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- A cell is the fundamental, structural and functional unit of

(i) All living organisms are composed of cells and
all living organisms.
products of cells.
- Robert Hooke: Discovered cell.
(ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
- Anton Von Leeuwenhoek: First observed and described a
AN OVERVIEW OF CELL
live cell.
- All cells contain
- The invention of the compound & electron microscopes
o Cytoplasm: A semi-fluid matrix where cellular
revealed all the structural details of the cell.
activities and chemical reactions occur. This keeps the
CELL THEORY
cell in ‘living state’.
- Matthias Schleiden (1838) observed that all plants are
o Ribosomes: Non-membrane bound organelles seen in
composed of different kinds of cells.
cytoplasm, chloroplasts, mitochondria & on rough ER.
- Theodore Schwann (1839) found that cells have a thin
- Cells differ in size, shape and activities.
outer layer (plasma membrane). He also found that plant
o Smallest cells: Mycoplasmas (0.3 µm in length).
cells have cell wall. He proposed a hypothesis that animals
o Largest isolated single cell: Egg of ostrich.
and plants are composed of cells and products of cells.
o Longest cells: E.g. Nerve cell.
- Schleiden & Schwann formulated the cell theory.
o Size of bacteria: 3 to 5 µm (Typical: 1 to 2 µm).
- Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divide
o Human RBCs are about 7.0 µm in diameter.
and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells (Omnis
- Based on the functions, shape of cells may be disc-like,
cellula-e cellula). He modified the cell theory.
polygonal, columnar, cuboid, thread like, or irregular.
- Cell theory states that:
- Cells are 2 types: Prokaryotic cells & Eukaryotic cells.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
- They have no membrane bound nucleus and organelles.
o In distribution of chromosomes to daughter cells.
- They include bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma &
o In respiration and secretion processes.
PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms).
o To increase the surface area of the plasma membrane
- They are generally smaller and multiply more rapidly than
and enzymatic content.
the eukaryotic cells.
- Chromatophores are pigment-containing membranous
- They vary in shape & size. E.g. Bacteria have 4 basic
infoldings in some prokaryotes (e.g. cyanobacteria).
shapes: Bacillus, Coccus, Vibrio and Spirillum.
3. Nucleoid
- It is formed of non-membranous (naked) circular genomic
Cell organelles in prokaryotic cells
DNA (single chromosome/ Genetic material) & protein.
1. Cell Envelope
- Many bacteria have small circular DNA (plasmid) outside
 - It is a chemically complex protective covering.
the genomic DNA. It gives some unique phenotypic
- It is made of 3 tightly bound layers.
characters (e.g. resistance to antibiotics) to bacteria.
o Glycocalyx: Outer layer. Its composition and thickness
4. Flagella
vary in different bacteria. It may be a slime layer (loose
- These are thin filamentous extensions from the cell wall of
sheath) or capsule (thick & tough).
motile bacteria. Their number and arrangement are varied
o Cell wall: Middle layer. Seen in all prokaryotes except
in different bacteria.
mycoplasma. It gives shape to the cell and provides a
- Bacterial flagellum has 3 parts – filament, hook and basal
structural support to prevent the bacterium from bursting
body. The filament is the longest portion and extends from
or collapsing.
the cell surface to the outside.
o Plasma membrane: Inner layer. It is semi-permeable in
nature and interacts with the outside. This is structurally
5. Pili and Fimbriae
similar to that of the eukaryotes.
- These are surface structures that have no role in motility.
- Based on the types of the cell envelopes and response to
- Pili (sing. Pilus) are elongated tubular structures made of a
Gram staining (developed by Gram), bacteria are 2 types:
special protein (pilin).
o Gram positive: They take up and retain the gram stain.
- Fimbriae are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the
o Gram negative: They do not retain the gram stain.
cell. In some bacteria, they help to attach the bacteria to
rocks in streams and to the host tissues.
2. Mesosomes & Chromatophores
(Membranous structures)
6. Ribosomes
- Mesosome is formed by the infoldings of plasma
- They are associated with plasma membrane of prokaryotes.
membrane. It includes vesicles, tubules & lamellae.
- They are about 15 nm by 20 nm in size.
- Functions: Mesosomes help
- They are made of 2 subunits - 50S & 30S (Svedberg’s
o In cell wall formation.
unit). They together form 70S prokaryotic ribosomes.
o In DNA (chromosome) replication.

