1. Explain floating point and fixed point representation with example.

2. Represent (8620)10in (1) binary (2) Excess-3 code and (3) 2421 code.

(8620)/2 4310 0
(4310)/2 2155 0
(2155)/2 1077 1
(1077)/2 538 1
(538)/2 269 0
(269)/2 134 1
(134)/2 67 0
(67)/2 33 1
(33)/2 16 1
(16)/2 8 0
(8)/2 4 0
(4)/2 2 0
(2)/2 1 0
(1)/2 0 1

2) excess-3 code
3)2421 code
3. Explain register transfer language.
4. Explain bus transfer using a multiplexer.
5. Explain type of Computer instruction.
Computer instructions can be classified into several types based on their functionality and the
operations they perform. Here are some common types of computer instructions:

1. Arithmetic Instructions:

- Arithmetic instructions perform basic arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

- These instructions operate on data stored in registers or memory and produce a result that is stored back into a register or
memory location.

- Examples include ADD (addition), SUB (subtraction), MUL (multiplication), and DIV (division).

2. Logic Instructions:

- Logic instructions perform logical operations such as AND, OR, NOT, and XOR.

- These instructions manipulate binary data at the bit level and are often used for tasks such as bitwise operations, bit
manipulation, and boolean logic.

- Examples include AND (logical AND), OR (logical OR), XOR (exclusive OR), and NOT (logical NOT).

3. Data Transfer Instructions:

- Data transfer instructions move data between memory and registers, or between different registers.

- These instructions are used to load data from memory into registers, store data from registers into memory, and move data
between registers.

- Examples include LOAD (load data from memory), STORE (store data into memory), MOV (move data between registers),
and PUSH/POP (push data onto or pop data from a stack).

4. Control Instructions:

- Control instructions manage the flow of program execution by altering the sequence of instructions executed.

- These instructions include conditional and unconditional branch instructions, which transfer control to different parts of
the program based on certain conditions.

- Examples include JMP (unconditional jump), JZ (jump if zero), JNZ (jump if not zero), and CALL/RET (call and return
from subroutines).

5. Comparison Instructions:

- Comparison instructions compare two values and set flags or registers based on the result of the comparison.

- These instructions are often used in conjunction with conditional branch instructions to implement conditional execution.

- Examples include CMP (compare), TEST (test for bitwise AND), and CMC (complement carry flag).

6. Input/Output Instructions:

- Input/output instructions transfer data between the computer system and external devices such as keyboards, displays,
disks, and network interfaces.

- These instructions allow the computer to communicate with peripherals and perform input/output operations

- Examples include IN (input from port), OUT (output to port), and I/O (input/output).
6.Explain instruction cycle.

7. Design ALU.
8. Explain application of logic micro-operation.
9. Design 4-bit arithmetic circuit using multiplexer.
10. Explain shift Micro-operation.
11. Explain direct and indirect operand.
1. Direct Operand:

- A direct operand refers to a data value that is directly specified within the instruction itself.

- In other words, the operand is explicitly provided as part of the instruction.

- For example, in the instruction `ADD R1, 10`, the operand "10" is a direct operand, as it is directly specified in the instruction.

- Direct operands are straightforward and easy to use but may be limited in terms of flexibility, as they can only represent fixed data values.

2. Indirect Operand:

- An indirect operand refers to a memory address or a register that holds the memory address where the actual data value is located.

- Instead of specifying the data value directly, an indirect operand specifies the location (address) of the data value.

- For example, in the instruction `LOAD R1, [R2]`, the operand "[R2]" is an indirect operand. It tells the CPU to load the contents of the
memory address stored in register R2 into register R1.

- Indirect operands provide more flexibility because they allow the program to work with data stored at different memory locations without
explicitly specifying those locations in each instruction.

- They are commonly used for accessing arrays, structures, and other data structures where the exact memory addresses may vary at runtime.

Here's a summary of the differences between direct and indirect operands:

- Direct Operand:

- Data value is directly specified within the instruction.

- Straightforward and easy to use.

- Limited flexibility, as operands are fixed values.

- Indirect Operand:

- Memory address or register holding the memory address is specified.

- Provides flexibility, as it allows working with data stored at different memory locations.

- Commonly used for accessing arrays, structures, and other data structures.
12. EXPLAIN types of register
Registers are small, high-speed storage locations within the CPU (Central Processing Unit) that hold data temporarily during
processing. They play a crucial role in computer architecture, facilitating the execution of instructions and the manipulation of
data. Registers can be classified into several types based on their functionality and purpose. Here are the main types of registers:

1. Program Counter (PC):

- The program counter is a special-purpose register that holds the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched and
executed.

- After each instruction is executed, the program counter is automatically incremented to point to the next instruction in
memory.

