PED3701

Unit 7

In the previous learning units, you have learnt about the physical, cognitive,
social, emotional, moral and spiritual development of the adolescent. You
have also come across the developmental challenges they face during
adolescence. In this unit we will discuss aspects such as motivation and we
will find out why some adolescents want to make a success of their lives;
why they want to learn in school, be responsible and do their best to be able
to provide for themselves and their families one day; and what teachers can
do to motivate learners to achieve academically and to be conscientious.

We will also focus on learning – how people learn and theories explaining
how learning takes place. Furthermore, there are individual differences with
regard to how people learn and we will make you aware of different learning
styles.

This unit will enable you to

 understand that motivation is a complex concept and that one can be

motivated by internal or external influences.

 know how to promote a culture of teaching and learning that cultivates

motivation.

 understand how to help teachers to realise that education cannot only

rely or remain using traditional teaching methods.

 have an overview of different learning theories and to realise that

learners have different ways of learning.

You will have to actively participate in: all online discussions; logging into
myUnisa to access your reading material; complete and submit activities;
and summarise the unit for yourself (e.g., mind map) to help you prepare for
the exam. It is of utmost importance that you ask for support if concepts are
unclear to you via myUnisa.

7.2 MOTIVATION

According to Graham (2020) ‘motivation’ is the study of why individuals

behave as they do: what gets their behaviour started and what directs,
energises, sustains, and eventually terminates action. Looking at this
definition, it is easy to recognise the vital role teachers and education plays
in fostering and sustaining motivation in learners. They can create a
supportive learning environment, provide meaningful and challenging tasks,
offer opportunities for autonomy and self-direction, establish clear
expectations and goals, offer feedback and recognition, and promote a sense
of relevance and value in learning.

Teachers are confronted with finding the most effective ways of supporting
learners to develop their learning potential, and to find ways of fostering
their motivation to want to learn and achieve. Not all learners are equally
motivated to expend or apply their time, abilities and efforts to engage with
schoolwork. Therefor it is imperative for teachers to understand how they
can play a role in influencing learners’ motivation positively. This is an
important skill that teachers need to develop.

7.2.1 Maslow’s self-actualisation theory

One of the most influential theorists regarding motivation is the American

psychologist Abraham Harold Maslow. Maslow developed a theory of
psychological health based on fulfilling human needs in priority (hierarchy)
which is concluded in self-actualisation. Maslow proposed that individuals
have a set of hierarchical needs that must be satisfied in a specific order,
starting with basic physiological needs (such as food, water, and shelter) and
progressing to higher-level needs such as safety, love and belonging,
esteem, and self-actualization. When a human being ascends or climbs the
levels of the hierarchy, having fulfilled the lower-order needs, such a person
may eventually achieve personal growth, self-actualisation, or self-fulfilment.
Figure 7.2: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

"Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs". Archived from the original on September 7,

2011. Retrieved September 18, 2011.

Maslow (1968, 1970) proposed that people are motivated to achieve certain
needs and that some needs take priority or preference over others. He
emphasized that some needs are more basic and more powerful than others
and that one needs to fulfil the basic needs first before fulfilling others. The
following numbers represents the level on how needs are ranked.

1. Physiological needs: air, food, water shelter, clothing, sleep

2. Safety and security needs: health, employment, property, family, stability

3. Love and belongingness needs: friendship, family, intimacy, connections

4. Self-esteem needs: confidence, achievements, respect for others,

connections, need for individuality

5. Self-actualisation: morality, creativity, spontaneity, acceptance,

experience, purpose, meaning, and inner potential

These needs can be grouped into three categories namely, physiological

(basic) needs, psychological needs and self-fulfilment needs.

 Physiological needs = physiological + safety:

Satisfying the physiological needs is seen as motivated behaviour at its
lowest level. Satisfying these basic needs of a learner is a prerequisite for
motivation to learning. For example, if a learner is hungry, the learner will
not be motivated to learn.

 Psychological needs = love & belonging + self-esteem:

The basic needs (e.g., protection and safety) and the social needs (e.g., love
and belonging) of the learner have an influence on their self-fulfilment needs
(e.g. academic achievement). Looking at the developmental profile of the
adolescent, this learner is mainly characterized by the need for love,
acceptance and belonging. Failure to meet the adolescents’ need for safety
and social needs may result in deviant behaviour. The need for appreciation
and self-esteem is central to adolescent development. This need includes
two groups, one of which is centred on respect and self-esteem, and the
other one around respect and approval.

 Self-fulfilment needs = self-actualisation:

Self-fulfilment needs encompass the desire for individuals to reach their

fullest potential, to become all that they are capable of becoming, and to
achieve a sense of personal satisfaction and fulfilment in their lives.
Adolescents particularly display the need to achieve and to experience
independence and freedom and answer the question “who am I”? The need
for self-actualisation is the highest need in Maslow’s pyramid.

7.2.2 Motivation and attribution theory

By studying the observed causes of achievement success and failure,

Bernard Weiner (1986; 2018) introduced the study of attribution theory to
motivation and educational psychology. Attribution theory focus on
understanding why an event or behaviour occurred, to understand the cause
of other people’s behaviour (Weiner, 2018). In other words, the attribution
theory aims to explain why people generally strive to make sense of the
world around them by attributing causes to behaviours or events. They tend
to make attributions based on three dimensions, namely:

 locus of control

 stability

 controllability

Locus of control:
This dimension refers to whether the cause of a behaviour or event is
perceived as internal (within the individual) or external (outside of the
individual). For example, an individual may attribute their success in a job
interview to their own skills and abilities (internal locus of control) or to
external factors such as luck or the interviewer’s mood (external locus of
control).

Figure 7.3: Dimensions of Attribution theory

 Stability:

This dimension refers to whether the cause of behaviour or event is seen as

stable or unstable over a period of time. For example, if an individual
attributes their failure in an exam to their lack of intelligence (stable cause),
they may believe that they will continue to perform poorly in future exams.
On the other hand, if they attribute their failure to a lack of preparation
(unstable cause), they may believe that they can improve their performance
by studying more in the future.

 Controllability:

This dimension involves the perception of whether the cause of a behaviour

or event is controllable or uncontrollable. For example, if someone attributes
their weight gain to their genetic predisposition (uncontrollable cause), they
may feel less responsible for their weight gain, and less likely to engage in
efforts to lose it. Conversely, if they attribute their weight gain to their
unhealthy eating habits (controllable cause), they may feel more motivated
to change their diet and exercise habits. Gouws, 2019; Slavin, 2012

7.2.3 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation refers to activities that people to “for their own sake”, or
for their own interest and enjoyment (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Intrinsically
motivated people want to perform because they would like to and because
they find the task at hand interesting and informative and derive a sense of
self-actualisation from it. Interests and intrinsic motivation are closely linked.
A person who is interested in a particular task will also be motivated to
undertake the task and carry it out without any encouragement or pressure
from others (Gouws, 2019).

