PED 3701

Unit 4

From the previous unit, it is evident that adolescents’ cognitive abilities increase and
consolidate rapidly during the adolescent years, with the result that they can perform tasks
more easily, quickly and efficiently. Moreover, their heightened cognitive abilities enable
adolescents to answer the question “Who am I?” and to form meaningful relationships with
society.

In this learning unit, we discuss the social development of the adolescent. Social
development may very well be the most important area of adolescent development.
Adolescents not only need to manage meaningful relationships within the society, but they
must also develop self-confidence, develop interpersonal skills and find their place in
society.

This unit will enable you to:

• consider recent theories on the social development of adolescents and realise the
main pursuit (purpose) of this phase, namely a search for identity, and the
importance of the adolescent’s context

• understand the social relationships of adolescents and how you as a teacher can
create positive relationships with your learners

• realise the importance of self-concept and self-esteem and how to enhance

learners’ self-esteem

• know about the factors that influence personality development and the role a
teacher can play in this development

• recognise the importance of finding an identity during this stage and how teachers
can add to this process

For you to be successful regarding the cognitive development of the adolescent you will
have to actively participate in: all online discussions; logging into myUnisa to access your
reading material; complete and submit activities; and summarise the unit for yourself (e.g.,
mind map) to help you prepare for the exam. It is of utmost importance that you ask for
support if concepts are unclear to you via myUnisa.

4.2 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ADOLESCENT SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

There are various theories that explain social development in young humans. For this
module, we will focus on the African perspective of human development and theories such
as the psychosocial theory of Erik Erikson and the bio-ecological theory of Urie
Bronfenbrenner. Erikson’s theory on adolescence is known for his view on the adolescent’s
search for identity; and Bronfenbrenner’s theory for taking all contexts of the adolescent
into account. In the section on identity development, we will also briefly refer to and
compare Mead’s social behaviourism with the African perspective of human development.

When we think about human development, we often only focus on the development of
infants, the young child, and adolescents. However, development is a continuous process,
in which each stage builds on the stage(s) before it, from conception to death.

4.2.1 The bio-ecological theory of Bronfenbrenner

As human beings, we do not function and survive on our own, but are in constant
interaction with our environment. Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological theory is of particular
significance for identifying the complex influences, interactions and interrelationships that
can either inhibit (prevent) or promote an individual’s psychosocial well-being.
Bronfenbrenner (1986) argued that to understand the child or a learner, the environment in
which the they live must be fully examined, including the home, school, community,
culture, and so on. He believed that a person’s development is affected by everything in
they surrounding environment. The way a person perceives and deals with their
environment is therefore important for identity development.

A developing human should be viewed holistically (e.g. emotional, physical, social,

spiritual, cognitive). The “bio” in bio-ecological means that the individual as growing,
developing, thinking person, also has an influence on their environment. A dynamic
individual that progressively moves into and restructures an environment. The environment
not only shapes the person, but the person in turn also shapes the environment.

Educational implications of Bronfenbrenner’s theory

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory suggests that a young human’s development

is influenced by multiple environmental systems that interact with each other. These
systems include the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and
chronosystem. The implications of this theory for education are as follows:

• Importance of the family: Bronfenbrenner emphasizes the role of the family as the
primary microsystem in a young person’s development. Therefore, teachers should
recognize the importance of involving families in the educational process to support
the young person’s development.
 • Importance of the school environment: The school is an important mesosystem that
can significantly impact a young person’s development. Teachers should create a
positive, and supportive enironemnt that fosters the young persons’ growth and
development.

• Importancce of community resources: The exosystem refers to the broader

community resources that can influence a young person’s development. Teachers
should work to develop partnerships with community organisations and resources
to enhance the young person’s educational experience.

• Importance of cultural values and beliefs: The macrosystem refers to the broader
cultural context that can influence a young person’s development. Teachers should
be aware of cultural diversity and respect the values and beliefs of all learners to
create an inclusive educational environment.

• Importance of considering the timing of events: The chronosystem refers to the

time-related factors that can influence a young person’s development. Teachers
should recognize that the timing of events, such as chantes in family structure or
community resources, can impact a young person’s educational experience.

Overall, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory emphasizes the importance of

considering multiple environmental factors that can influence a young person’s
development. Teachers can use this theory to create a holistic approach to education that
recognizes the complex interactions between the child, family, school, community, culture,
and time-related factors.

Refer to Louw and Louw (2022: 35 – 43) for more information about
Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological theory.

4.2.2 The psychosocial theory of Erik Erikson

Before we discuss this theory, please watch the following YouTube video on Erikson’s
theory of psychosocial development.