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- These are non-membranous, stored reserve material seen
(S= sedimentation coefficient; a measure of density & freely in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
size). - Function: Ribosomes are the site of translation - E.g. phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and
(protein synthesis). Several ribosomes may attach to a glycogen granules, gas vacuoles etc.
single mRNA to form a chain called polyribosomes - Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple and
(polysome). Ribosomes translate the mRNA into proteins. green photosynthetic bacteria.
7. Inclusion Bodies

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
- They have well organized membrane bound nucleus and - Their genetic material is organized into chromosomes. -
organelles. They have complex locomotory & cytoskeletal structures.
- Presence of membranes gives clear compartmentalization Plant cell and Animal cell
of cytoplasm.
 membrane is measured as its fluidity.

Functions:
o Transport of the molecules. The membrane is selectively
permeable to some molecules present on either side of it. o
Due to the fluid nature, the plasma membrane can help in
cell growth, formation of intercellular junctions, secretion,
endocytosis, cell division etc.
Types of Transport
1.Passive transport: It is the movement of molecules
across the membrane along the concentration gradient
(i.e., from higher concentration to the lower) without the
expenditure of energy. It is 2 types:
a. Simple diffusion: It is the movement of neutral
solutes across the membrane.
b. Osmosis: It is the movement of water by diffusion
across the membrane.
Cell organelles in eukaryotic cells Polar molecules cannot pass through the non-polar lipid
1. Cell Membrane bilayer. So they require membrane carrier protein for
- Chemical studies on human RBCs show that cell transport.
membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer, protein & 2.Active transport: It is the movement of molecules across
carbohydrate. - Lipids(mainly phosphoglycerides) have the membrane against the concentration gradient (i.e.
outer polar head and the inner hydrophobic tails. So the from lower to the higher concentration) with the
non-polar tail of saturated hydrocarbons is protected from expenditure of energy (ATP is utilized). E.g. Na+/K+
the aqueous environment. pump.
- Ratio of protein and lipid varies in different cells. E.g. In 2. Cell Wall
human RBC, membrane has 52% protein and 40% lipids. - - It is a non-living rigid structure found outer to the plasma
Based on the ease of extraction, membrane proteins are 2 membrane of fungi and plants.
types: - Cell wall of Algae is made of cellulose, galactans,
o Integral proteins: Partially or totally buried in membrane. mannans and minerals like CaCO3. In other plants, it
o Peripheral proteins: Lie on the surface of membrane. consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins.
- Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane: Proposed by - Cell wall of a young plant cell (primary wall) is capable
Singer & Nicolson (1972). According to this, the quasi of growth. It gradually diminishes as the cell matures and
fluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of proteins
within the overall bilayer. This ability to move within the
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c. It helps in cell-to-cell interaction.
the secondary wall is formed on the inner side (towards d. It acts as barrier to undesirable macromolecules.
membrane).
3. Endomembrane System
- The middle lamella is a layer containing calcium pectate - It is a group of membranous organelles having coordinated
which glues the neighbouring cells together. Cell wall and functions.
middle lamellae may be traversed by plasmodesmata. It
- They include endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi complex,
connects the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells. lysosomes and vacuoles.
Functions:
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
a. It gives shape to the cell.
- These are a network of
b. It protects the cell from mechanical damage & infection.
tiny tubular structures
 scattered in the - These are membrane bound vesicular structures formed by
cytoplasm. the process of packaging in the Golgi apparatus. -
- ER divides the Lysosomal vesicles contain almost all types of hydrolytic
intracellular space into 2 enzymes (hydrolases– lipases, proteases, carbohydrases).
compartments: luminal They are active at acidic pH. They digest carbohydrates,
(inside ER) & extra proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
luminal (cytoplasm). Vacuoles
- Endoplasmic reticulum - These are the membrane-bound space found in the
is 2 types: cytoplasm. It contains water, sap, excretory product and
a. Rough endoplasmic other materials not useful for the cell.
reticulum (RER): - Vacuole is bound by a single membrane called tonoplast. -
Bear ribosomes on In plant cells, the vacuoles can occupy up to 90% of the
their surface. RER is volume of the cell.
frequently observed - In plants, the tonoplast facilitates the transport of ions and
in the cells actively other materials against concentration gradients into the
involved in protein synthesis and secretion. They vacuole. Hence their concentration is higher in the
extend to the outer membrane of the nucleus. vacuole than in the cytoplasm.
b. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER): Ribosomes - In Amoeba, the contractile vacuole helps for excretion. -
are absent. SER is the major site for synthesis of lipid. In many cells (e.g. protists), food vacuoles are formed by
In animal cells lipid-like steroidal hormones are engulfing the food particles.
synthesized in SER. 4. Mitochondria
Golgi apparatus - Mitochondria are clearly visible only when stained. -
- Densely stained reticular Number, shape and size of mitochondria per cell are
structures near the nucleus. variable depending on the physiological activity. - It is
sausage-shaped or cylindrical having a diameter of 0.2-1.0
- First observed by Camillo
μm (average 0.5 μm) and length 1.0-4.1 μm.
Golgi (1898).
- They consist of flat, disc
shaped sacs (cisternae) of
0.5− 1.0 μm diameter. These
are stacked parallelly.
- Cisternae are concentrically
arranged with convex cis
(forming) face and concave trans (maturing) face. Cis &
trans faces are totally different, but interconnected. -A
Function of Golgi apparatus: mitochondrion is a double membrane-bound structure with
the outer membrane and the inner membrane. It divides
o Secretes materials to intra-cellular targets or outside the lumen into 2 aqueous compartments, i.e., the outer
cell. compartment and the inner compartment (matrix). - Inner
Materials to be packaged as vesicles from the ER fuse membrane forms a number of infoldings (cristae) towards
with the cis face and move towards the trans face. This is the matrix. They increase the surface area. - The two
why Golgi apparatus remains in close association with membranes have their own specific enzymes associated
the endoplasmic reticulum. with the mitochondrial function.
o Proteins synthesized by ribosomes on the ER are - Matrix possesses a circular DNA, a few RNA molecules,
modified in the cisternae of Golgi apparatus before they ribosomes (70S) and components for protein synthesis. -
are released from its trans face. The mitochondria divide by fission.
o Formation of glycoproteins and
glycolipids. Lysosomes