- The program counter allows the CPU to execute instructions sequentially, fetching them from memory in the correct order.

2. Instruction Register (IR):

- The instruction register is another special-purpose register that holds the current instruction being executed by the CPU.

- When an instruction is fetched from memory, it is stored in the instruction register temporarily while it is decoded and
executed.

- The instruction register holds the opcode (operation code) of the instruction, as well as any associated operands or
addressing modes.

3. General-Purpose Registers (GPRs):

- General-purpose registers are used to hold data temporarily during the execution of instructions.

- They are typically used for performing arithmetic and logical operations, storing intermediate results, and holding data for
processing.

- GPRs are accessible to the programmer and can be used for storing variables, function parameters, and other data.

4. Flags Register:

- The flags register (also known as the status register or flag register) contains individual bits, each representing a specific
condition or status of the CPU.

- Common flags include the zero flag (Z), carry flag (C), sign flag (S), overflow flag (O), and parity flag (P).

- Flags are set or cleared based on the results of arithmetic and logical operations, allowing the CPU to make decisions and
perform conditional branching.

5. Stack Pointer (SP):

- The stack pointer is a special-purpose register used to track the top of the stack in memory.

- It holds the memory address of the last item pushed onto the stack or the next available location for a push operation.

- The stack pointer is used in conjunction with stack-based operations such as push and pop, which are commonly used for
function calls, interrupt handling, and managing local variables.

6. Index Registers:

- Index registers (also known as offset or base registers) are used for memory addressing and accessing data stored in memory.

- They hold a memory address that serves as a base or offset for accessing memory locations.

- Index registers are often used in conjunction with indirect addressing modes and array operations.
13. Explain bus transfer using tristate buffer.
14. Explain logic microoperation.
Logic micro-operations are fundamental operations performed by the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
within a CPU or digital circuitry. These operations manipulate binary data at the bit level and are used
to implement various logical functions. Logic micro-operations include basic logical operations such as
AND, OR, NOT, and XOR, as well as more complex operations like shift and rotate.

Here's an explanation of some common logic micro-operations:

1. AND Operation:
- The AND operation takes two binary inputs and produces a binary output where each bit of the
output is set to 1 if both corresponding bits of the inputs are 1, otherwise, it is set to 0.
- Symbolically, the AND operation is represented as A & B, where A and B are the input operands.

2. OR Operation:
- The OR operation takes two binary inputs and produces a binary output where each bit of the output
is set to 1 if at least one of the corresponding bits of the inputs is 1, otherwise, it is set to 0.
- Symbolically, the OR operation is represented as A | B, where A and B are the input operands.

3. NOT Operation:
- The NOT operation (also known as the complement operation) takes a single binary input and
produces a binary output where each bit of the output is the complement of the corresponding bit of the
input (i.e., 1 is changed to 0, and vice versa).
- Symbolically, the NOT operation is represented as ~A, where A is the input operand.

4. XOR Operation:
- The XOR (exclusive OR) operation takes two binary inputs and produces a binary output where
each bit of the output is set to 1 if the corresponding bits of the inputs are different, otherwise, it is set
to 0.
- Symbolically, the XOR operation is represented as A ^ B, where A and B are the input operands.

5. Shift and Rotate Operations:

- Shift and rotate operations involve moving the bits of a binary number to the left or right.
- Shift operations move the bits without considering the sign, while rotate operations preserve the
sign.
- These operations are commonly used for data manipulation, multiplication/division by powers of 2,
and creating circular buffers.
15. Give an example of register transfer of data through an accumulator.
16. Explain CLA, ISZ, INP instruction.

1. CLA (Clear Accumulator):

- CLA is a machine instruction used in assembly language programming to clear the
accumulator register.
- The accumulator is a special-purpose register commonly used for temporary storage of data
during arithmetic and logical operations.
- When the CLA instruction is executed, the accumulator register is set to zero, effectively
clearing its contents.
- This instruction is useful when you want to initialize the accumulator before performing
arithmetic operations or when you want to reset it to zero after processing data.

2. ISZ (Increment and Skip if Zero):

- ISZ is a machine instruction used in assembly language programming to increment a
specified memory location and skip the next instruction if the result becomes zero.
- The ISZ instruction takes the memory address of the operand as its argument.
- When the ISZ instruction is executed, the value stored in the specified memory location is
incremented by one.
- If the result of the increment operation becomes zero, the CPU skips the next instruction in
the program sequence; otherwise, it continues to execute the next instruction as usual.
- ISZ is commonly used in loop control and branching operations, where you want to
increment a counter and check if it reaches a specific value.