Play Video

https://youtu.be/aYCBdZLCDBQ

(5:19)

Erik Erikson’s (1963) psychosocial theory presents a broad, multifaceted view of the typical
human life span and nature/characteristics of each phase. How this euocentric theory also
links to the Africanisation discourse/dialogue, will also be explored. Erikson pays little or no
heed to emotional and intellectual development and is more concerned with a person’s
basic attitude towards others and towards life. Even so, his theory is one of the more
successful attempts to achieve a coherent and fairly complete picture of human
development. His theory is an important aid which can help parents, teachers and
counsellors to be aware of the central conflict areas for individuals throughout the various
stages of development. This theory made an important contribution to understanding
human psychosocial development as it highlights the development of a specific
ego[1]strength after each psychosocial crisis or critical developmental phase is
experienced successfully. This earned Erikson the description of ego psychologist, and his
theory a classification among the depth theories[2], such as that of Freud and
Horney.Erikson’s (1963) first five stages of psychosocial development are now briefly
explained. The psychosocial stage of identity formation is emphasized as it is the stage that
is experienced during adolescence. The stages of early and later adulthood is not
discussed as it falls outside the scope of this module.

Phase 1 - Infant/baby: Basic trust versus basic mistrust

During this stage babies (from birth to one year) need to develop trust in their caregivers
and their environment. This is done by providing a predictable, loving, caring environment.
Experiencing this psychosocial crisis in a positive way is of utmost importance, as it forms
the basis for future relationships. In other words, if the baby learns to trust their
environment and caregivers, it will be easier to form and maintain relationships later in life.
The ego strength that the individual takes away from this stage is hope.

Phase 2 - Toddler: Autonomy versus doubt and shame

In this stage (around the second and third years of life) children learn an extremely
important skill which they will need for the rest of their lives. The skill is the ability to say yes
or no, in other words, to set healthy boundaries. Two-year-old children are known for their
temper tantrums and tendency to decide whether they want to follow rules or not. This
behaviour is a sign of the child exploring their boundaries. If caregivers are overprotective
and restrict the child’s movement and choices too much, the child will not learn to make
autonomous decisions. If the child is confronted with no rules at all, as in a neglectful, low-
demanding parental approach, the child will also not learn personal boundaries, nor that
there are rules in society. Therefore, a healthy and safe space is necessary within which a
child can have the autonomy to exercise age-appropriate choices. The importance of this
stage cannot be overemphasized. Many a psychologist will attest that the biggest part of a
balanced personality in adulthood depends on learning how to set boundaries, in other
words, to know when to say no. If this stage is experienced successfully, the ego strength
that is gained is willpower.

Phase 3 - Pre-schooler: Initiative versus guilt

The objective in this phase is for the child (around the fourth and fifth year) to acquire a
sense of initiative. In the Grade R curriculum, gross motor development is very important.
This is the stage where children can engage in physical activities and assume a certain
amount of responsibility, for example, washing and dressing themselves, picking up their
toys and feeding their pet. Managing these small responsibilities gives them a sense of
initiative and purpose. During play they can use language to adopt a standpoint; they can
also transcend the bounds of here and now and engage in fantasy play. The ego strength
gained from this phase is purpose.

Phase 4 - Grade-schooler: Industry versus inferiority

During this phase (from about six to 11) the primary school learner acquires a sense of
industriousness (working hard). Being able to trust, set (and follow) rules, and take
initiative, they have a sense of purpose and accomplishment, and they are ready to learn to
use psychological and physical tools (pen to write) and skills (writing). They learn a general
sense of enjoying approaching a task and completing it successfully. The ego strength
gained in this phase is competence.

Phase 5 - Teenager/adolescent: Identity versus identity diffusion

In this phase (around the 12th to the 22nd year), the high-school and further educational
adolescent acquires a sense of self-identity while overcoming a sense of identity
diffusion/instability. The young adolescent needs freedom to choose, but not so much
freedom that they cannot make a choice. Guidance and mentoring is thus of importance.
The ego strength gained in this phase is fidelity (faithfulness).

Phase 5 is the culmination of the preceding four phases. In other words, every ego strength
gained in the earlier years of childhood is necessary to address the challenges of
adolescence.

For instance:

• The quest for basic trust becomes a search for people and ideals in which to
believe. In terms of identity, this amounts to: “Because I am able to trust I feel
hopeful about new relationships, situations and ventures.”

• The sense of autonomy and independence becomes a sense of being entitled to

choose freely between the tasks and duties a person can perform. Adolescents like
 to do things that they can do well - but they want a free choice in the matter. In
terms of identity, this means: "I have learnt to set my boundaries in such a way that I
don’t have to hurt or reject people.” Thus, it is the confidence to live out their
personal rules and boundaries.

• The sense of initiative becomes an evaluation of his or her own potential for the
future - ambition and a striving for full self-actualisation. During this period the
adolescent is also looking for identification figures or "heroes" for inspiration. In
terms of identity, this means: "I can reach the goals towards which I aspire."

• The sense of industry forms the basis for a search for and selection of the right
career. In terms of identity, this means: "I am willing to, and I am able to work
towards my future occupation."

Erikson (1963) states quite clearly that people do not all need the same length of time to
establish their identity. Here the young person's cultural group has a tremendous influence.
In some cultures, the period of adolescence is shorter than in others but the success with
which the child has experienced the first four phases will determine how rapidly they
acquire a personal identity. Thus, people who had predominantly negative experiences in
their earlier phases of psychosocial development (for example adverse experiences of
mistrust, doubt, guilt or inferiority) will obviously take longer to establish an identity of their
own.

Educational implications of Erikson’s theory

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development has several educational implications that

can help teachers understand and support the development of their learners.

