Reproduction in Vertebrates:

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY

TERM Definition
External Fertilisation of the ovum by a sperm cell outside the woman's
fertilisation body.
Internal Fertilisation of the ovum by a sperm cell within the female
fertilisation reproductive organs.
Method of reproduction where eggs are laid and the eggs hatch
Oviparous
outside the mother's body.
Method of reproduction where the eggs hatch within the female
Ovoviviparous
reproductive system.
Juveniles are born alive after a period of gestation, during
Viviparous gestation the foetus is nourished and protected within the
mother's body.

Amniotic egg An egg containing four extra-embryonic membranes.

Inner membrane of the embryo that contains amniotic fluid that

Amnion
acts as a shock absorber.

Outer membrane of the embryo that plays a role in gas

Chorion
exchange.
Structure in the amniotic egg that provides energy-rich food to the
Yolk sac
embryo.

Structure in a developing embryo that is used for gas exchange

Allantois
but has no function in humans.

Precocial Producing offspring that are independent and that can feed and
development move around on their own.

Altricial Production of offspring born helpless and unable to move or feed

development on their own.
Reproduction Strategies:
Reproduction: It is a biological process that occurs in all living organisms during
which the organism produces living offspring. During reproduction, genetic
information is passed on from the parent to their offspring.

It plays an important role in the survival and evolution of a specific species.

Animals use different reproductive strategies to increase reproductive success in

specific environments.

Reproductive success: The reproductive success of an organism is measured by

the number of living offspring that an individual produce.

Reproductive strategies: These are structural, functional and behavioural

adaptations that increase the chances of fertilisation and survival of offspring.

There are two main reproductive strategies namely:

1. R-strategy
2. K-strategy

R-strategy K-strategy

• A lot of energy is spent to produce

MANY offspring
• Little time and energy are spent on • Few offspring are produced
parental care • A lot of energy and time is spent on
• Very few offspring survive until parenting.
adulthood • The offspring have a greater chance
of surviving and reaching sexual
E.g. Seahorses can produce up to 1000+ maturity.
offspring but only 0.5% of them reach
adulthood. E.g. Orangutan breastfeeds and cares for
their young for up to 3 years.

External Fertilisation
 Fertilisation is the fusion of a haploid male
gamete (sperm cell) with a haploid female
gamete (ovum) to form a diploid zygote.
External fertilisation of the ovum by a
sperm cell occurs outside the body of the
female. This reproductive strategy is
commonly found in aquatic animals such as
amphibians and fish.

The general process of external fertilisation:

3. Courtship and pheromones play a role in getting males and females together so
that mating can begin.
4. Large amounts of male and female gametes are released into the water during
the mating process. The large numbers of gametes increase the chances of
fertilisation and the number of surviving offspring.

Why water is essential for the success of external fertilisation?

o This helps the sperm cells to swim to the eggs.

o This prevents the eggs from drying out.
5. The ova secrete specific chemicals, which attract sperm cells chemotactically.
6. The ova are fertilised by the sperm cells and the fertilised eggs (zygotes) develop
into a larva that lives on yolk or plankton. The parents therefore do not have to
spend any energy on parental care.
7. Environmental hazards such as predators reduce the likelihood of offspring
reaching adulthood.
8. When sexual maturity is reached offspring will start the mating process.

Table comparing the advantages and disadvantages of external fertilisation:

Advantages Disadvantages
• Large amounts of eggs are laid • Fertilisation is not guaranteed, many
which increases the chance of eggs are wasted.
fertilisation. • Many young offspring are vulnerable
• Little energy is spent on parental to predators and do not mature.
care.

Internal fertilisation
General process of internal fertilisation:

1. Courtship or pheromones play a role in getting males and females together so

that mating can begin.
2. For fertilisation to take place, specific mating strategies and cooperation
between the male and female are required.
3. In most animals in which internal fertilisation takes place, the male organism
will possess a coupling organ (penis) and the female an opening to receive
the coupling organ (vagina / cloak).
4. Copulation: the coupling organ is used to place the sperm cells inside the
female's body.
5. The sperm cells swim in a fluid medium inside the female's reproductive
system until they reach the ovum.
6. One of the sperms and the egg fuse together to form a zygote. The zygote
develops into an embryo and the embryo will further develop inside or outside
(eggs) the body until it hatches or is born.
7. Parental care of young offspring depends on the specific species whose
offspring it is.

The following factors increase the offspring's chances of survival:

• In reptiles and birds, the developing embryo is nourished on yolk and enclosed
by a shell that protects it.
• In mammals, the fertilised cell stays and develops inside the female's body,
where it is protected and receives nourishment.

Comparison between external and internal fertilisation:

External fertilisation Internal fertilisation

The fusion of the male and female The fusion of the male and female
gametes takes place outside the gametes takes place inside the
body. female body.