Extrinsic motivation on the other hand refers to sources of motivation that

come from outside oneself, from external factors. People who are
extrinsically motivated take action because of one of the following (Kolesnik,
1978; Santrok, 2013; Gouws, 2019):

 Something or someone other than themselves has prompted them to

do something.

 Someone other than themselves will reward them.

 They want to impress or satisfy someone other than themselves.

 They will be punished if they don’t take action.

Educational implications for motivating learners in your classroom:

As a teacher you play a crucial role in the motivation of your learners. Below
we discuss some of the ways in which you can contribute to foster their
motivation:

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION:

 Autonomy and choice: Teachers can provide learners with opportunities

to make choices and have some control over their learning. This can
include selecting topics for projects or offering different approaches to
assignments.

 Promoting curiosity and interest: Teachers can create an engaging and

stimulating learning environment that encourages curiosity and
exploration. They can use varied instructional methods, real-world
examples, and hands-on activities to spark learners' interest in the
subject matter.

 Providing meaningful feedback: Constructive feedback that focuses on

effort, improvement, and mastery rather than simply grades or scores
can help learners develop a sense of competence and intrinsic
 motivation. Teachers can offer specific feedback that highlights
strengths and areas for growth.

 Encouraging intrinsic goals: Teachers can emphasize the value of

learning for personal growth, mastery, and self-improvement rather
than solely focusing on external rewards like grades or prizes. By
highlighting the inherent value of learning, teachers can inspire
learners to develop a genuine love for the subject.

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION:

Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in an activity to obtain external

rewards or avoid punishments. While it is not as desirable as intrinsic
motivation, it can still be effectively used by teachers to support learners
learning and achievement. Here are some strategies for promoting extrinsic
motivation:

 Clear expectations and rewards: Teachers can establish clear

expectations for learner performance and communicate the rewards or
recognition associated with meeting those expectations. This can
include certificates, verbal praise, class privileges, or other forms of
recognition.

 Goal setting and progress tracking: By involving learners in setting

specific, attainable goals and tracking their progress, teachers can help
create a sense of achievement and motivation. Teachers can provide
regular feedback on goal attainment and celebrate milestones
reached.

 Cooperative and competitive activities: Teachers can design learning

experiences that incorporate cooperative and competitive elements.
Cooperative activities encourage learners to work together, fostering a
sense of teamwork and shared accomplishment. Competitive activities,
when used appropriately, can spur students to strive for success and
engage actively in their learning.

 Celebrating successes: Recognizing and celebrating learners'

achievements, both big and small, can be a powerful motivator.
Teachers can acknowledge individual and collective accomplishments,
which helps reinforce positive behaviors and encourages learners to
continue their efforts.

By combining these approaches thoughtfully, teachers can create an

environment that fosters motivation, engagement, and a love for learning in
their learners. Motivation plays an important role in determining the level of
engagement, effort, and persistence that leaners exhibit in their learning.

7.3 ADOLESCENT TEACHING AND LEARNING

Teachers must guide learners in their acquisition of knowledge, skills and

values and must also facilitate the application of what they have learnt to
everyday life and to achieve their goals in life. This is a challenging task
because of everyone’s uniqueness and the diversity of learners from
different socio-economic backgrounds and with different holistic profiles
(e.g., cognitive abilities, spiritual, cultural etc.).

7.3.1 What is teaching, learning and cognition?

Teaching and learning form a single and integrated concept. The value of
teaching can therefore be found in the type of learning it encourages and the
behaviour changes that stems from this learning. There is no single way to
learn. Learning is a complex and ongoing process throughout a person’s life.
Learning involves a process of change from not knowing to knowing, because
of experience and practice. Human achievement is driven by learning, which
has made learning a core topic of focus throughout the history of psychology
as a science (Young & Wasserman, 2005:1).

Looking to cognition as ability to learn, we can safely assume that cognition

is concerned with the process of “getting to know”, but it also entails
awareness, judgement and the product of knowing (Davis, 2013:1). It thus
has to do with thinking (or mental activities such as reasoning, perceiving,
attending and remembering. Cognition and learning are inter-linked; the one
goes with the other. New experiences lead to new awareness and concepts.
We therefore become aware of new information; we learn it and it then
becomes part of our body of knowledge (Davis, 2013:1).
Figure 7.4: Cognition and learning interaction

The brain is constantly trying to make sense of the world around us. We are
often not even aware of the way our brains process information. Learning
involves aspects such as attention, comprehension, memory, problem
solving and decision-making. You need to remember that communication and
language are important in the cognitive learning process. According to
Weiten, Hammer and Dunn (2018:229) learning is the process involved in
observable behaviour changes. For example, a teacher explains a
mathematics concept to learners, and notes that they struggle to grasp the
concept and apply their knowledge. She changed her teaching method and
learners then understood the concept and were able to apply their
knowledge. In our example it is clear that both the learners and the teacher
have learnt (Weiten et al., 2018).

Education in formal environments is influenced by numerous factors, some of

which are unique or intrinsic to the learner while others are extrinsic or in the
environment of the learner, influencing their learning acquisition and
experiences. Intrinsic and extrinsic factors can exert a mutual influence on
each other. In a diverse classroom environment, teachers need to take these
factors into consideration to unlock learning opportunities for all their
learners. In doing so, teachers should have knowledge of teaching and
learning, cognitive development and the theories that inform learning (Nel &
Nel, 2016:35–36). This is the reason why we provide additional information
on theories that can guide and support teachers to use a variety of teaching
methods – to be able to guide a diversity of learners.

If you download the following open education resource from or click on the
hyperlink in the title, you will find a wealth of information to supplement your
knowledge of learning theories:

https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1000&context=education-textbooks

Zhou, M. & Brown, D. 2015. Educational Learning Theories.

Education Open Textbooks. Book
1. http://oer.galileo.usg.edu/education-textbooks/1

Save the PDF as “Zhou_Brown_Ed learning theories” for future reference.