• Understanding developmental stages: Erikson’s theory outlines eight stages of

psychosocial development, each with its unique challenges and opportunities.
Teachers can use this framework to understand where their learners are in their
developmental journey and tailor their instruction to meet their needs.

• Fostering a sense of identity: According to Erikson, the primary task of adolescence

is to establish a sens of identity. Teachers can create an environment that
encourages learners to explore different roles, values and beliefs, allowing them to
develop a strong sense of self.

• Building social skills: Erikson emphasised the importance of social interactions in

the development of individuals. Teachers can create opportunities for learners to
interact with peers, work collaborately, and develop social skills that will be
essential throughout their lives.
 • Recognising and addressing emotional needs: Erikson believed that individuals go
through emotional crises at each stage of development. Teachers can identify
learners who may be struggling with emotional issues and provide appropriate
support and resources.

• Encouraging autonomy: Erikson’s theory emphasises the importance of fostering

autonomy in learners. Teachers can provide opportunities for learners to make
choices and take responsibility for their actions, helping them develop a sense of
control over their lives.

Erikson’s theory provides a valuable framework for teachers to understand the

developmental needs of their learners and tailor their instruction and support to promote
healthy growth and development.

FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Why is the Identity Formation stage important?

How can you as teacher assist adolescents in their search for identity?

FeedBACK (Action/Process):

According to Erik Erikson (1968), the main task of adolescents is to solve the crisis of
identity versus role confusion. Role confusion should not be misinterpreted for
gender; it means being unsure of who you are and where you fit. It has been found that
a stable and strong sense of identity play an important role in the mental health of
adolescents. Furthermore, healthy relationships with peers have also been
associated with improved emotional and psychological well-being of adolescents
(Rageliene, 2016).

You can assist adolescents in their search for identity by:

• Allowing them freedom to experiment with roles, choose independently and

participate in life without guilt feelings.

• Helping them to strive for realistic self-images. Remember if the image that
adolescents strive for differs too much from their true selves, this may lead to
identity diffusion and identity confusion. So help them to accept themselves
as they are, with all their strengths and weaknesses.
 FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Help them to acquire an appropriate gender role identity, occupational identity and
ethnic identity. With regard to occupational identity, give them access to information
about a large variety of careers and help them to arrive, through self-knowledge, at a
sensible decision. Regarding ethnic identity, you should help them not only to
experience their own identity positively but also to respect the values and customs of
other ethnic groups.

FeedFORWARD (Reflect/Improve):

During the identity formation stage, individual strive to develop a sense of who they
are, what their values are, and where they fit into the world around them. It is
important because the formation of identity influences how individual’s behaviour,
decision-making, and overall well-being.

[1] their sense of their own worth. Synonyms: self-esteem, self-confidence, self-respect,
self-image

[2] exploration of the subtle, unconscious, and transpersonal aspects of human

experiences.

4.2.3 The African worldview

The African scholar, Bame Nsamenang (1992), confirms Erikson’s emphasis on

socialisation as an important aspect of human development. He described socialisation as
a process “based on obedience and social responsibility where an individual becomes a
fully-fledged social being within the co-cultural[1] context” (Ntshangase, in Gumbo &
Msila, 2017, p. 233). Individuality is not over-emphasised in the African context, hence the
concept of botho and the expression ‘Motho ke motho ka batho’ – that simply means ‘I am
because you are’. The moral principle of botho, as Magano and Ramnarain (2015) explain it,
is based on the belief that an individual’s humanity is expressed through personal
relationships with others in a community. Ubuntu on the other hand means ‘humanity to
others’ which reminds us that 'I am what I am because of who we all are'.

In an interview Wole Soyinka, the Nigerian-born poet, philosopher, playwright, political

activist and Nobel Prize winner for literature in 1986, had the following to say about
individualism and identity formation: “I think there is one principle, one essential morality
of African society which we must bear in mind, and that is, the greatest morality is what
makes the entire society survive ... I think the obsession with individual salvation is a very
European thing. I am not aware that it occupies the minds of our people” (Soyinka, 1999, p.
110).

From the discussions so far we have established that there is an agreement between
Erikson’s psychosocial theory and the African perspective that human development is a
social construct. Still, where Erikson’s theory mostly focuses on the social aspect, the
African perspective also emphasises physical (biological) development, cognition and
spirituality. Nsamenang (2006) argues that social ontogenetic[2] thinking does not exclude
nature; it assumes that all development is underpinned by biology. “The biological
commonality that the human species shares in the genetic code plays out into a
bewildering diversity of specific individuality across ecocultures[3]. Thus, different
ontogenetic pathways and intelligence are situated in the socio-ecological contexts and
cultural systems in which children are nurtured” (Nsamenang 2006). Nsamenang further
emphasises the importance of cognition in social learning – children engage as
participants in cultural communities while they learn their social roles.

According to the African view of personhood, the world is made up of two interdependent,
interpenetrating and complementary planes: the visible and the invisible; or the material
and the spiritual planes (Nwoye, 2017). The actions of those in the spiritual world,
therefore, influence the day-to-day lives of living people (Nwoye, 2017). The invisible,
spiritual world, is the abode of the spirits, including the divinities, ancestral and ghost
spirits, clan deities and other unknown invisible spiritual forces. In line with this
assumption, many people in Africa are motivated to behave themselves in accordance with
the mores/traditions/habits of the family or the community to avoid infuriating/angering
their ancestors. This belief is important for developing individuals, where it is believed that
successes or failures may be attributable to the actions of those in the spiritual world. For
Nsamenang (1992) the spiritual selfhood begins at conception, ends with the ceremony to
confer a name on a newborn, and commences again at the time of death. There is therefore
a great emphasis on community and a spirit of interdependence. Adults teach directly and
mentor young ones. Socialisation and education are organised by elders in such a way that
a child assumes “roles of responsibility through guided participation in valued cultural and
economic activities at different stages of development” (Ntshangase, in Gumbo and Msila,
2017, p. 233).

Nsamenang (2006) explains as follows: “As children are initiated into and actively engage in
cultural life, they gradually and systematically individuate into and assume particular levels
of personhood, identity, and being. Individuation is the process by which the human being
comes to a sense of self and personal identity in search of individuality—an imprint on the
human person by the ecoculture. Within the African worldview, human beings not only
need other humans but also social responsibility to individuate adequately and attain full
personhood. Thus, a sense of self cannot be achieved without reference to the community
of other humans in terms of being interconnected and enacting one’s social roles.”

According to Nsamenang (1992) the time prior to adolescence is a time of “social

priming[4]” and “social apprenticeship[5]”, where children learn social rules and family and
cultural roles. The child’s main developmental task during this period (which spans more or
less the first four stages of Erikson’s psychosocial theory) is to recognise roles and to
practice and internalize them according to their developmental status and their ability.
During this time siblings and peers play an important role. This stage is followed by two
changes in social status. The first is the social entrée where biological changes related to
puberty take place. During this time initiation rites and rituals take place, while the child is
still socially regarded as a naïve novice. The second phase in adolescence is the social
internship where developmental rites end and the naïve novice enters the status of
a socialized neophyte/novice or recruit. The young person is now ready to strive and plan
for adult roles such as marriage and parenthood, while the ideals and standards of the
family and community must be maintained, and responsibilities must be met.

Refer to the following chapter on an African perspective of the ecological model of

human development. TABANE 2014: The ecological model of human development: An
African perspective.

This perspective is best understood in the philosophy of Ubuntu, which means that a
person lives in “harmony with other people, nature, the gods and the ancestors. Ubuntu
grants freedom to a person, not as an isolated individual but as a member of society and
has been translated as meaning the spirit of humaneness, social justice and fairness”
(Jordaan 2018:5).
 FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Refer to Tabane (2016) (The ecological model of human development: An African

perspective) that can be found under E-Reserves on myUnisa to answer the following
questions:

• Reflect on your personal situation and life journey, similar to how Khaya’s case
was examined. Consider each system or cosmos and think of examples from
your own life.

• Now that you have learner about the ecological or bio-ecological model, what
factors would you take into account when supporting a learner who is facing
difficulties in school?

• How would you apply your understanding of African ecological development to

address challenges that a learner in your community may be experiencing due
to their family’s belief system?

Go to the E-tutor site and discuss this with your peers.

FeedBACK (Action/Process):

When supporting a learner who is facing difficulties in school, there are several
factors to consider based on the ecological or bio-ecological model. This model
emphasizes the complex interplay between a learner and their environment, including
their physical, social, cultural and historical context. It is important to take a holistic
and multidimentional approach that considers all of these factors and how they
interact with each other.

FeedFORWARD (Reflect/Improve):

Carefully study Tabane (2016) in order to understand a learner’s development from an

African viewpoint, considering the micro-; meso-; exo-; macro-; and chronosystems.

[1] group whose values, beliefs or behaviors set it apart from the larger culture, which it is a
part of and with which it shares many similarities. Cultures may comprise many subsets,
and these co-cultures may thrive within them.
[2] origination and development of an organism (both physical and psychological, e.g.,
moral development), usually from the time of fertilization of the egg to adult.

[3] the conservation of our natural heritage (which could be called ecoculture or natural
culture) thereby involving culture and environment

[4] the idea that subtle cues can exert large, unconscious influences on human behaviour.

[5] learning in informal settings rather than formal contexts like classrooms

4.3 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS OF THE ADOLESCENT

Adolescence is a time of change in all relationships – with parents, siblings, teachers, other
adults, the peer group and friends. The adolescent becomes gradually less dependent on
parents and other adults, and closer to the peer group and friends. Through all this change,
(and sometimes, even conflict) the adolescent experiments with new roles, while steadily
becoming more and more their own person.

4.3.1 Parent-adolescent relationship

While adolescence is a transitional period linking childhood and adulthood, it is indeed a

turbulent period where the adolescent is struggling to find an identity. At the same time, it
is also a time of decision making, self-evaluation, commitment, and carving out a place in
the world (Santrock, 2009:20). There is a positive and negative side to this period of change.
The positive side is that adolescents may learn from mistakes and mould desired elements
of success as they form their identity. However, this phase of development can also be
characterised by negative events like rebellion, crisis, deviance, and adopting destructive
paths in life. The rebellion and conflict may take place between parent and adolescent
child. However, the nature and extent of the conflict will depend on factors in the society,
as well as characteristics of parents and their adolescent child.

Refer to Louw and Louw (2022:520-531) for more information about the parent-
adolescent relationship, different parenting styles and addressing conflict.
Educational implications of parent-adolescent relationships

As a teacher, there are several ways you can promote parent-adolescent relationships:

• Communication: Encourage open and regular communication between parents and

adolescents. Provide regular updates to parents about their child’s progress and
encourage parents to share any concerns they may have.

• Parent-teacher conferences: Schedule regular parent-teacher meetings to discuss

the adolescent’s academic progress and any concerns. This provides an opportunity
for parents to ask questions and learn more about their child’s academic and social
development.

• Positive reinforcement: Provide positive feedback to both parents and adolescents.

Recognise and celebrate the achievements of both parents and adolescents. This
helps to build a positive relationship between parents and adolescents.

• Classroom culture: Foster a classroom culture that values and promotes positive
relationships. Encourage learners to work collaboratively and respectfully with each
other and provide opportunities for learners to support each other academically and
socially

By promoting parent-adolescent relationships, you can help support the academic and
social development of your learners.

4.3.2 Peer group relationships

Ronzetti and Curran (1998) define peers as individuals who are about the same age and
who share the same social position and interests. The peer group often consists of cliques,
usually of the same sex, and who intimately and intensely share their experiences. While
developing independence from their parents, adolescents spend more time with peers.
This implies that needs such as the need to belong, to be accepted and become attached
to friends in a peer group usually intensify during adolescence. Therefore, affiliation to a
peer group is of importance to the adolescent. Peers are a source of influence as well as
support, as they facilitate the much-needed independence from parents and provide
feelings of being valued and accepted. This is articulated by Dacey and Travers (in Kiran-
Esen, 2012) who state that being part of a peer group allows adolescents to be recognized
and accepted by people of a similar age and stage. At this stage, adolescents tend to bond
with peers, adjusting their earlier bond with family.

Peer influence, therefore, becomes instrumental in shaping the adolescent’s behaviour as

time spent with peers increases. Furthermore, many adolescents value the way they are
viewed by their peers. Healthy peer relationships play an important role in assisting
individuals with the development of social skills, social-cognitive abilities, and moral
reasoning skills. Therefore, the peer group acts as a source of information about the world
outside the family, and the adolescents also receive feedback about their abilities from
peers. In this way, the peer gives adolescents the opportunity to evaluate themselves.

Although such relationships mean a lot to adolescents, it may leave them vulnerable to
peer pressure from the group on which they depend for acceptance. Peer relationships can
have both positive and negative effects. It is positive when the adolescent joins peers in
youth organisations, and negative when they join an a-social group like gangsters or mobs.
Some teenage groups encourage engagement in all sorts of negative conformity behaviour,
such as vandalism, substance use/abuse/distribution and presenting unruly behaviour to
parents and teachers. Peers may negatively influence each other, and it is only when good
parenting skills are implemented that adolescents are guided towards peers who promote
desired behaviour outcomes (Bvirakare 2018). Santrock (2009:230) suggests that a great
deal of peer conformity is not negative but just consists of the desire to be involved in the
peer world. High achievers can act as role models to the other peers, motivating them to
strive for success as well.

Educational implications of peer group relationships

Below are some ways in which peer group relationships can impact education:

• Socialisation: Peer groups can provide a socialisation process for learners, teaching
them about social norms, values, and behaviours that are important in their
particular cultural context. Through interactions with peers, learners learn how to
communicate effectively, resolve conflicts, and negotiate relationships, skills that
are essential for success in school and beyond.

• Motivation: Peers can influence learners’ motivation to learn. If learners perceive

that their peers value academic achievement, they are more likely to be motivated
to achieve themselves. Conversely, if learners perceive that their peers do not value
academic achievement, they may be less motivated to succeed academically.

• Academic achievement: Peer group relationships can have both positive and
negative effects on academic achievement. Positive peer relationships can provide
social support, encouragement, and opportunities for collaborative learning, which
 can enhance academic achievement. Negative peer relationships, on the other
hand, can be a source of distraction, disengagement, and social pressure to engage
in behaviours that are detrimental to academic success.

• Self-esteem: Peer group relationships can impact learners’ self-esteem, which in

turn can affect their academic performance. Positive peer relationships can provide
social validation and support, which can enhance self-esteem. Negative peer
relationships can lead to feelings of social exclusion, rejection, and low self-
esteem.

• Bullying: Peer group relationships can also contribute to bullying and victimisation
in schools. Learners who are bullied by their peers may experience negative impacts
on their mental health, academic achievement, and overall well-being.

Overall, peer group relationships can have significant educational implications for learners,
and it is important for teachers to understand the dynamics of peer relationships and to
provide learners with opportunities for positive social interactions and supportive
relationships.

Refer to Louw and Louw (2022:531-550) for more information about the structure of the
peer group, conformity, friendships, romantic relationships, and adolescents and
cyberspace..

FeedUP (Activity/Task):

Jade’s parents are very anxious about the effects of social media, and therefore
decide that they will not provide Jade with a cellphone or access to the internet. Do
you think this is a good idea? Argue your position.

FeedBACK (Action/Process):

During adolescence, the access and use of technologies become very important tools
when it comes to socialization. You can refer to Louw and Louw (2022:545-547) as
they discuss the positive and negative aspects when it comes to cyberspace and the
adolescent.
 FeedUP (Activity/Task):

While completely withholding access to social media and the internet may not be the
best solution, it is essential for parents to be mindful of the potential risks associated
with these technologies and to take appropriate steps to ensure their child’s safety
and well-being.

FeedFORWARD (Reflect/Improve):

While it is understandable for parents to be concerned about the negative effects of

social media, completely withholding access to technology can have its own set of
drawbacks. The internet and social media have become an integral part of our lives,
and being completely cut off from them can hinder a child’s ability to develop
essential digital literacy skills.

Moreover, not having access to sical media and the internet can also lead to social
isolation and difficulties in socialization, especially since these technologies have
become a primary way for young people to connect and communicate with their
peers. Without access to social media, children and teenagers may also miss out on
opportunities for learning and personal growth, such as accessing educational
resources, pursuing hobbies, and exploring different perspectives and cultures.

That being said, it is also important for parents to establish guidelines and rules
around the use of social media and the internet. Encouraging responsible usage,
setting limits on screen time, and monitoring online activity can all be effective
strategies to help children navigate the digital world safely and responsibly.

4.4 SELF-CONCEPT AND SELF-ESTEEM

Getting to know who they are, how they feel about themselves and how they evaluate
themselves are very important tasks of adolescence. Cognitive development and
interaction with others will influence the way the self-concept and self-esteem of the
adolescent will develop.

Self-concept refers to the individual's belief about himself or herself, including the
person's attributes and who and what the self is.

Self-esteem refers to feelings of self-worth. The self-concept and self-esteem influence

adolescents’ mental health.
According to the African view of personhood, the self-concept and self-esteem develop
while children and adolescents, who are considered co-participants in social and
cultural life, engage socially and while they learn social rules and roles (Nsamenang
2006).

Educational implications of self-concept and self-esteem

Below are some ways in which teachers can contribute to the development of self-concept
and self-esteem in adolescents:

• Providing a positive and supportive classroom environment: Teachers can create a

safe and positive classroom environment where learners feel valued, respected,
and supported. This can be achieved by promoting positive interactions,
encouraging participation, and showing genuine interest in their learners’ lives.

• Encouraging learners to set and achieve realistic goals: Teachers can help learners
set achievable goals and work towards them. When learners achieve their goals, it
helps boost their self-confidence and self-esteem.

• Acknowledging and celebrating learner achievements: Teachers can acknowledge

and celebrate the accomplishments of their learners. This helps learners feel
recognised and appreciated, which can enhance their self-esteem.

• Providing constructive feedback: Teachers can provide constructive feedback that

helps learners improve their skills and abilities. Feedback should be specific and
focused on the task, rather than the learners’ personality or character.

• Being a positive role model: Teachers can serve as positive role models of their
learners. Modelling positive behaviours, attitudes, and values can help learners
develop a positive self-concept and self-esteem.

Refer to Louw and Louw (2022:512-516) for more information about self-concept and
the adolescents’ understanding of self.

4.5 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Personality is often used to describe an individual’s social dimension, in other words, to

describe the person’s disposition towards others. For example, one may refer to
an outgoing personality or a strong personality. Both these descriptions refer to the kind of
person the individual is when they are with other people. It may also refer to someone’s
behaviour patterns or their characteristics as a human being. This means that the
word personality refers to whatever makes the person who they are.

We can thus say that personality is the totality of all the physical, emotional, social,
environmental and spiritual characteristics that determine the behaviour of an individual.
Although some personality traits can change over time, personality is normally relatively
stable.

While personality traits can be seen in young children already, it is usually during
adolescence that a relatively stable, lasting personality starts to form. This is then the
question that many adolescents grapple with or ponder on during their adolescent years
namely, “Who am I?” According to Erikson (1963) this is the period where personality
integration can take place, on the condition that the first four psychosocial stages were
experienced with relative success. If an individual has during their childhood years
developed the ability to trust and to build relationships of trust; if they have developed the
skills to set personal boundaries and to take initiative and if they learnt competence and
developed self-confidence, the task of answering the question – Who am I? – becomes
easier.

For the purposes of this module, we want to emphasise the importance of culture and
context in personality development. People always function in an environment with
particular physical, social and cultural features, and this context co-determines their
personality development. During colonisation and Apartheid in South Africa, as in other
colonised countries, Western views of personality, of who and what one should be, have
been imposed on indigenous people, negating their language, philosophies and
worldviews. To build a stable, balanced personality, an individual needs to take pride in
who they are and in where they comes from. This is important as it is through their own
worldviews and philosophies that people make sense of the world.

As with other sciences, Western psychology was brought to South Africa as part of the
general transfer of knowledge and technology (Mkhize 2004), presenting Western ways to
understand personality development. While these theories may all add value to the
different perspectives on personality development, it is necessary to look at personality
development from an African perspective.