Both the male and female individual

Only the male individual releases
release their gametes outside the
his gametes into the female body.
body.

Development of the zygote takes Development of the zygote takes

place outside the body. place within the body or egg.

Large quantities of gametes are Fewer gametes are produced.

produced in both the male and
female individual.

The probability of survival of young There is a greater probability of

offspring is small. survival of offspring.

Dependent on water. Independent of water.

Occurs in amphibians, fish, some Occurs in birds, reptiles and

molluscs and crustaceans. mammals.

Oviparous
Oviparous, ovoviviparous and viviparous are reproductive strategies
that indicate where the embryo develops and how the embryos receive
food.
Oviparous: Method of reproduction where eggs are laid by the female
organism and the embryo develops in the egg, outside the mother's
body.
A distinction is made between:

• Oviparous aquatic animals

• Oviparous terrestrial animals

Oviparous Aquatic Animals:

• Fertilisation usually takes place externally in the water.

• Evolving embryos are surrounded and protected by a jelly-like layer.
• A lot of energy is required to produce large amounts of gametes.
• Eggs contain little yolk which requires little energy.
• Because eggs develop outside the body, they are more susceptible to
predators and adverse temperatures.
Examples of oviparous aquatic animals: Fish and amphibians
Oviparous Terrestrial Animals:

• Fertilisation usually takes place internally.

• The developing embryo is surrounded by a shell that protects it from
dehydration.
• Less energy is used to produce fewer gametes.
• More energy is used to produce hard eggshells and nutritious egg
yolk.
Examples of oviparous terrestrial animals: some reptiles, birds, primitive
mammals such as the platypus.

Ovoviviparous
Characteristics of Ovoviviparous animals:

• Internal fertilisation takes place.

• The embryo develops inside the female body while being enveloped by a thin
membranous shell.
• The embryo is fed by nutrient-rich yolk inside the female body.
• Embryo hatches inside the female body and therefore the organism seems to
give birth to live young.
• In some animals, they lay eggs in which the embryo is fully developed and
therefore the eggs hatch almost immediately.
• A lot of energy is spent on the formation of nutrient-rich yolk.
• The female produces fewer eggs and therefore less energy is spent on the
production of eggs.
• Because the developing embryos develop inside an egg, inside the body, it is
protected from predators and adverse temperatures.

Examples of ovoviviparous animals: some sharks, lizards and snakes

Viviparous
Oviparous, ovoviviparous and viviparous are reproductive strategies that indicate
where the embryo develops and how the embryos receive food.

Viviparous: The embryo develops inside the mother's body, receiving nutrients from
the mother's blood, via an umbilical cord and placenta. After this period of gestation,
the young are born alive.

Characteristics of viviparous animals:

• Internal fertilisation takes place.

• The fertilised egg develops into an embryo in the organism’s body, without the
protection of a shell.
• The foetus, is directly connected to the mother through the umbilical cord and
placenta so that it can receive nutrients directly from the mother's body.
• Only a small number of female eggs are formed, thus less energy is used.
• A lot of energy is used to supply the embryo with nutrients and parental care after
birth.

Amniotic Egg
Amniotic egg: Egg containing four extra-embryonic membranes. These membranes
include the amnion, allantois, chorion, and yolk sac.

Fish and amphibians need water for fertilisation and for the development of their
eggs. Terrestrial animals, such as certain reptiles, birds and mammals, require
specialized structures to protect the developing embryo from dehydration. The
development of the amniotic egg made reproduction and life on land possible.
The amniotic egg allowed the embryo inside the egg not to dry out and to be
supplied with nutrients, water and oxygen while also removing waste products.

Extra-embryonic membranes
The extra-embryonic membranes of fish, reptile, bird and mammal:

Structures and Functions of the Amniotic egg

Functions of the amniotic egg
structures:
Shell: May be calcareous or leathery.

The structure of the Amniotic Egg • Protection against physical damage

and dehydration
• Gas exchange by pores
• Food for developed organism after
hatching
Albumin layer: serves as reserve food
(proteins and water) for the developing
embryo. Also has a cushioning or
protective function.
 Chorion:
• Surround all other membranes
• In birds and reptiles, it allows gas
exchange.
• In mammals, it forms the placenta
along with the endometrium. The
placenta, another evolutionary
development, performs other
functions that allow the foetus to
develop more fully and safely.
Allantois: Membrane-like sack that
collects waste products and exchanges
gases.
Yolk: Yolk is enveloped by the yolk sac
filled with energy-rich foods that nourish
the developing embryo.
Amniotic cavity: Filled with amniotic
fluid that protects the embryo from
shock, injury, temperature fluctuation
and dehydration.

Precocial Development
Precocial development is also known as early independent development. This
development refers to species where the young that hatch or are born are almost
fully developed and are immediately mobile.

They will usually show the following characteristics just after they are hatched or
born:

• Eyes are open.