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- Based on the type of pigments, plastids are 3 types: a.
- Function: Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll and carotenoid
respiration. They produce energy in the form of ATP. So pigments. They trap light energy for photosynthesis. b.
they are called ‘power houses’ of the cell. Chromoplasts: Contain fat soluble carotenoid pigments
5. Plastids like carotene, xanthophylls etc. This gives a yellow,
- Plastids are found in all plant cells and in euglenoides. orange or red colour.
- Large sized. Easily observable under the microscope. - c. Leucoplasts: These are colourless plastids of varied
They contain some pigments. shapes and sizes with stored nutrients. They include: ▪
 Amyloplasts: Store starch. E.g. potato. - Flagella: Longer. Responsible for cell movement. Flagella
▪ Elaioplasts: Store oils and fats. of prokaryotes and eukaryotes are structurally different.
▪ Aleuroplasts: Store proteins.
Chloroplasts:
- These are double membrane bound organelles mainly
found in the mesophyll cells of the leaves.
- These are lens
shaped, oval,
spherical,
discoid or
ribbon-like
- Cilium and flagellum are covered with plasma membrane.
organelles.
Their core (axoneme) has many microtubules running
- Length: 5-10 μm.
parallel to the long axis.
Width: 2-4 μm.
- The axoneme has 9 pairs of doublets of radially arranged
- Their number varies from 1 (e.g. Chlamydomonas) to 20-
peripheral microtubules and a pair of central
40 per cell in the mesophyll.
microtubules. This is called 9+2 array.
- Inner membrane of chloroplast is less permeable. - The
- The central tubules are connected by bridges and are
space limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast is
enclosed by a central sheath. It is connected to one of the
called stroma. It contains many organized flattened
tubules of each peripheral doublet by a radial spoke.
membranous sacs called thylakoids.
Thus, there are 9 radial spokes. The peripheral doublets
- Membrane of thylakoids encloses a space called lumen. -
are also interconnected by linkers.
Chlorophyll pigments are present in the thylakoids. -
- Cilium and flagellum emerge from centriole-like structure
Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana or the
called the basal bodies.
intergranal thylakoids.
- There are flat membranous tubules called the stroma 9. Centrosome and Centrioles
lamellae connecting the thylakoids of the different grana. - - Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two non
The stroma contains small, double-stranded circular DNA membrane bound cylindrical structures called centrioles. -
molecules, ribosomes and enzymes for the synthesis of They are surrounded by pericentriolar materials. - The
carbohydrates and proteins. centrioles lie perpendicular to each other. They are made up
- The ribosomes of the chloroplasts are smaller (70S) than of 9 evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin. Each of the
the cytoplasmic ribosomes (80S). peripheral fibril is a triplet. The adjacent triplets are also
linked.
6. Ribosomes
- The central part of the centriole is also proteinaceous and
- They are non-membranous granular
called the hub, which is connected with tubules of the
structures composed of ribonucleic
peripheral triplets by radial spokes made of protein.
acid (RNA) & proteins.
- The centrioles form the basal body of cilia or flagella, and
- It is first observed by George
spindle fibres that give rise to spindle apparatus during
Palade (1953).
cell division in animal cells.
- Eukaryotic ribosome has 2 subunits- 60S (large subunit)
and 40S (small subunit). They together form 80S. 7. 10. Nucleus
- Nucleus was first
Cytoskeleton
described by
- It is a network of filamentous proteinaceous structures
present in the cytoplasm. Robert Brown
- It provides mechanical support, motility, maintenance of (1831).
the shape of the cell etc. - The material of
the nucleus
8. Cilia and Flagella stained by the
- They are hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane. - basic dyes was
Cilia: Small structures which work like oars. Causes the given the name chromatin by Flemming.
movement of the cell or surrounding fluid.