Where the self in most Western psychological theories centres around the individual and
individual development, the development of the self, according to the African perspective,
takes place while a child is surrounded by the stories, experiences and history of Africa that
are told by parents, family members and elders (Okeke 2014). This togetherness will be
explained by using the concepts communalism, complementarity and cultural self-
expression.

4.5.1 Collectivism and personality development

Another word for togetherness is collectivism. It is seen clearly in the

wellknown expression, “motho ke motho ka batho” (Sotho/Setswana) or “umuntu
ngumuntu ngabantu” (Zulu), which means a person is a person through others (Nwoye,
2017). It implies humanness, respect, care and interconnectedness, a spirit of
compassion, hospitality and sharing as well as dignity in one’s relations with others. In
essence, it means that in traditional African societies, personality development takes place
in the community, where the child belongs. The identity is defined by being a part of the
community and the group is seen as the primary unit. Mbiti (1970, cited in Higgs & Smith,
2017) describes a close-knit environment that is bound to influence the individual’s
developing personality: “Whatever happens to the individual happens to the whole group,
and whatever happens to the group happens to the individual. The individual can only say:
“I am, because we are and since we are; therefore I am.” Similarly, Anozie
(2018:19) observes: “mmetuko ahu bu uto ndu”, which means, “the beauty of life is in
mixing up with others”.

4.5.2 Complementarity and personality development

Bame Nsamenang (2007) posits that “human development always occurs in a specific
eco-culture defined by geography, history, climate and the socio-cultural system”. Society
is organised in such a way that it includes the teaching of social rules within the family and
community systems. This view is supported by Africa’s philosophy of complementarity, as
the underlying principle of Africa’s portrayal of the image of life (Ngwaba, cited in Nwoye
2017). Onwaunibe (1983) refers to the Western explanation of reciprocity rather as a
“mutuality” or a balance between person, culturality and community. This translates into
an underlying goal of well-being of the environment. Furthermore, the goal of
environmental well-being is not only reached through the application of science, but also
through applying communal values, spirituality, customs and genuine self-expression.

4.5.3 Cultural self-expression and personality development

Although valued, scientific progress needs a humanitarian element, namely that the
community should be free to exercise cultural self-expression, and belief in their self-
reliance and self-esteem. Cultural self-expression, which underlies a cultural self-
comprehension of Africanness, is at the root of personality development. Authentic self-
expression implies the development of the continent through its own cultural identities and
its own customs, languages, values and image of life (Oguejiofor & Ezenwa-Ohaeto 2015).

Educational implications of personality development

Personality development can have several educational implications, including:

• Tailoring instructional methods: Different personalities respond differently to

different teaching methods. By understanding learners’ personalities, teachers can
tailor their instructional methods to better engage and motivate them.

• Identifying learning styles: Personality development can help teachers identify

learners’ learning styles. Some learners may be visual learners, while others may be
auditory or kinesthetic learners. By understanding learners’ learning styles, teachers
can create lessons that are more effective and engaging.

• Facilitating social and emotional learning: Personality development can help

teachers support social and emotional learning. Social and emotional learning is
the process through which children and adults acquire and effectively apply the
knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to understand and manage emotions, set
and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and
maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions. By understanding
learners’ personalities, teachers can better support social and emotional learning
and help learners develop critical social and emotional skills.

• Promoting self-awareness and self-efficacy: Personality development can help

learners develop self-awareness and self-efficacy. Self-awareness involves
understanding one’s own personality, strengths, weaknesses, and emotions. Self-
efficacy involves believing in one’s own ability to succeed. By promoting self-
awareness and self-efficacy, teachers can help learners become more confident
and successful learners.

By understanding learners’ personalities, teachers can create more effective and engaging
learning environments that support the social, emotional, and academic development of
all learners.

4.6 IDENTITY FORMATION

Santrock (2009:23) noted that adolescence is a time when the adolescent’s unique identity
emerges. During this process, the adolescent attempts to sort through and synthesise
childhood identities as well as other identifications to construct a pathway towards adult
maturity. At this time adolescents ask: What am I in the eyes of other people? and “Do
other people see me the same way as I see myself?” While considering cultural, social and
familial expectations, they will be trying to find an own ideology, vocational direction, and
other identifications such as a sexual orientation.

As explained earlier, identity formation is a social process. The first conception of a social
identity stemmed from a theory propounded by Henri Tajfel (1979, in Postmes and
Branscombe, 2010). He stated that social identity is a person’s sense of who they, based on
their perception of their place in the group of which they a member. Erikson (1963) calls
this quest for self-image, continuity in life and congruence between the self-image and the
role expectations of society, the search for identity. “Identity is a complex concept which
can be defined as people’s images of themselves, including the feeling that a thread of
continuity runs through their lives, and that their self-images and the views others have of
them are essentially in agreement” (Erikson 1963:261).