7.3.2 Theories about learning

To date, there is no single, unified theory of learning but a number of theories

on different aspects of learning, each of which should be taken into account
in trying to understand learning (Young & Wasserman, 2005:12). These
theories are specifically relevant for teachers – to use when planning
teaching and learning (Eryaman & Genc, 2010:2). You should also note that
theories are not necessarily uncontested truths. Existing theories are
sometimes amended and new theories challenge or critique earlier theories –
with varying degrees of success. Some theories withstand the test of time
and others do not. Although there are many different approaches to learning,
the following paradigms[1] are seen as the foundations for the different
types of learning theories which can be sorted
as: behaviourism, cognitivism, (socio)constructivist and connectivism.

Behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism (including social constructivism),

and connectivism are all theories and frameworks that attempt to
understand and explain how people learn and acquire knowledge. While they
have distinct perspectives and approaches, there are some commonalities
among them, for instance:

1. Focus on Learning: All these theories are concerned with the process
of learning and how individuals acquire new knowledge or skills.

2. Influence of Environment: These theories acknowledge the

significance of the learning environment in shaping individuals'
learning experiences.

3. Psychological Perspective: They are grounded in psychology and

seek to explain learning and behaviour from a psychological
standpoint.

4. Developmental Aspect: They take into account the learners'

developmental stage and cognitive abilities.

Figure 7.5 gives a summary of the four types of learning theories.

Figure 7.5: Four types of paradigms of education underlying all
learning theories

Herewith a more elaborative discussion on each of the paradigms of

education and possible learning theories that stem from their underlying
assumptions and perspectives on learning.

7.3.2.1 Behaviourism

The basic proposition of behaviourism is that behaviour is a reaction (or a

response) to something in the environment (a stimulus). According to Louw,
Louw and Kail (2014), behaviour is therefore learnt from stimuli in the
environment and the contribution of the behaviourist theory is that it made
us aware of the importance of environmental influences (learners’
background, peers, teachers and the school atmosphere).

The learning theories typically associated with this paradigm are:

1. The first behaviourist, Watson, was influenced by a Russian scientist,

Ivan Pavlov, who did the well-known experiment with dogs to
illustrate classical conditioning. Pavlov rang a bell every time he
offered food to the dogs. The dogs salivated when they saw or tasted
the food and heard the bell. Later Pavlov only rang the bell, which
caused the dogs to salivate. This type of learning, where an initially
neutral stimulus (ringing of the bell) is combined with a stimulus
(food), and it stimulates a specific response (saliva), is called classical
conditioning – or in easier terms, learning through association. Watson
claimed that children develop only because of their environment and
not so much because of heredity (Louw et al., 2014).

2. Then came Skinner who suggested a different kind of learning. He

introduced operant conditioning: children learn by responses they
get from the environment, for example, by getting some kind of reward
or punishment. For instance, if a learner, Simon, does his homework,
he is praised by the teacher (he is rewarded). This will reinforce his
behaviour and he will keep on doing his homework. However, if Thabo
keeps on throwing paper balls at the girls, he is punished by the
teacher who keeps him in class after school and he cannot attend
soccer. This punishment may keep him from repeating his naughty
behaviour (Louw et al., 2014). This type of learning is also called
“learning through the consequences of your behaviour”.

3. Following this, Bandura (whom you know by this time) presented his
social learning theory, which he later called the social-cognitive theory
because he also acknowledged the role of cognition. He believed that
cognition plays a major role in the choice of behaviour. The choice of
behaviour is influenced by personal, behavioural and environmental
needs. Bandura suggested that children simply learn behaviour by
observing others (models) and imitate the behaviour after seeing the
consequences of the model’s behaviour (this is called observational
learning). Bandura also introduced the concept of self-efficacy which
plays a role when children decide whom to imitate (Louw et al., 2014).
Models can be positive (being rewarded for doing the right thing) or
negative (doing the wrong thing and suffering the consequences).
Negative models are less likely to motivate a change in behaviour.
 External reinforcement (rewards) and intrinsic reinforcement (“feeling
good” after performing the behaviour) influence learning.
Observational learning and modelling include the following
components:

Table 7.1: Components of observational learning

Focus You must pay attention to the model to learn something new. An
interesting model with whom you identify and who fits into your
local context, will catch your attention more fully and you will
learn.

Rememb You remember new information about what the model did and
er said. You think (reflect) about it later.

Repeat After watching and remembering the model’s behaviour, you try
to do it yourself. Repeating the behaviour may lead to lifelong
change.

Motivatio You must be motivated to repeat the behaviour. If you repeat the
n behaviour and you get positive results, you will keep doing it. If it
leads to negative results (punishment or failure), you will stop the
behaviour.

It is evident that we learn intentionally and unintentionally from the example

set to us by other people in our life world. A teacher who is a good role
model can therefore have an enormous influence on learners and can
definitely help to create an atmosphere of tolerance and optimism in our
country. By setting an example of integrity and productivity, and showing
that you intend to succeed, and that you intend to help others to succeed,
you will be making an enormous contribution.

7.3.2.2 Cognitivism

The basic proposition of cognitivism, is that mental processes, such as

perception, attention, memory, and problem-solving, can be studied
scientifically and understood as information processing activities within the
mind. Cognitivism focuses on the idea that human cognition involves internal
mental representations and processes that can be analyzed and studied
using various methods, including experimentation and computer modeling. It
emphasizes the importance of understanding the underlying structures and
mechanisms that enable cognitive processes, with the belief that these
processes can be explained using principles from fields like psychology,
neuroscience, linguistics, and artificial intelligence.

The learning theories typically associated with this paradigm are:

1. Piaget is a well-known cognitive theorist, describing how cognitive

development takes place until adolescence. You learnt about this
theory in learning unit 2 Piaget’s concepts, referring to the ways to
respond to new information, namely assimilation and accommodation,
are particularly important aspects for teachers to understand. Many
authors refer to the use of learners’ existing knowledge (when
assimilation takes place) and teaching of new information – when
learners must process new information (accommodation). Adolescents
can develop to the stage of formal operations, where they are able to
think abstractly, logically and idealistically about possibilities
(Hardman, 2016:220).

2. Miller developed the Information Processing Theory, where he views

learning as a process of information acquisition, storage, and retrieval.
It emphasizes the mental processes involved in encoding, storing, and
retrieving information, including attention, perception, memory, and
problem-solving.

Please note: Vygotsky’s theory is also a cognitive theory that you studied
in learning unit 2., however, most authors (e.g. Louw et al., 2016:28)
consider his theory to be close to socio-constructivism because of its
contextual and connectional nature.

