 3a/4.

These are represented in the graphs.

| ψ2|2 = 0 at x = 0, a/2, a, i.e. particle cannot be found either at the walls or at the centre.
a 3a
 2 = maximum for x = , x =
2

4 4

ψ2 | ψ2|2
a/4 3a/4
a/4
3a/4
x=0 a/2 x=a x=0 a/2 x=a

The energy of the particle in the first excited state is E2 = 4E0.

Case III → n=3

In the second excited state,

2 3
ψ3= Sin x
a a

ψ3 = 0, for x = 0, a/3, 2a/3 and a.

21
Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
Physics for ECE/EEE, 23PHI12B Module-1

ψ3 is maximum for x = a/6, a/2, 5a/6.

These are represented in the graphs.

a a 5a
x = 0, a/3, 2a/3 and a.  3 = maximum for x = , x = , x =
2
| ψ3 |2 = 0 for
6 2 6
The energy of the particle in the second excited state is E3=9 E0.

22
Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT