Automatic

Control system
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Upon completion of Chapter 3, students should be able to:

● Understand Transient Regime and Steady State Behavior
● Analyze Impulse and Step Response of First and Second Order
Systems.
● Understand the concept of frequency response and its relationship
to the system’s poles and zeros.
● Construct and interpret Bode diagrams.
● Understand the basics of Nyquist Plots.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

We can represent the response of the control systems in both the time domain and the
frequency domain.

I. Time response analysis of control systems.

Time response analysis is used to study how a control system reacts to different inputs
over time, particularly focusing on how the system transitions from one state to
another.

What is Time Response?

If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to time, then it is called the
time response of the control system. The time response consists of two parts.

• Transient response
• Steady state response
Time response is critical for understanding the behavior of a system when subjected to
various test inputs like step, impulse, ramp, etc.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

The response of control system in time domain is shown in the following figure.

The responses corresponding to these states are known as transient and steady state
responses.

Mathematically, we can write the time response c(t) as

Where:

ctr(t) is the transient response

css(t) is the steady state response

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Transient Response

After applying input to the control system, output takes certain time to reach steady
state. So, the output will be in transient state till it goes to a steady state. Therefore,
the response of the control system during the transient state is known as transient
response.

The transient response will be zero for large values of ‘t’. Ideally, this value of ‘t’ is
infinity and practically, it is five times constant. Mathematically, we can write it as:

Steady state Response

The part of the time response that remains even after the transient response has zero
value for large values of ‘t’ is known as steady state response. This means, the
transient response will be zero even during the steady state.
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

Example

Let us find the transient and steady state terms of the time response of the control
system

0 100 1000 10000

t
5 1.86e-43 2.54e-434 0

Here, the second term will be zero as t denotes infinity. So, this is the
transient term. And the first term 10 remains even as t approaches infinity. So, this
is the steady state term.
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

Standard Test Signals

In practice, the input signal to a control

system is not known ahead of time but is random in nature, and the instantaneous
input cannot be expressed analytically.

In analyzing and designing control systems, we must have a basis of comparison of

performance of various control systems. This basis may be set up by specifying
particular test input signals and by comparing the responses of various systems to
these input signals. Many design criteria are based on the response to such test
signals or on the response of systems to changes in initial conditions (without any
test signals).

The standard test signals are impulse, step, ramp and parabolic. These signals are
used to know the performance of the control systems using time response of the
output.
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

Unit Impulse Signal (sudden shock)

A unit impulse signal, δ(t) is defined as

So, the unit impulse signal exists only at ‘t’ is equal to zero. The area of this signal
under small interval of time around ‘t’ is equal to zero is one. The value of unit
impulse signal is zero for all other values of ‘t’.
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

Unit Step Signal (sudden input)

A unit step signal, u(t) is defined as

So, the unit step signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value
is one during this interval.
The value of the unit step signal is zero for all negative values of ‘t’.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Unit Ramp Signal (velocity type of input)

A unit ramp signal, r(t) is defined as:

We can write the unit ramp signal r(t) in terms of the unit step signal u(t) as:

So, the unit ramp signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value
increases linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of unit ramp
signal is zero for all negative values of ‘t’.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Unit Parabolic Signal (type of acceleration input)

A unit ramp signal, p(t) is defined as:

We can write the unit parabolic signal p(t) in terms of the unit step signal u(t) as:

So, the unit parabolic signal exists for all the positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And
its value increases non-linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval. The value of
the unit parabolic signal is zero for all the negative values of ‘t’.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Inverse Laplace transform

The Laplace transform is a powerful mathematical tool used to convert a function of

time, f(t), typically in the time domain, into a function of a complex variable s, in the
frequency domain.

Where s is a complex variable

The inverse Laplace transform is the process of converting a function from the s-
domain back into the time domain. Given a function F(s), the inverse Laplace
transform gives the corresponding time-domain function f(t).
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

The inverse Laplace transform is defined as:

Where:

is the unit step function. Multiplication of f(t) by u(t) yields a time function that is zero
for t<0.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Basic Laplace transform pairs:

f(t): time domain function

F(s): Laplace domain function Impulse

Unit step

Linear
ramp
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

II.1.2 properties
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

I.1 Response of the First Order System

A first-order system is a dynamic system that can be described by a first-order

differential equation. Consider the following block diagram of the closed loop control
system.

We know that the transfer function of the closed loop control system has unity
negative feedback as:
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

The power of s is one in the denominator term. Hence, the above transfer function is of the
first order and the system is said to be the first order system. We can re-write the above
equation as

Where,

C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output signal c(t),

R(s) is the Laplace transform of the input signal r(t), and

T is the time constant.

Chapter 3: control systems analysis

Follow these steps to get the response (output) of a first order system in the time domain.

1. Take the Laplace transform of the input signal r(t).

2. Consider the equation

3. Substitute R(s) value (input) in the above equation.

4. Do partial fractions of C(s) if required.
Partial fractions are a mathematical tool used to break down rational expressions
(ratios of polynomials) into simpler fractions.

5. Apply inverse Laplace transform to C(s).

Chapter 3: control systems analysis

I.1.1 Impulse Response of First Order System

Consider the unit impulse signal as an input to the first order system.

So, r(t) = δ(t)

R(s) = 1

Substitute, R(s)=1 in the above equation.

Chapter 3: control systems analysis

Rearrange the above equation in one of the standard forms of Laplace transforms.

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both sides

The unit impulse response is shown in the following figure.

The unit impulse response, c(t) is an exponential

Unit impulse
decaying signal for positive values of ‘t’ and it is response
zero for negative values of ‘t’.
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

I.1.2 Step Response of First Order System

Consider the unit step signal as an input to first order system.

So, r(t)=u(t)

R(s)=1/s

Substitute, R(s)=1/s in the above equation.

Do partial fractions of C(s).

Chapter 3: control systems analysis

On both the sides, the denominator term is the same. So, they will get cancelled by
each other. Hence, equate the numerator terms. 1=A (sT+1) +Bs

By equating the constant terms on both the sides, you will get A = 1.

Substitute, A = 1 and equate the coefficient of the s terms on both the sides.

0=T+B⇒B=−T Substitute, A = 1 and B = −T in partial fraction expansion of C(s).

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

The unit step response, c(t) has both the transient and the steady state terms.
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

The transient term in the unit step response is

The steady state term in the unit step response is

The following figure shows the unit step response.

Unit step
response

The value of the unit step response, c(t) is zero at t = 0 and for all negative values of
t. It is gradually increasing from zero value and finally reaches to one in steady
state. So, the steady state value depends on the magnitude of the input.
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

I.1.3 Ramp Response of First Order System

Consider the unit ramp signal as an input to the first order system.

So, r(t) = tu(t)

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides:

Substitute R(s) in the main equation:

Chapter 3: control systems analysis

Do partial fractions of C(s):

On both the sides, the denominator term is the same. So, they will get cancelled by
each other. Hence, equate the numerator terms:

By equating the constant terms on both the sides, you will get

A=1

Substitute, A = 1 and equate the coefficient of the s terms on both the sides:
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

Similarly, substitute B = −T and equate the coefficient of s² terms on both the sides.
You will get:

Substitute A = 1, B = −T and C=T² in the partial fraction expansion of C(s):

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides:

Chapter 3: control systems analysis

The unit ramp response, c(t) has both the transient and the steady state terms.
The transient term in the unit ramp response is

The steady state term in the unit ramp response is

The following figure shows the unit ramp response.

Unit ramp
response

The unit ramp response, c(t) follows the unit ramp input signal for all positive values
of t. But there is a deviation of T units from the input signal.
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

I.2 Response of Second Order System

A second-order system is one that can be modeled by a second-order differential

equation.

Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system. Here, an open
loop transfer function, is connected with a unity negative feedback.

G(s)=

We know that the transfer function of the closed loop control system having unity
negative feedback as:
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

Substitute G(s) in the main equation:

In the above transfer function, the power of 's' is two in the denominator. That is why
the above transfer function is of a second order, and the system is said to be the
second order system.

We can write C(s) equation as:

Where: C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output signal, c(t)

R(s) is the Laplace transform of the input signal, r(t)
ωn is the natural frequency
δ is the damping ratio (how rapidly the oscillations decay
from one bounce to the next).
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

I.2.1 Step Response of Second Order System

The step response of a second-order system describes how the system reacts over
time when subjected to a sudden input (a unit step input). The behavior of the
system depends on two key parameters:

- The natural frequency ωn

- The damping ratio δ
The general form of the transfer function for a second-order system is:

Where:
ωn is the natural frequency (rad/s), which defines how fast the system could oscillate
without any damping.
δ is the ramping ratio, which affects whether the system oscillates or smoothly returns
to equilibrium.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Consider the unit step signal as an input to the second order system:

Case 1: δ = 0 (undamped, Oscillates forever)

Substitute δ = 0 in the transfer function:

Substitute R(s) in the main equation:

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides:

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

So, the unit step response of the second order system when δ = 0 will be a continuous
time signal with constant amplitude and frequency.

An undamped second-order system is characterized by continuous oscillations at a

constant amplitude due to the absence of damping. The system never reaches a
steady-state value but oscillates indefinitely, making it a useful ideal model for
understanding oscillatory behavior in more complex systems.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Consider the unit step signal as an input to the second order system:

Case 2: δ = 1 (critically damped, does not oscillate)

Substitute δ = 1 in the transfer function:

Substitute R(s) in the main equation:

Do partial fractions of C(s):

After simplifying, the values of the coefficients are A, B and C are 1, -1 and -
ωn respectively.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Substitute these values in the above partial fraction expansion of C(s):

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides:

So, the unit step response of the second order system will try to reach the step input in
steady state. This is the fastest non-oscillatory response a second-order system
can have.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Consider the unit step signal as an input to the second order system:

Case 3: 0 < δ < 1 (underdamped, exhibits oscillations before settling to its final
value.)

We can modify the denominator term of the transfer function as follows:

The transfer function becomes:

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Substitute R(s) in the main equation:

Do partial fractions of C(s):

After simplifying, you will get the values of A, B and C as 1, -1 and -2 δ ωn respectively.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both sides and replacing δ = cos ϴ:

So, the unit step response of the second order system is having damped oscillations
(decreasing amplitude) when ‘δ’ lies between zero and one. The response is
typically sinusoidal but decays exponentially over time.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Consider the unit step signal as an input to the second order system:

Case 4: δ > 1 (overdamped, no oscillations, slow response).

We can modify the denominator term of the transfer function as follows:

The transfer function becomes:

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Substitute R(s) in the main equation:

Do partial fractions of C(s):

After simplifying, you will get the values of A = 1,

B=

C=
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Substitute these values in the partial fraction expansion of C(s) and apply inverse
Laplace transform on both the sides:

Since it is over damped, the unit step response of the second order system when δ >
1 will never reach step input in the steady state. The system does not oscillate but
responds more slowly compared to the critically damped system.

The output reaches the final value with a slower exponential decay.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Comparison of system’s behavior

Step responses for second-order system damping cases

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Comparison of system’s behavior

Overshoot: an output exceeding its final, steady-state value.

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Comparison of system’s behavior

Damped frequency:
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

Transient response specification of second order system

The performance of the control system are expressed in terms of transient response
to a unit step input because it is easy to generate initial condition basically are zero.

Following are the common transient response characteristics:

Delay Time, Rise Time, Peak Time, Maximum Peak., Settling Time, Steady State
error.

Delay Time td

It is the time required for the response to reach half of its final value from the zero
instant. By using linear approximation, delay time td is:
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Rise Time tr

It is the time required for the response to rise from 0%

to 100% of its final value. This is applicable for the
under-damped systems. For the over-damped
systems, consider the duration from 10% to 90% of
the final value.

Where: 𝜃 = arccos(𝛿)

𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝛿 2

Peak Time tp

It is the time required for the response to reach the

peak value for the first time. Here, the first derivate of
the response is zero.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Maximum peak (maximum overshoot, peak

overshoot) Mp

It is defined as the deviation of the response at peak

time from the final value of response.

Settling Time ts

It is the time required for the response to reach the

steady state and stay within the specified tolerance
bands around the final value. In general, the tolerance
bands are 2% and 5%.

5%: 2%:

Where τ is the time constant equals to

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Steady State Error (ess)

The difference between actual

output and desired output as
time 't' tends to infinity is called
the steady state error of the
system.

Indicates the system’s accuracy

in following a desired input or
reference signal in the long
run.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Example 1:

When a second-order system is subjected to a unit step input, the values of 𝛿 = 0.5
and ωn = 6 rad/sec. Determine the rise time, peak time, settling time and peak
overshoot.

Solution :

Given: 𝛿 = 0.5 ωn = 6 rad/sec

Rise Time:
𝜃 = arccos 𝛿 = 1.05 rad

𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝛿 2 = 6 1 − 0.52 = 5.20𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

𝑡𝑟 = 0.40𝑠
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Peak Time:

𝜋
𝑡𝑝 = = 0.604𝑠
5.2

Settling Time:

4
𝑡𝑠 = 0.5(6) = 1.33𝑠

Maximum overshoot:
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Example 2:

Find the time domain specifications of a control system having the closed loop transfer
function when the unit step signal is applied as an input to this

control system.

Solution : The standard form of the transfer function of the second order closed loop
control system as:

By equating these two transfer functions, we will get the un-damped natural frequency

ωn = 2 rad/sec and 𝛿 = 0.5.

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

II. Frequency response analysis of control systems

What is Frequency Response?

The response of a system can be partitioned into both the transient response and the
steady state response. We can find the transient response by using Fourier
integrals. The steady state response of a system for an input sinusoidal signal is
known as the frequency response. We will focus only on the steady state
response.

If a sinusoidal signal is applied as an input to a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system,

then it produces the steady state output, which is also a sinusoidal signal. The input
and output sinusoidal signals have the same frequency, but different amplitudes
and phase angles:

The open loop transfer function will be:

G(s)=G(jω) Steady state response only

Substitute, ω=ω0�=�0 in the above equation.

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Input signal
We can represent G(jω) in terms of magnitude and phase:

G(jω)=|G(jω)|∠G(jω)

Substitute, ω=ω0 (angular frequency of the input sinusoidal signal) in the above
equation:

The output signal is:

The amplitude of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by multiplying the amplitude of
the input sinusoidal signal and the magnitude of G(jω) at ω=ω0

The phase of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by adding the phase of the input
sinusoidal signal and the phase of G(jω) at ω=ω0

Where,
• A is the amplitude of the input sinusoidal signal.
• ω0 is angular frequency of the input sinusoidal signal.
Substitute, ω=ω0�=�0 in the above equation.

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Input and output sinusoidal signals

G(jω): sinusoidal transfer function

Φ : phase angle. A positive phase angle is called phase
lead, and a negative phase angle is called phase lag.
Substitute, ω=ω0�=�0 in the above equation.

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Output steady state signal

Substitute, ω=ω0�=�0 in the above equation.

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Example: Obtain the magnitude and phase of G(s)

1
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 2)

1
𝐺 𝑗ω =
𝑗ω(𝑗ω + 2)
Magnitude:

1 1
𝐺 𝑗ω = =
𝑗ω 𝑗ω + 2 ω 𝜔2 + 4

Phase:

𝜔
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐺 𝑗ω = ෍ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 − ෍ 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 0 − 90 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
2
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

We can write the angular frequency ω0 as:

ω0=2πf0

Where, f0 is the frequency of the input sinusoidal signal.

Presenting Frequency-Response Characteristics in Graphical Forms

The sinusoidal transfer function, a complex function of the frequency ω, is

characterized by its magnitude and phase angle, with frequency as the parameter.
There are three commonly used representations of sinusoidal transfer functions:

1. Bode diagram or logarithmic plot

2. Nyquist plot or polar plot
3. Log-magnitude-versus-phase plot (Nichols plots)
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

II.1 Control Systems - Bode Plots

The Bode plot or the Bode diagram consists of two plots:

1. Magnitude plot: Shows the gain (in dB) versus frequency (logarithmic scale).
2. Phase plot:Shows the phase shift (in degrees) versus frequency (logarithmic
scale).

In both the plots, x-axis represents angular frequency (logarithmic scale).

Whereas y axis represents the magnitude (linear scale) of open loop transfer function
in the magnitude plot and the phase angle (linear scale) of the open loop transfer
function in the phase plot.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

𝑀𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑀
The magnitude of the open loop transfer function in dB is: M=20log|G(jω)H(jω)|

The phase angle of the open loop transfer function in degrees is: ϕ=∠G(jω)H(jω)

Note: The base of logarithm is 10.

Sketching Bode plots can be simplified because they can be approximated as a

sequence of straight lines. Straight-line approximations simplify the evaluation of
the magnitude and phase frequency response → Asymptotic Approximations.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

A number–decibel conversion line is given in next figure. The decibel value of any

number can be obtained from this line. As a number increases by a factor of 10, the

corresponding decibel value increases by a factor of 20. This may be seen from the

following:

Factor k Value in dB

0.1 -20

1 0

10 20

100 40

1000 60
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Consider the following transfer function:

The magnitude frequency response is the product of the magnitude frequency

responses of each term, or:

Thus, if we know the magnitude response of each pole and zero term, we can find the
total magnitude response from an algebraic sum. Converting the magnitude
response into dB, we obtain:

Similarly, the phase frequency response is the sum of the phase frequency
response curves of the zero terms minus the sum of the phase frequency response
curves of the pole terms.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Basic of Bode Plots

The basic factors that very frequently occur in an arbitrary transfer function
G(jω)H(jω) are gain K, integral and derivative factors, first-order factors and
quadratic factors.

The following table shows the slope, magnitude and the phase angle values of the
terms present in the open loop transfer function. This data is useful while drawing
the Bode plots.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

G(jω)H(jω)

Constant
Slope = 0 dB/dec
Magnitude [dB] = 20 log K
Phase angle [degrees] = 0

Zero (n zeros) at origin jω

Slope = 20 dB/dec
Magnitude [dB] = 20 log ω
Phase angle [degrees] = 90

Pole (n poles) at origin 1/jω

Slope = -20 dB/dec
Magnitude [dB] = -20 log ω
Phase angle [degrees] = -90
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

G(jω)H(jω)
Slope = 20 dB/dec
Magnitude [dB] = 0 for ω<z,
20 log ω for ω>z
Phase angle [degrees] =
0 for ω<z/10, rises with slope
45 degrees, 90 for ω>10z
Slope = -20 dB/dec
Magnitude [dB] = 0 for ω<p,
-20 log ω for ω>p
Phase angle [degrees] =
0 for ω<p/10, decreases with
slope 45 degrees, -90 for
ω>10p
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

The gain K

Consider the open loop transfer function

G(s)H(s)=K

Magnitude

M = 20 log K dB

Phase angle

ϕ = 0 degrees

• If K=1 , then magnitude is 0 dB.

• If K>1 , then magnitude will be positive.
• If K<1 , then magnitude will be negative.
The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

The magnitude plot is a horizontal line, which is independent of frequency.

The 0 dB line itself is the magnitude plot when the value of K is one.

For the positive values of K, the horizontal line will shift 20 log K dB above the 0 dB
line.

For the negative values of K, the horizontal line will shift 20 log K dB below the 0 dB
line.

The Zero degrees line itself is the phase plot for all the positive values of K.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Derivative Factors (jω)

Consider the open loop transfer function

G(s)H(s)=s

Letting s = jω, the log magnitude of jω in decibels is:

M = 20 log | jω | = 20 log ω dB

The phase angle of jω is constant and ϕ = 90°

At ω = 0.1rad/s, the magnitude is -20 dB.

At ω = 1rad/s, the magnitude is 0 dB.

At ω = 10rad/s, the magnitude is 20 dB.

The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

The magnitude plot is a line, which is having a slope of 20 dB/decade. This line started
at ω=0.1 rad/s having a magnitude of -20 dB and it continues on the same slope. It
is touching 0 dB line at ω=1 rad/s. In this case, the phase plot is 900 line.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Integral Factors (1/jω)

Consider the open loop transfer function:

G(s)H(s)=1/s

M = -20 log ω dB

The phase angle of jω is constant and ϕ = -90°

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

First-Order Factors

Consider the open loop transfer function

G(s)H(s)=1+sT

Magnitude

Phase angle

For ω<1/T, the magnitude is 0 dB and phase angle is 0 degrees.

For ω>1/T , the magnitude is 20logωT dB and phase angle is 900.

The following figure shows the corresponding Bode plot.

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

The magnitude plot is having magnitude

of 0 dB up to ω=1/τ rad/s. From ω=1/τ
rad/s, it is having a slope of 20
dB/dec.

In this case, the phase plot is having

phase angle of 0 degrees up to ω=1/τ
rad/s, a rise up to ω=10/τ and from
here, it is having phase angle of 900.

This Bode plot is called the asymptotic

Bode plot.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Quadratic Factors

Consider the open loop transfer function:

Chapter 3: control systems analysis

Semi-log paper

Semi-log graph paper is commonly used to plot a circuits frequency response

information, or to calculate the values of dB gain (or loss) of an amplifying or
filtering circuit over a wide range of frequencies by means of an appropriate choice
of scale.

The divisions along the horizontal axis are spaced logarithmically, while the vertical
axis has a conventional linear spacing between divisions.
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Example:

Consider the closed-loop transfer function below. Draw the Bode plots for the system.

a. Normalization for each term to a low-frequency gain of unity

b. Determine the break frequencies (poles and zeros): 1, 2, and 3 rads/s (logarithmic
scale). The magnitude plot should begin a decade below the lowest break
frequency and extend a decade above the highest break frequency.
𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1, 𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.1

𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3, 𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 30→100

c. Find the magnitude plot for each term:

Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

BODE LOG-MAGNITUDE PLOT

Components
Chapter 3: Control systems analysis

Composite plot
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

d. Find the phase plot for each term: consider the existence of breaks a decade below
and a decade above the break frequency.
BODE PHASE PLOT Components
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

Composite plot
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

II.2 Control Systems – Nyquist Plots

What is Nyquist Plot?

❏ A Nyquist plot is a graphical representation of a complex function G(jω)H(jω), typically

used to analyze the stability of feedback systems.

❏ It allows to assess the stability of a system by mapping the open-loop transfer function
and helps visualize how a system responds to various frequencies.

❏ In Cartesian coordinates, the real part of the transfer function is plotted on the X axis,
and the imaginary part is plotted on the Y axis.
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

❏ In polar plot, the positive angle is measured counter-clockwise direction.

❏ The magnitude is determined in standard scale (not Decibel scale).
❏ The frequency is swept as a parameter, resulting in a plot based on frequency.
❏ The same Nyquist plot can be described using polar coordinates, where gain of the
transfer function is the radial coordinate, and the phase of the transfer function is the
corresponding angular coordinate.
Chapter 3: control systems analysis

❏ The Nyquist plot is crucial in determining the stability of a closed-loop system using the
Nyquist Stability Criterion, which involves checking how the plot encircles the critical
point -1+j0.

Comparison with Bode Plots

❏ Both plots help assess system stability.

❏ Bode plots are more intuitive for gain/phase margin visualization.

❏ Nyquist plots provide a complete view of the system in the frequency domain, including
phase shifts and encirclements of critical points.

Limitations

Nyquist plots can be challenging to interpret for higher-order systems or systems with time
delays.
Chapter 3: control systems analysis
THANKS