3. INP (Input):
- INP is a machine instruction used in assembly language programming to input data from an
external device into the accumulator register.
- The INP instruction typically reads data from an input device, such as a keyboard or sensor,
and stores it in the accumulator for further processing.
- The exact mechanism for inputting data may vary depending on the hardware platform and
the specific input device being used.
- INP is often used in programs that require user interaction or data acquisition from external
sources.
17. Define RTL. Explain how register transfer takes place in basic computer system.

RTL stands for Register Transfer Language. It's a type of high-level abstraction used in
computer engineering and digital system design to describe the behavior and operation of a
digital system at the register transfer level. RTL describes the flow of data between registers in
a digital system and the operations performed on that data.
18. What is multiplexing? Explain the multiplexing of control signals in ALU.

Multiplexing is a technique used in digital electronics and telecommunications to combine multiple

signals into a single transmission medium or channel. It allows multiple signals to share the same
resource efficiently. In the context of digital systems and computer architecture, multiplexing is often
used to reduce the number of physical connections required between components, thereby saving
space and cost.
In an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), multiplexing of control signals is a common technique used to
select various operations or modes of operation within the ALU. The ALU performs arithmetic and
logical operations on input data based on the control signals provided to it. Multiplexing these control
signals allows the ALU to perform different operations using the same hardware resources.
Here's how multiplexing of control signals in an ALU typically works:
1. Control Signal Inputs:
- The ALU receives control signals from the CPU or control unit, which specify the operation to be
performed.
- These control signals determine the operation mode, such as addition, subtraction, AND, OR, etc.
2. Multiplexer (MUX):
- A multiplexer is a digital circuit that selects one of several input signals and forwards it to a single
output.
- In the context of an ALU, a multiplexer is used to select the appropriate control signal based on the
instruction being executed or the operation mode specified.
3. Operation Selection:
- The multiplexer takes the control signals as inputs and selects the appropriate signal based on the
instruction or operation mode.
- For example, if the instruction specifies an addition operation, the multiplexer selects the control
signal for addition. If it specifies a subtraction operation, the multiplexer selects the control signal for
subtraction, and so on.
4. ALU Operation:
- Once the appropriate control signal is selected by the multiplexer, it is used to configure the ALU
for the desired operation.
- The ALU performs the selected operation on the input data (operands) according to the control
signal provided.
- The result of the operation is then generated as output by the ALU.
5. Output:
- The result of the operation performed by the ALU is typically stored in a register or forwarded to
another part of the CPU for further processing.
19. Explain how a complement number system is useful in computer systems.
Discuss any one complement number system with example.

Complement number systems are essential in computer systems for representing signed
numbers and performing arithmetic operations efficiently. There are two main types of
complement number systems: one's complement and two's complement.
One's complement system represents negative numbers by taking the complement of their
corresponding positive values. In a one's complement system, positive numbers are
represented as usual in binary form, while negative numbers are represented by taking the
complement (inversion) of the binary representation of the corresponding positive numbers.

For example, consider an 8-bit one's complement system. In this system:

- Positive numbers are represented as usual in binary form.

- Negative numbers are represented by taking the one's complement (inverting all bits) of
their corresponding positive values.

Let's illustrate with an example:

Positive number: +7
Binary representation: 00000111

Negative number: -7
Binary representation (one's complement of +7): 11111000

To find the one's complement of a negative number, you simply invert all the bits in its binary
representation.
One's complement systems are useful in computer systems for several reasons:

1. Representation of Signed Numbers: One's complement allows representing both positive

and negative numbers using the same binary format, simplifying arithmetic operations and
data storage.
2. Addition and Subtraction: Addition and subtraction of signed numbers in one's complement
system can be performed using the same hardware as for unsigned numbers. This simplifies
the implementation of arithmetic circuits in CPUs.
3. Efficiency: One's complement systems require minimal additional logic to handle negative
numbers compared to sign-magnitude representation. This leads to more efficient hardware
implementations.
4. Range: In an n-bit one's complement system, the range of representable numbers is from -
2^(n-1) to 2^(n-1) - 1, which is the same as the range of two's complement representation.

20. Explain 4-bit adder-subtractor with diagram.

21. What is a Digital Computer System? Explain the role of binary number system in it.

A digital computer system is a type of computing system that processes digital data using
electronic devices called digital circuits. These systems manipulate data represented in binary
form, which consists of only two digits: 0 and 1. A digital computer system typically consists
of the following components:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the core component of the computer system
responsible for executing instructions, performing arithmetic and logical operations, and
controlling the flow of data within the system.
2. Memory: Memory stores data and instructions temporarily or permanently. It includes
Random Access Memory (RAM) for temporary storage and Read-Only Memory (ROM) for
permanent storage of system firmware and software.
3. Input Devices: Input devices allow users to input data and commands into the computer
system. Common input devices include keyboards, mice, touchscreens, and scanners.
4. Output Devices: Output devices display processed data and information to the user.
Examples include monitors, printers, speakers, and projectors.
5. Storage Devices: Storage devices store data and programs permanently. Examples include
hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), optical drives, and USB flash drives.
6. Peripheral Devices: Peripheral devices extend the functionality of the computer system.
Examples include network interface cards (NICs), graphics processing units (GPUs), and
expansion cards.