• Bodies are covered with down feathers or fur.
• Able to move around.
• Able to feed themselves.
• Independent of their parents.

In precocial animals, most energy is spent on prenatal development.

Fewer offspring are generally produced as each individual must develop to a

relatively advanced stage before birth or they hatch.

Precocial animals' young have a great chance of surviving to reproductive age as

they are independent at an early age and can take care of themselves.

Precocial development in birds:

This development occurs in birds that make nests on the ground.

Examples: Chickens, ducks, geese, guinea fowl and ostriches.

• Incubation period is usually long to allow enough time for the young to fully
develop before they hatch.
• Eggs are larger and possess a large amount of yolk and albumin so that there
are enough food reserves for the longer incubation period.
• Chicks' eyes are open immediately after hatching and their bodies are covered
with soft down feathers which are soon replaced by adult feathers.
• The chicks are immediately active and quickly leave their nest after they have
hatched.
• Most chicks will be able to find their own food and protect themselves from
predators by camouflage or lying motionless and flat or by running away.

Precocial development in mammals:

Examples: cattle, sheep, antelope, giraffes, zebras and rabbits.

• The gestation period is long so there is enough time for the foetus to fully
develop.
• The embryo and foetus is nourished through the placenta during the long
gestation period.
• Babies eyes are open immediately after they are born.
• The babies are covered with hair and are able to control their own body
temperature.
• The babies are immediately active and can get up and walk after a few minutes
or hours.
• Young can feed themselves by drinking their mother's breast milk.
• Young can protect themselves from predators by keeping camouflage or
motionless and flat, lying down or by running away.

Altricial Development
Altricial development refers to species where young when they hatch or are born,
are not fully develop and cannot move around immediately.

They will usually show the following characteristics just after they are hatched or
born:

• Eyes are still closed.

• Bodies are still naked.
• Not yet able to move around directly after birth or after hatching.
• Unable to feed themselves.
• Dependent on their parents.
In Altricial development, most energy is spent on postnatal development and
therefore babies are hatched or born at an early stage.

The parents will remain involved in the nutrition and protection of the little ones for a
long time after birth.

The young of altricial animals have a high chance of reaching reproductive age
because they:

• Parental care is given to the young for a long period of time.

• Their nests/den is usually protected from predators and only leave them when
they are independent and can protect themselves.

Altricial development in birds:

This development occurs in birds that make nests high above the ground (E.g.
trees).

Examples: Pigeons, finches, sparrows, eagles and owls.

• The incubation period is shorter.

• The eggs are usually smaller than precocial birds and possess less yolk.
• The chicks' eyes are usually closed after they have hatched.
• The chicks have naked bodies without down feathers.
• The chicks cannot regulate their own body temperature and are therefore still
dependent on their parents' body heat.
• Chicks cannot walk or fly.
• Chicks stay in the nest for a long time and depend on the parent for food.
• Parents protect their helpless chicks from predators.

Altricial development in mammals:

Examples: rodents, cats, dogs, marsupials and primates

• Because the pregnant female is vulnerable to predation, the young are born as
soon as possible.
• Babies eyes are usually still closed after they are born.
• Babies are usually naked and without fur/hair and therefore unable to control
their own body temperature. They are dependent on their parent's body heat.
• Babies are not active immediately and sometimes cannot walk.
• Babies cannot feed themselves and are dependent on their parents for food.
• Babies are helpless against predators and are completely dependent on their
parents for protection.

Parental Care
Parental Care: This is any behavioural pattern where parents spend time or energy
feeding and protecting their offspring.

• Animals that usually put a lot of energy into prenatal development, usually give
little or no parental care.
• Animals that put less energy into prenatal development usually show much more
parental care which requires much more energy and time.

Examples of parental care:

• Egg monitoring
• Hatching of eggs
• Keep babies warm
• Feeding babies
• Protection against predators

The degree of parental care differs in animal groups:

Fish:

• No or very little parental care.

• After fertilisation of eggs, they are left behind and are dependent on themselves
for survival.

Amphibians:

• Amphibians show little parental care.

• Parental care only involves guarding and protecting the eggs.

Reptiles:

• Most reptiles show no parental care.

• Eggs are hatched utilizing the heat from the sun.
• Crocodiles guard their eggs and protect their young after hatching.
• Some lizards and snakes also guard their eggs.

Birds:

• Birds display a great deal of parental care.

• The parents build nests in which the eggs are laid and hatched. The nest
provides protection to eggs and young.
• The eggs are hatched by the body heat of the parents. In most birds, it is the
female that hatches the eggs.
Mammals:

• Mammals are the group that shows the most parental care. Most babies are
completely helpless after birth and dependent on the parent.
• The babies are fed through breast milk.
• The babies body temperature is regulated by the parent's body heat.
• Parents protect their young from predators.
• Parents teach young behaviour patterns such as searching for food, hunting or
flying.