7.3.2.3 Constructivism

The basic proposition of constructivism, is that knowledge and understanding

are actively constructed by individuals based on their prior experiences,
interactions with the environment, and social interactions. It suggests that
people actively create their own knowledge and meaning rather than
passively receiving it from the outside world. Constructivism emphasizes the
importance of the learner's active engagement, reflection, and interpretation
in the learning process. It also recognizes the influence of social and cultural
factors in shaping an individual's construction of knowledge. One of the main
characteristics of constructivism is that it differs from the idea that learners
are “empty vessels” that have to be filled up with knowledge (also called the
“talk-and-chalk” teaching) (Donald, Lazarus & Moolla, 2014:104). According
to the constructivist approach new knowledge is not passively taken in but it
is “actively and continuously constructed and reconstructed as the individual
progresses to higher levels of understanding” (Donald et al., 2014:104). The
approach is based on the principle that the brain is not an inactive organ but
is continuously learning. Furthermore, constructivism differs from the idea
that there is one truth that is unchanging (the positivist approach), because
what is true in one context may not be correct in another. A central concept
in constructivism is that people are actively and continuously constructing
the information or stimuli they receive from their environment.

The learning theories typically associated with this paradigm are:

They compare new information with remaining knowledge structures

(schemata). Schulze, Snowman and McCown (2016) explain that existing
structures are increased (assimilation) and new structures of knowledge are
formed (accommodation). Knowledge is constructed in social contexts
through social interaction (think of Vygotsky’s theory). Very often the
constructivist view of learning proposes active learning or guided discovery.
Another concept in constructivism is metacognition – people can be aware of
their own thinking and can evaluate their own thoughts and maybe improve
strategies to engage with new information. In addition, constructivism
emphasises:

1. When referring to social constructivism, it reminds us of Vygotsky’s

theory. As Schulze et al (2016) pointed out, Vygotsky proposed assisted
learning, where teachers or more informed learners can assist learners
(cooperative and collaborative learning). Also, an individual’s ability to
“represent the world in the mind” by using the “tools” of language,
mathematics or musical notation – they use the abstract symbols of
letters, numbers and music notes to symbolise the real world, which is
unique to humans (Donald et al., 2014:107–108). Davis’ (2013) view is
that adolescents learn successfully when they are in contact with
others and when they take part in discussions in a group. This is even
more so if the discussions are applicable to what happens outside
school. The connection with peers – talking to them, sharing
experiences with them – has social value, to feel part of the group, but
it also has cognitive results because peers can sometimes make
concepts clearer to each other. This can also lead to a sense of
independence (Davis, 2013). This “dialogic discourse” is in contrast
with the more traditional “monologic conversation” where the teacher
 was the only one talking (Davis, 2013:70–71). Vygotsky suggests that
children learn through others in their social environment (through the
help of adults and peers, by collaborative learning or guided learning)
or in Vygotsky’s words: “Learning is a social construct” (Vygotsky xxx)
This theory is important for teachers because it conveys the idea that
the skillful teacher supports the learner (“providing intellectual
scaffolding” – Gouws, 2019:40) by taking the learner’s level of
development and existing knowledge into account. Vygotsky also
proposed that learners work together and learn from each other
(cooperative learning). Vygotsky’s model therefore advocates
collaborative learning with peers and other adults. He sees the child as
an apprentice who acquires knowledge and skills through help from
those who already possess such knowledge. In Africa, adult and peer
mentors are quite useful in children’s learning – and learning occurs
when human beings are part of activities that are provided by the
society in which they live (Tchombe, 2011). A “community of practice”
builds on Vygotsky’s “social constructivism”, which requires the
interaction between social and practical elements in learning through
oral teachings and practical activities (Vygotsky, 1978). In this model
(Community of Practice) the learner functions at two levels:A) He or
she makes his or her learning meaningful through practical activity at
an intrapersonal (within the self) levelB) He or she interacts with others
using speech and cultural tools to connect the meaning of the
interpersonal (between people) world he or she shares with other

2. But what is meant by the concept “community of practice”? It was first

proposed in a book titled “Situated Learning” (Lave & Wenger, 1991),
after studying the people on the island of St Kilda. A “community of
practice” refers to the learning that occurs when people who have a
common interest in some subject or problem work together to share
ideas and find solutions (Lave & Wenger, 1991). The community
provides opportunities to learn how to do something or to improve and
do it better and it acts as a “collective store” of wisdom and
experience. In Africa and specifically in the Chewa culture, peer group
cooperation is very important. “Kugwirizana ndi anzache”, in Chi-
Chewa means to cooperate with one’s peers. It is a highly valued
dimension of behaviour in many societies in Africa. To work together in
harmony towards a shared goal is the dynamic relationship that
enables individuals to pool their efforts for the benefit of a group
 (Serpell 2011). The features of “communities of practice” can be
summarised as:

 a common or shared interest in something;

 community members interacting and learning together;

 sharing collective resources that members have developed

over time.

To apply constructivism to their teaching, teachers must make the study

material relevant to the learners’ worlds – for example, when giving them a
problem to solve, it must come from a context with which the learners are
familiar. Teachers must also know what knowledge the learners already
possess, in order to use it in their acquiring of new information. With regard
to social constructivism, teachers can give problems to be unraveled in
groups. In this way children learn how to negotiate and they can learn from
each other (Schulze et al., 2016).

7.3.2.4 Connectivism

The basic proposition of connectivism is that learning and knowledge are no

longer confined to individuals, but are distributed across networks of people,
technologies, and resources. In connectivism, learning is seen as a process of
making connections and navigating these networks. It emphasizes the
importance of being able to access, evaluate, and use information effectively
rather than focusing solely on the accumulation of
knowledge. Connectivism recognizes that the rapid growth of digital
information and the increasing complexity of the world require new ways of
learning and adapting. It suggests that the ability to create and maintain
connections, both with other people and with information sources, is a vital
skill in the digital age.

The learning theories typically associated with this paradigm are:

1. George Siemens and Stephen Downes developed a theory for the

digital age, called connectivism. Their proposed learning theory has
issued a debate over whether it is a learning theory or instructional
theory or merely a pedagogical view (Dunn, 2011). But, what
is connectivism? It is regarded as a learning theory that “describes the
process of learning which takes place through the building of online
connections between people” (IGI Global, n.d.:1). It further
acknowledges the development of learning networks, and the
invention of new learning networks. The life of knowledge is shrinking.
 What we know today is replaced with new information tomorrow.
Gonzalez (in Siemens 2005) referred to this phenomenon as “the half-
life of knowledge”. An individual’s knowledge is not only in his or her
brain. The knowledge resides in connections with electronic devices
and other humans. Instead of teaching a learner to memorise the
contents of a school handbook, it is therefore better to teach the
learner how to access new knowledge (Darrow 2009). The theory is
about how the internet produces limitless opportunities for individuals
to obtain knowledge and share the information with others (IGI Global,
n.d.). Learning occurs in simulated (or virtual) networks and
communities through social interaction (IGI Global: n.d.:1). Learning
therefore takes place in various ways: through e-mail and e-mails lists,
conversations, web searches, on reading blogs and in
communities. Connectivism further refers to education where language
together with media and technology is the channel of information,
“promoting greater student participation, collaboration and interaction
between networked learners, who socially construct an active learning
experience within different learning networks” (IGI Global, n.d.:2).
Knowledge is therefore shared with others and is changeable, not
isolated and exists in network groups.

This is a new theory and therefore we do not find much written about it or
research done on it in comparison to the wealth of information and research
studies that exist on other theories. Marquis (2012:2) describes it as a
revolutionary theory. The development of technology has lead to the theory
of connectivism and it creates new challenges to education. “The application
of connectivism to teaching and learning requires a thorough rethinking of
the educational process and the role of the teacher, student, and technology
in that process” (Marquis, 2012:1). Connectivism as a theory forced teachers
to look at what is being done in digital education and to rethink, debate, and
philosophise over how each part fits. They must continually be evaluating
how each new generation learns (Dunn, 2011).

Not all teachers are up to date with the latest technology, and in this digital
age, the role of teachers is diminishing because learners can become more
independent learners, connected to different forms of communication outside
formal education. A paradigm shift in educational theory is necessary to keep
up with what is changing in this time of technological progress (Kop & Hill,
2008).
[1] Paradigmns represents a set of beliefs, assumptions, and practices that
guide and shape the way people think about and approach a given subject.

7.4 TEACHING AND LEARNING LESSON MODELS

Lesson models refer to structured frameworks or approaches that guide the

design and delivery of instructional lessons or units. These models provide a
systematic way of organizing and presenting information to enhance learning
outcomes. These models are among the most prominent and widely used in
instructional design. However, it's important to note that there are many
other models and approaches available, and the choice of model depends on
the specific context, learning goals, and preferences of the instructional
designer or educator. Here are explanations of three prominent lesson
models:

7.4.1 Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom's Taxonomy is a hierarchical framework that categorizes educational

objectives and cognitive skills into six levels: Remembering, Understanding,
Applying, Analyzing, Evaluating, and Creating. Developed by Benjamin Bloom
and his colleagues in 1956, the taxonomy aims to promote higher-order
thinking and guide the design of instruction. The theory behind Bloom's
Taxonomy is based on the belief that learning progresses from lower-level
cognitive processes to higher-level ones. The levels in the taxonomy
represent different levels of cognitive complexity. Here's a brief explanation
of each level:

Remembering: At the Remembering level, learners recall or retrieve factual

information, concepts, or procedures. This involves recognizing, recalling, or
reproducing information without necessarily understanding its deeper
meaning.

Understanding: In the Understanding level, learners demonstrate

comprehension and interpret the meaning of information. They can explain
ideas, summarize concepts, and interpret data or instructions.

Applying: At the Applying level, learners use acquired knowledge and skills
to solve problems, apply procedures, or carry out tasks in new situations.
They can apply learned concepts to real-life scenarios.
Analyzing: In the Analyzing level, learners break down information into its
constituent parts, examine relationships, and identify patterns or
connections. They can analyze data, identify motives, and differentiate
between different components or perspectives.

Evaluating: At the Evaluating level, learners make judgments or

assessments based on criteria and standards. They can evaluate the validity,
effectiveness, or quality of ideas, methods, or products.

Creating: In the Creating level, learners generate new ideas, products, or

solutions. They can combine existing elements to create something original
or propose alternative approaches to a problem.

Bloom's Taxonomy fosters learning by providing a framework for educators to

set clear learning objectives and design instruction that promotes cognitive
growth. It encourages educators to move beyond rote memorization and
promote higher-order thinking skills. By progressing through the taxonomy
levels, learners engage in deeper processing, critical thinking, problem-
solving, and creativity, enabling them to apply knowledge in meaningful
ways and become independent learners.

7.4.2 Bruner’s Discovery Learning Model

Jerome Bruner, a cognitive psychologist, proposed the Discovery Learning

Model, which emphasizes active student engagement and problem-solving.
According to Bruner, learners construct knowledge through their own
discoveries and interactions with the environment. Bruner’s view is that if
knowledge reaches the child, it is processed (stored) in certain ways and
encoded (converted). The first way to store and encode information is to
remember some action (like a baby remembering the action of shaking a
rattle or an adult remembering how to type or sew), and it is called “enactive
representation”. Another kind of representation is “iconic” – information is
stored as mental pictures in the mind. Iconic representation can also be used
by drawing diagrams or making illustrations – some people remember
information easier this way. The last ability to develop is that of “symbolic
representation”, when language, mathematical symbols or other codes or
symbols are used. These symbols (e.g. language) can be adapted and
organised and be used in abstract concepts (McLeod 2018).

Bruner suggested that teachers’ purpose must not be to divulge knowledge,

but to enable learners to think and develop problem-solving skills and to
construct their own understanding and develop their own coding system to
store knowledge. He proposed the spiral curriculum which means that
teachers start to convey difficult ideas at a simple level first, and then move
to more difficult levels (like going up in a spiral). Bruner called this discovery
learning when teachers facilitate the learning process that helps learners to
discover the links between fragments of information themselves (McLeod,
2018).

7.4.3 Kolb’s experiential learning model

Kolb’s learning model are one of the best known and widely used learning
theories. The learning model described by Kolb are based on two major
dimensions: active/reflective and abstract/concrete (Kolb & Kolb, 2012:169).
Kolb presented these as lines of axis, each with “conflicting” modes at either
end:

Concrete Experience – CE (feeling) –V– Abstract Conceptualisation –

AC (thinking)

Active Experimentation – AE (doing) –V– Reflective Observation –

RO (watching)

A typical presentation of Kolb’s two continuums is that the east-west axis is

called the Processing Continuum (how we approach a task), and the north
south axis is called the Perception Continuum (our emotional response, or
how we think or feel about it).

This learning model is the combination of two lines of axis (continuums) –

each formed between what Kolb calls “dialectically related modes” of
“grasping experience” (doing or watching), and “transforming experience”
(feeling or thinking).

When applied to an educational situation the process can be summarised as

follows:

You must:

 be willing to be actively involved in doing something

 be able to think about what you have done

 use analytical skills to think about the experience; and use decision-
making and problem-solving skills to use the new ideas gained

 learn from the experience and apply it to the next situation

FIGURE 7.7 Kolb’s Experiential Model

Source: Adapted image from Pfeiffer & Jones 1985; Kolb & Kolb 2012
According to Kolb & Kolb (2013:13) data from empirical and clinical studies
over the years has shown that the original four learning style types –
accommodating, assimilating, converging and diverging – can be refined
further into a nine style typology. The nine learning styles better define the
unique patterns of individual learning styles and reduce the confusions
introduced by borderline cases in the old four-style typology.

Kolb and Kolb (2012:1700–1701) mention some characteristics of learners

who display the nine learning styles.

 Experiential style: Learners enjoy working in groups, role-playing,

brainstorming, or doing fieldwork.

 Reflecting style: Learners “thrive in learning environment rich in

discussions, interactions, and through readings that provide them with
a deeper understanding of themselves and the world around them.”

 Thinking style: Learners prefer well-structured, logical tasks and may

prefer to work alone.

 Practical learning style: Learners “learn best through real-life projects,

field trips, and hands-on experiments”.

 Divergent learning style: Learners prefer to work in groups where they

gather information and are able to listen with an open mind.

 Assimilating style: Learners prefer “lectures, readings, exploring

analytical models, and having time to think things through”.

 Converging style: Learners enjoy doing simulations, practical

applications, and laboratory assignments.

 Accommodating learning style: Learners like to work with others, do

field work or find different ways of doing a project.

 Balancing learning style: Learners are able to change their learning

style to match the task.

The focus on nine different learning styles assists teachers in planning for a
diverse range of activities that may suit the different learning styles in the
classroom. This is important because teacehrs may only provide activities for
a learning style that suits the teacher. Remember that research does indicate
that learners should be provided with different learning activities. You may
find all nine styles in a single classroom.

7.4.4 Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction

Robert Gagne, an educational psychologist, proposed the Nine Events of
Instruction model, which outlines a sequence of events to optimize learning.
This model focuses on the instructional process and addresses different
aspects of learning. Gagne refers to conditions for learning which include:

o internal conditions – what the learner already knows before the teaching

o external conditions – what the teacher offers to the learner (Khadjooi,

Rostami & Ishaq, 2011).

Gagne advanced the hierarchical theory of learning, which he also referred to

as the nine conditions of learning or the hierarchy of learning. The hierarchy
of learning consists of the following stages:

 Capture attention: At the start of the lesson, capture learners’ interest

and motivation.

 Inform learners of objectives: Clearly communicate the learning goals

and desired outcomes to the learners.

 Stimulate prior knowledge: Activate relevant prior knowledge to

provide a foundation for new learning.

 Introduce new content: Present new information or skills in a clear and

organized manner.

 Provide guidance: Offer support, examples, and explanations to assist

learners in understanding the content.

 Engage performance: Involve learners in active practice or application

of the newly acquired knowledge or skills.

 Provide feedback: Offer constructive feedback to reinforce correct

responses and guide improvements.

 Assess performance: Evaluate learners' mastery of the content or skills

through assessments or activities.

 Enhance retention and transfer: Encourage learners to apply what they

have learned in real-life situations and provide opportunities for further
practice and reinforcement (Pandey, 2020; Swartz, De la Rey, Dunn,
Townsend & O’Neill, 2016:194; Tuckman & Monetti, 2011:227–228).

When teaching, the teacher must first of all spells out the outcomes that the
learners must reach. Then comes Gagne’s “Events of Instruction”, comprising
nine steps that teachers can implement to ensure that learning takes place
(Khadjooi et al., 2011:117).

These events can be converted by the teacher so that it can be used in any
teaching environment with the aim that learners can reach the learning
outcomes (Instructional Design n.d.). The main objective is not so much that
learners remember, but that they understand what is presented to them. To
be able to reach this goal, teachers must organise their lessons very well
with the outcomes as objective (Khadjooi et al., 2011).

 Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS)

First of all, you need to take note of the SIAS (Screening, Identification,
Assessment and Support) policy which was implemented in 2014 by the
National Department of Basic Education (DBE) together with other African
countries to make sure that all schools offer care and support to all learners.
The SIAS offers standardised procedures to identify, assess, and provide
programmes for all learners who require additional learning support to help
them gain access to quality education. The SIAS also provides guidelines on
enrolling learners in special schools and settings as well as a protocol and a
set of official forms to be used by teachers, school-based support teams and
district-based support teams for screening, identifying and assessing
learners. The SIAS policy is rooted in the belief that all learners must be able
to access quality education to the best of their ability as far as possible,
within their local school. This belief is called “inclusion”. Inclusion is rooted in
diversity that requires teachers to be able to recognise and respect the
differences among their learners and be able to adjust their teaching
accordingly.

If you want to know more about the SIAS policy, go

to: https://www.education.gov.za/

The SIAS policy is especially significant for our South African teachers,
because the nature of the population in South African schools has changed
drastically over the past few years. In the same school, it is possible to find
children from different races and ethnic groups, children with different
abilities and disabilities, and children from different socioeconomic
backgrounds. The teacher must therefore be prepared beforehand to handle
such diversities in the classroom.

7.5 INDIVIDUAL LEARNING STYLES OR PREFERENCES

Individual learning preferences refer to the unique ways in which individuals
prefer to receive, process, and engage with information and learning
experiences. People have diverse learning styles and preferences that
influence how they best understand and retain information. It's important to
note that learning preferences can vary among individuals, and most people
have a combination of preferences rather than a strict preference for one
style. Recognizing and accommodating diverse learning preferences can
enhance engagement, understanding, and overall learning outcomes.
Educators and instructional designers often strive to incorporate a variety of
teaching methods, instructional materials, and activities to cater to different
learning preferences and create inclusive learning environments. While there
are different models and theories on learning preferences, here are some
common dimensions or factors that can contribute to individual learning
preferences:

7.5.1 Individual learning preferences

 Visual vs. Verbal: Some individuals prefer visual representations such

as diagrams, charts, or videos, while others prefer verbal information
presented through written text or spoken explanations.

 Auditory vs. Visual: Some learners prefer to hear information through

lectures, discussions, or audio recordings, while others benefit more
from visual cues and presentations.

 Active vs. Reflective: Active learners prefer hands-on experiences,

group work, and practical applications, while reflective learners prefer
to think and process information internally before engaging in
discussions or activities.

 Sequential vs. Global: Sequential learners prefer a step-by-step, linear

approach to learning, whereas global learners tend to grasp the big
picture first and make connections before delving into details.

 Individual vs. Collaborative: Some individuals thrive in solitary learning

environments, where they can work independently, while others prefer
collaborative settings that involve group discussions, teamwork, and
social interactions.

7.5.2 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Multiple Intelligences theory, developed by Howard Gardner, suggests that

individuals possess different types of intelligences or ways of processing
information and demonstrating competence in various domains. Gardner
identified several intelligences, including linguistic, logical-mathematical,
spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and
naturalistic.

Learners differ with regard to learning styles and that teachers should
acknowledge each one’s potential and should use the theory of multiple
intelligences (MI) to be effective in their teaching and treat learners
according to their specific abilities. To add to this, we would like to make you
aware of various kinds of learning styles that learners may have (because all
individuals are unique) and what methods teachers can use to accommodate
all the different learning styles.

First of all, teachers must have knowledge of the basic principles of learning
to be able to create a culture of learning. They must furthermore have good
knowledge of the field they teach and be aware of their own learning
preferences – “Teachers identifying themselves as learners is key to the
development of a community of thinking in a school” (South Australian
Teaching for Effective Learning Framework, n.d.:13). If teachers understand
their own learning and how others learn, they can value their learners’
diversity and be able to help them in their learning.

Teachers must therefore know their learners and the learning styles they
prefer. It is important to realise that one style is not right and the other
wrong – learners must use the style that is best for them, or even a
combination of styles (Loveless, 2019). According to Srijongjai (2011:1559)
“everyone has a mix of learning styles, and learning styles are not fixed, so
instructors should also accommodate other types of learning styles by
providing diverse learning environments.” In one individual a learning style
can dominate, but he or she may use other styles also – learning styles can
be combined and therefore teachers must not label learners and define them
by one style only (Loveless, 2019).

While these connections can be observed, it's important to recognize that

individuals possess a unique combination of multiple intelligences and
learning styles. Understanding and considering these individual differences
can help educators tailor instructional approaches and create learning
environments that cater to diverse needs and preferences.

7.5.3 VAK learning styles

The VAK model, suggested by Loveless (2019:2), suggests the following

styles: Visual (learn best by seeing), Auditory (learn best by hearing), and
Kinaesthetic (learners learn best by moving and doing). A fourth style can be
identified, namely learning through the tactile sense (learning by touching
and feeling, mostly with their hands) (Integrated learning strategies, 2016;
Warren, 2017). Teachers must help learners to recognise their own learning
styles, which will help them to study more efficiently. This refers to
metacognition – to understand your own thinking (you have been referred to
this under Constructivism above).

FIGURE 7.6: Types of learning styles (Loveless 2019:3)

What teachers can do with regard to the different learning styles:

 For visual learners (who learn the most by what they see), it will help
to use colours, drawings, posters, charts, graphs and hand signs
(Loveless, 2019).

 For auditory learners (who like to speak or ask questions in the

classroom, and learn best by what they hear), teachers can use audio
books and let the learners discuss topics, make speeches or let them
debate some issue. They can also be encouraged to make recordings
 of lectures or make recordings of themselves – of what they want to
write down in their notes or when writing essays (Loveless, 2019).

 Kinaesthetic learners learn best by doing something or by actions.

They like to do experiments (e.g. in a science lab) or going on field
trips. They can be guided to act out historical events or you can let
them move around in the class by asking those who agree or disagree
with a statement, to move to one side of the class (Loveless, 2019).

 Tactile learners like to doodle while concentrating/listening or fidgeting

with something. Here a stress ball can be of help to pay attention. They
also sometimes like drawing, colouring, building something, moving or
painting. Playing a musical instrument can also stimulate their
cognitive development. It also helps them to take notes while listening
in the classroom (Integrated Learning Strategies, 2016; Warren, 2017).

Apart from these basic learning styles, one also finds some individuals who
learn best by writing, for example, making their own notes or summaries
(they learn while they read and write). There are also logical learners (who
do well in mathematics), social learners (who do well in discussions and
working in groups) and solitary learners (who want to study alone) (Loveless,
2019).

Loveless (2019) suggests that teachers must be creative in their teaching by

accommodating more than one learning preference while presenting a
lesson, in order to benefit most of the learners. He stresses the importance
of understanding that every learner is unique, and that even two learners
who prefer the same learning style, can still differ in how they learn.
Therefore, teachers have the enormous task to know and understand their
learners.

7.6 STUDY TECHNIQUES

Study techniques are important for several reasons. (1) It help optimize the
learning process by promoting understanding, retention, and application of
knowledge.(2) Good study techniques enable students to manage their time
efficiently. (3) Improves focus and concentration. (4) Assists in organizing
their study materials, notes, and resources. (5) Enhances problem-solving
skills, critical thinking, and application of knowledge. (6) It reduced stress
and anxiety related to exams and assignments. (7) Good study techniques
promote long-term learning and retention of information. By employing
appropriate study techniques, students can optimize their learning
experience and achieve better academic outcomes. Here are some methods
worth exploring:

7.6.1 The SQ3R method

The SQ3R method is a study technique and reading comprehension strategy

that helps students actively engage with their reading materials. The
acronym stands for the five steps involved in the process: Survey, Question,
Read, Recite, and Review. One frequently suggested method for reading
study material is the SQ3R (SQRRR) method (Coon & Mitterer, 2015:23
Robinson, 1978:47).

Organising learning material à You should organise the content of your

learning material as soon as possible. Do it in such a way that it makes sense
to you, that you can understand it better and that it will help you to recall the
information at a later stage. You can be as creative as you want when doing
this. Use diagrams, pictures, tables, mind maps, flashcards or anything
creative that your brain can come up with.

Grouping and sorting à We all have a natural tendency to want to sort

large groups of objects into smaller groups. We group together things that
are similar – usually based on common characteristics such as size, colour,
shape, texture, flavour and purpose. It helps us to make sense of what is
going on around us and makes us feel more secure. Sorting and classifying
are basic skills taught to children from a young age. As children become
more confident in sorting, they are encouraged to explain their thought
process in sorting by identifying and naming the characteristic that
determines the different groups. Recognising groups of objects requires
logical thinking, an ability that will be important for the rest of your life.
Understanding the relationship between the different groups and being able
to discuss that relationship requires analytical skills. Here is a very simple
example to demonstrate grouping and sorting:

Look at Figure A. How many triangles, circles and squares are there?
FIGURE A

Look at Figure B. How many triangles, circles and squares are there?

FIGURE B

Can you see that the grouping and sorting of learning material according to
shape, will enhance your ability to remember information?

Getting the “bigger picture à We have touched on this concept of

working from the “Whole-to-Part” in our discussion of the SQ3R method. In
the survey (exploring) stage we tried to get a “big picture” of the learning
material – before looking at the finer detail (that what is written underneath
the headings). Some learners need to understand the “whole concept”
before getting the details. “Part-to-whole” learners are more comfortable
moving in the opposite direction (receiving the details first). They like to use
a “step-by-step” approach. The whole concept makes them feel
overwhelmed – they want to see the whole process unfold. The “whole-to-
part” approach can be applied to learning in the following way:
  Look at the title of the textbook or study guide – write it down

 Write down all the names of the units

 Write down all the main headings underneath each unit

 Write down all the subheadings of each main heading

 Write down the keywords underneath each subheading

This process will enable you to get the “big picture” of what the learning
material is all about. You can write it all below one another or you can
become creative and use diagrams or pictures to help you to remember.
Here is ONE example of how you can get the “bigger picture”:

EXAMPLE

7.6.2. Afrocentric teaching

First of all, we will explain the Afrocentric-indigenous pedagogy as presented

by Van Wyk (2014). He describes an eight-way framework for Afrocentric
teaching including the following (please note that these strategies all
contribute to the “inclusive classroom” – including learners of various
cultures, backgrounds, abilities and learning styles) (Van Wyk, 2014:52–58):

 Storytelling: Knowledge is usually shared by elders through telling

stories. Hereby the traditions, history and heritage are spread to the
new generations. It was used to teach the new generations how to
 endure difficult circumstances in their natural environment. Today,
teachers can use stories to teach many kinds of subject matter.

 Deconstruct-reconstruct strategy: Teachers must first focus on the

whole of the outcomes they want to reach. Then the teacher can take
the lesson apart (deconstruct it) into sections that learners are able to
cope with, according to their abilities and learning styles.

 Learning through associations and connections (non-linear

strategy): A good way to learn new information is to link it to existing
knowledge. Teachers can help learners by repeating concepts and
making sure that all learners grasp the concepts before continuing.

 Learning through field trips and environmental excursions: By

visiting a wilderness area or wildlife park, learners can come close to
connecting to the land and place (and even to ancestral relations).
Many field guides or game rangers are indigenous people who can
convey indigenous knowledge to learners.

 Community involvement-linked strategy: Parents and community

members can be asked to be involved in the school’s fundraising,
maintenance and cleaning. They contribute to their children’s school,
while the learners understand the community life and values.

 Experiential learning maps: To help learners to grasp the study

material, teachers can use charts, diagrams and other visual material.
They can also teach learners the value of using mind maps to help
them develop a holistic picture of the material they must study, or to
use it for assignments.

 Symbols-and-images strategy: Teachers can help learners to reach

the learning outcomes easier when they use images, maps or
metaphors. It makes the study material more significant and easier to
remember.

 Non-verbal: Body language, kinaesthetic learning and actions help

learners to experience what they learn in practice, inter alia through
introspection and experiences.

When looking closely at Afrocentric education, you will realise that these
principles are also included in some of the theories of learning that you have
studied earlier in this unit. An example of the “infusion of indigenous
knowledge (IK), Western science (WS) and Ubuntu” (Mukwambo, Ngcoza &
Chikunda, 2014:70) is: Afrocentric principles are also related to what is called
non-linear or non-traditional ways of education. When proposing that existing
knowledge must be used, it links to Piaget’s assimilation and to the theory of
constructivism (which you know by this time). Also, the idea that community
members must be involved in the school, and to work with others or connect
to others (as in Ubuntu) is related to social constructivism and connectivism.

The Afrocentric notion of disclosing the outcomes of a lesson to learners is

also mentioned in Gagne’s theory of information processing. Therefore,
Afrocentric indigenous pedagogy, Ubuntu and Western science are not
excluding each other (Mukwambo et al., 2014).

One could say that all in all, the Afrocentric ideas of education strongly aim
to attain the “inclusive classroom” as Van Wyk pointed out: It does not
exclude any learner on the basis of race, culture, language or background.
“The Afrocentric-indigenous classroom is not only for black learners, but
inclusive of all learners for the advancement of quality education” (Van Wyk,
2014:58). Afrocentric education does take indigenous knowledge and
everyday experiences of learners into account, and uses what learners
already know, in a non-linear orientation. When working according to these
concepts, teachers will make an effort to get to know their learners and will
be sensitive to gender and racial issues – thereby they instil “awareness,
respect, Ubuntu, humanity and inclusivity” in their learners by the inclusive
climate they create (Van Wyk, 2014:57).

To add to the Afrocentric view on learning, Muthivhi (2010) used the theories
of Vygotsky and Piaget to explore the role of cultural content in the
development and cognitive functioning of the child. His research included
eighty Tshivenda speaking children in diverse rural South African settings.
The study showed that rural children simultaneously use concrete-functional,
formal-abstract and conceptual ways of thinking. Muthivhi (2010) found that
children demonstrate forms of thinking and problem solving that come from
both their formal learning experiences (school) and from their natural, daily
learning and cultural settings (home). The understanding of concepts and the
specific styles of thinking and problem solving are linked to the sociocultural
context and the learning activities in which the child participates. The
cultural context in which the child’s learning and development take place is
complex and involves many layers of meaning. It includes the traditions of
learning in the formal school setting as well as their everyday learning in
their sociocultural context.

The progress in cognitive development that occurs during the middle school
years are therefore tied to learning in school but also to learning in
sociocultural context. Through learning, children become increasingly skilled
and develop critical areas of their brains. Cognitive tasks will therefore be
solved according to the experience of the individual child.

7.7 CONCLUSION

This extensive learning unit covered many essential aspects that teachers
should take serious note of. Think of the importance of the motivation and
self-efficacy beliefs of learners and the importance of these aspects for
making a success of their lives. Also consider the importance for teachers to
know how learning takes place and to have knowledge of learning theories,
learning styles and the individual differences between learners. If they
succeed in these objectives, teachers will also create a culture of teaching
and learning and an inclusive classroom to include all learners, regardless of
their backgrounds.

Considering the above requirements for effective teachers, one becomes

aware of the challenges that teachers in South Africa are confronted with,
especially because of the diversity in our country with regard to language,
culture, socioeconomic background and beliefs. By taking on these
challenges, you, as a student of education, show that you are willing to
confront the enormous task ahead.