One of the most important constructs in identity development is self-differentiation,

which is an element of emotional maturity. It is the ability to separate your own intellectual
and emotional functioning from that of the family or group of which you form part. It is
a progressive, internal interplay between autonomy (separation) and connection
(togetherness) while progressing toward established and evolving goals (Ritzer and Smart,
2001). Self-differentiated individuals are team players. They cooperate, look out for one
another’s welfare, and stay in adequate contact during stressful as well as calm periods.
They do not isolate themselves from their group but connect with its members and focus
on togetherness. The self-differentiated individual takes responsibility for any
predicaments, hurdles or problems in their life, and plans and makes decisions which
always show some responsibility towards others. They do not resist authority or disrespect
cultural norms but has the internal status of knowing who they and of taking care of others
in their own and other groups.

During this process, adolescents experience many conflicting demands on their behaviour,
because they are pushing for autonomy from parents, and at the same time attempting to
conform to peers as well. This is usually a time when adolescents are stereotypically
described as generally difficult to live with, and with problematic behaviour. The quest for
identity often causes adolescents to clash with the rules of society and with persons who
are close to them. The danger of the quest for identity and the possible consequences of
conflict with societal rules, cultural values or familial expectations is that adolescents may
become confused in their search for identity and a suitable social role.

George Herbert Mead’s (1929) major contribution to the field of social psychology was his
attempt to show how the human self arises in the process of social interaction, especially
by way of linguistic communication (“symbolic interaction”). Instead of approaching
human experience in terms of individual psychology, Mead analyses experience from the
“standpoint of communication as essential to the social order”. Individual psychology, for
Mead, is intelligible only in terms of social processes. For Mead, the self, like the mind, is a
social emergent. This social conception of the self, Mead argues, entails that individual
selves are the products of social interaction and not the (logical or biological)
preconditions of that interaction. Mead contrasts his social theory of the self with
individualistic theories of the self (that is, theories that presuppose the priority of selves to
social process). “The self is something which has a development; it is not initially there, at
birth, but arises in the process of social experience and activity, that is, it develops in the
given individual as a result of his/her relations to that process as a whole and to other
individuals within that process” (Mead, 1934: 225). Self-consciousness, then, involves that
the human being as subject (the thinking “I”) can make theirselves the object of their
thoughts. In other words, we can think about our own thoughts, behaviour and feelings. The
individual, according to Mead, “can enter as an object [to him/herself] only on the basis of
social relations and interactions, only by means of their experiential transactions with
other individuals in an organized social environment” (Mead, 1934: 225).

While Mead’s outline of the development of self, or identity, seemingly fully supports the
African view of the development of self, the African view of self does not encourage
reference to a human being as an object. According to the African perspective of identity
development, it is of great importance that a person must be thought of as a subject, rather
than an object. This distinction is made by Unwuanibe (cited in Masaeli, Yaya & Sneller,
2018). Onwuanibe likens object-orientated thinking to control and exploitation. He argues
for subject-orientated thinking as a way to recognise the freedom of the other person.
Being a subject, rather than an object, denotes that the person is not to be used, abused
and exploited. As a subject, the human being is an end in themselves, with dignity and
freedom to actualise their actual agency. This is possibly a reply to the African child as the
historical “other”, as described by external dominant cultures (Roby, Lambert &
Lambert 2009).

In conclusion, we present a poem written by a 16-year-old boy in which the developmental

task of forming an identity is very clear (Broughton 1981:23):

No one can describe

Me the way I am

No one can enter my brain

At least no mortal man

So if you say you know me,

Please sir, look again,

for no one knows who I am but me,

And then, do I really?

Educational implications of identity formation

Teachers can play a significant role in supporting the identity formation process of
adolescents. Here are some ways in which teachers can support adolescent identity
formation:

• Provide a safe and inclusive learning environment: Teachers can create a safe and
inclusive learning environment where learners feel comfortable expressing
themselves and exploring their identities. This can include promoting respectful
communication, celebrating diversity, and addressive any incidents of
discrimination or prejudice.

• Encourage self-reflection: Teachers can encourage learners to reflect on their

beliefs, values, and goals, and provide opportunities for self-expression. This can
include activities such as journaling, class discussions, and creative projects.

• Foster positive relationships: Teachers can build positive relationships with their
learners by showing interest in their lives, listening to their concerns, and providing
emotional support. This can help learners feel more secure in their identity and
develop a sense of belonging.

• Challenge stereotypes and biases: Teachers can challenge stereotypes and biases
that may impact learners’ sense of identity, such as those based on race, gender, or
sexual orientation. This can include promoting critical thinking, encouraging diverse
perspectives, and addressing any misconceptions or stereotypes.

• Provide mentorship and guidance. Teachers can serve as mentors and guides to
their learners, providing advice and guidance on academic and personal matters.
This can help learners develop a sense of direction and purpose in their lives.
Refer to Louw and Louw (2022:498-511) for more information about identity formation.

4.7 CONCLUSION

At the end of this unit, you may realise the significance of adolescents’ social development,
and specifically the importance for adolescents to establish who they are, what they want
to become, what sexual orientation they are comfortable with and what identity they have.
An accepting teacher can enhance these developments. Once adolescents become sure
of who they are, they can accept others who are different from them and become mature,
well-adjusted adults in their society.

In the next learning unit, the emotional, moral and religious development of the adolescent
is discussed.