4
© www.bankofbiology.com All rights reserved. space between (10 - 50 nm) called perinuclear space.
It is a barrier between the materials present in nucleus
- Normally, a cell has only one nucleus. Some cells have
& cytoplasm. Outer membrane usually remains
more than one. Some mature cells lack nucleus. E.g.
continuous with ER and also bears ribosomes on it.
mammalian RBC and sieve tube cells of vascular plants. -
The interphase nucleus contains Nuclear envelope has minute pores formed by the
o Nuclear envelope: Double layered membrane with a fusion of its two membranes. These are the passages
for the movement of RNA and protein between nucleus
 and cytoplasm. Telocentric chromosome: Terminal centromere. - Some
o Nuclear matrix (nucleoplasm)
o Chromatin: A network of nucleoprotein fibres. It
contains DNA and basic proteins (histones),
non-histone proteins and RNA. During cell division,
chromatins condense to form chromosomes.
o Nucleolus: One or more non-membranous spherical
bodies. It is continuous with the nucleoplasm. It is a site
for ribosomal RNA synthesis.
Chromosomes:
- A human cell has 2 m long thread of chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at
DNA a constant location. It is called satellite. 11.
distributed among its 46 (23 pairs) Microbodies
chromosomes. - These are membrane bound minute vesicles that contain
- Every chromosome has a primary various enzymes.
constriction (centromere). On the - Present in both plant and animal cells.
sides Differences between Plant and animal cells
of centromere, disc shaped structures Plant cell Animal cell
called kinetochores are present.
1. Cell wall present Absent

- Based on position of centromere, chromosomes are 4 2. Plastids are present Absent

types: o Metacentric chromosome: Middle centromere
forming two equal arms of the chromosome. 3. A large central vacuole Many small vacuoles
o Sub-metacentric chromosome: Centromere is nearer
4. Centrioles are absent Present
to one end forming one shorter arm and one longer arm.
o Acrocentric chromosome: Centromere is close to its
end forming one very short and one very long arm. o
COMPARISON BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

1. Generally smaller Larger

2. Genetic material is in the form of nucleoid Genetic material is in the form of nucleus

3. Nuclear membrane absent Present

4. Membrane bound organelles absent Present

5. Circular DNA Linear DNA

6. Ribosomes 70 S type 80 S type (70 S in plastids and mitochondria)

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MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Match the columns A,B, & C
A B C

Mitochondria Sedimentation coefficient Spindle fibers

Golgi bodies Hydrolytic enzyme Power house

Lysosomes Axoneme Cisternae

Ribosomes Centrioles Acidic PH

Cilia Glycoproteins George Palade

 Centrosome Cristae 9+ 2

2. Bacterial cell envelope is having a complex structure. Name the layers of the envelope. 3. Types of
Chromosomes based on the position of centromere are given. Name the Chromosomes.

4. In cells glycoprotein & glycolipids are secreted by a cell organelle.

a. Name the cell organelle
b. Neatly draw its diagram
5. Plastids are found in all plant cells
a. List the three plastids found in plants.
b. Name the colorless plastids and specify its role.
6. Identify the characters of prokaryotic cells from the following statements a.
Endoplasmic reticulum present b. Ribosome present
c. Golgi bodies absent d. Incipient nucleus
e. Yeast is an example f. Mostly anaerobes
7. Golgi apparatus remains in close association with the endoplasmic reticulum. Give the reason. 8.
Copy the following diagram and label the parts.