The binary number system plays a fundamental role in digital computer systems for several
reasons:
1. Representation of Data: In a digital computer system, all data, instructions, and addresses
are represented using binary digits (bits). Each bit can have one of two states: 0 or 1. By
arranging bits in various sequences, binary numbers can represent numbers, characters,
instructions, and other types of data.
2. Digital Circuits: Digital circuits, which form the building blocks of digital computer systems,
operate based on binary logic. These circuits use binary signals (high voltage for 1 and low
voltage for 0) to perform operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
logical operations.
3. Boolean Algebra: Binary arithmetic and logic operations are based on principles of Boolean
algebra. Boolean algebra defines operations such as AND, OR, NOT, XOR, and NAND, which
are used in digital circuits to manipulate binary data.
4. Efficiency and Reliability: The binary number system is well-suited for implementation in
digital computer systems because it is straightforward to implement using electronic circuits.
Binary signals are less susceptible to noise and distortion compared to analog signals, making
digital systems more reliable.
22. Design a digital circuit for 4-bit binary adder.
23. For the basic computer explain following instructions .
LDA , ADD,AND,CLA

1. LDA (Load Accumulator):

- The LDA instruction is used to load a value from memory into the accumulator
register.
- It takes the memory address of the operand as its argument.
- When executed, the CPU fetches the value stored at the specified memory
address and loads it into the accumulator.
- This instruction is commonly used to fetch data from memory for further
processing.

2. ADD (Add):
- The ADD instruction is used to add the value of an operand to the value
already stored in the accumulator.
- It takes the memory address of the operand as its argument.
- When executed, the CPU fetches the value stored at the specified memory
address, adds it to the value in the accumulator, and stores the result back into the
accumulator.
- This instruction is commonly used for arithmetic operations, such as addition
of two numbers.

3. AND (Logical AND):

- The AND instruction is used to perform a logical AND operation between the
value of an operand and the value in the accumulator.
- It takes the memory address of the operand as its argument.
- When executed, the CPU fetches the value stored at the specified memory
address, performs a bitwise AND operation with the value in the accumulator,
and stores the result back into the accumulator.
- This instruction is commonly used for bitwise logical operations, such as
masking or testing specific bits in a value.
4. CLA (Clear Accumulator):
- The CLA instruction is used to clear the accumulator register, setting its value
to zero.
- When executed, the CPU sets the value of the accumulator to zero, effectively
clearing its contents.
- This instruction is commonly used to initialize the accumulator before
performing arithmetic or logical operations.
24. For the basic computer explain following instructions.
BUN , BSA , CIL , SZE
1. BUN (Branch Unconditionally):
- The BUN instruction is used to unconditionally transfer control to a specific memory
address.
- It takes the memory address of the target instruction as its argument.
- When executed, the CPU sets the program counter (PC) to the specified memory address,
causing the program to continue execution from that location.
- This instruction is commonly used for implementing unconditional branches or jumps in
the program flow.
2. BSA (Branch and Save Return Address):
- The BSA instruction is used to transfer control to a specific memory address while saving
the return address.
- It takes the memory address of the target instruction as its argument.
- When executed, the CPU stores the address of the next instruction (the return address) in a
designated location (such as a specific register or memory location) and sets the program
counter (PC) to the specified memory address.
- This instruction is commonly used in subroutine calls, where the return address needs to be
preserved for returning to the calling routine after the subroutine completes execution.
3. CIL (Count and Input from Line):
- The CIL instruction is used to count the number of input characters from a specific input
line.
- It takes the memory address of the input line as its argument.
- When executed, the CPU counts the number of characters received from the specified input
line and stores the count in a designated location (such as a register or memory location).
- This instruction is commonly used for input operations, such as reading data from input
devices like keyboards or terminals.

4. SZE (Skip if Zero):

- The SZE instruction is used to conditionally skip the next instruction if a specified value is
zero.
- It takes the memory address of the value to be tested as its argument.
- When executed, the CPU checks if the value stored at the specified memory address is zero.
If it is zero, the CPU increments the program counter (PC) to skip the next instruction;
otherwise, it continues execution normally.
- This instruction is commonly used for implementing conditional branches or jumps based
on the result of previous calculations or comparisons.