UNIT 1

1. Explain Historical backdrop of AI?

Ans:
● The term Artificial Intelligence (AI) was introduced by John McCarthy, in
1955.
● He defined artificial intelligence as "The science and engineering of making
intelligent machines".
● Mathematician Alan Turing and others presented a study based on logic
driven computational theories which showed that any computer program
can work by simply shuffling "0" and "1"
● Let's see few examples of such artificial intelligent systems:
1. Game-Checkers: Computer played as an opponent
2. Education - Algebra: For solving word problems
3. Education - Math: Proving logical theorems
4. Education Language: Speaking English

● Understanding AI's historical journey provides context for its current state
and future potential.
 2. List & explain the categories of definition of AI ?
Ans:
● There are three main categories when it comes to defining AI:

● Narrow AI (Weak AI):

1. This type of AI is designed and trained for a specific task.
2. It excels at that particular task but lacks the ability to transfer its
knowledge or skills to other domains.
3. Examples include virtual personal assistants like Siri or Alexa.
● General AI (Strong AI):
1. This is the holy grail of AI.
2. General AI would possess the ability to understand, learn, and apply
knowledge across a broad range of tasks—essentially, it would have
human-like intelligence.
3. We're not quite there yet, and it's a topic that often finds its way into
science fiction
● Superintelligent AI:
1. This category goes beyond human intelligence.
2. It involves an AI that surpasses the cognitive abilities of humans
across all fields.
3. This concept raises ethical concerns and is often discussed in the
context of the potential risks associated with highly advanced AI
systems
● As AI continues to evolve, navigating the balance between innovation and
ethical implications remains a crucial aspect of shaping its future.
 3. Compare model based & utility Based agent?
Ans:
● Model-based reflex agent:
1. The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable
environment, and track the situation.
2. This model is used to make decisions about actions and predict the
outcomes of those actions
3. Advantages: Model-based agents can make informed decisions by
simulating various scenarios in their internal model.
4. Disadvantages: The challenge lies in creating an accurate and
up-to-date model.
5. Diagram:

● Utility-based agents:
1. Utility-based agents make decisions based on the expected utility of
different actions.
2. They evaluate the desirability or goodness of outcomes associated
with each action.
3. Advantages: These agents are flexible and can handle situations
where the consequences of actions are uncertain.
4. Disadvantages: Determining accurate utility values can be subjective
and challenging.
5. Diagram:
 4. Explain thinking rationally & acting rationally approaches of AI.
Ans:
● Thinking Rationally:
1. This approach involves developing AI systems that follow logical
reasoning and rules to reach conclusions.
2. It's about creating systems that can deduce and infer based on a
given set of rules and knowledge.
3. Characteristics:
a. Thinking rationally entails making decisions based on a
well-defined set of principles.
b. It often involves symbolic representation of knowledge and
logical operations.
4. Example: Expert systems, which use a knowledge base of rules to
draw inferences and make decisions, are an example of thinking
rationally.
● Acting Rationally:
1. Acting rationally focuses on creating AI systems that make decisions
and take actions that lead to the best possible outcomes, given their
goals and the available information.
2. Characteristics:
a. This approach is more outcome-oriented.
b. The AI system may not necessarily follow human-like
reasoning processes but aims to achieve optimal results based
on its objectives.
3. Example: A rational agent in the field of game theory that makes
decisions to maximize its expected utility is an example of acting
rationally.
 5. Explain agent Structure in Detail?
Ans:
● An agent can be anything that perceives its environment through sensors
and acts upon that environment through actuators.
● An Agent runs in the cycle of perceiving, thinking, and acting. An agent can
be:
1. Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs
which work for sensors and hand, legs, vocal tract work for
actuators.
2. Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range
finder, NLP for sensors and various motors for actuators.
3. Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents as
sensory input and act on those inputs and display output on the
screen.

● Structure of an AI Agent:
1. Agent = Architecture + Agent program
2. Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI
agent:
a. Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent
executes on.
b. Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an
action.
c. Agent program: Agent program is an implementation of agent
function.
3. The combination of these components forms the structure of an
agent.

6. Describe model based agent

Ans:
● (Que 9 che pahile 2 points and 3 subpoints and diagram)
● Model-based reflex agent:
1. The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable
environment, and track the situation.
 2. This model is used to make decisions about actions and predict the
outcomes of those actions
3. Advantages: Model-based agents can make informed decisions by
simulating various scenarios in their internal model.
4. Disadvantages: The challenge lies in creating an accurate and
up-to-date model.
5. Diagram:

7. Explain the goal based agent

Ans:
● (Que 9 che pahile 2 points and 3 subpoints and diagram)
● A goal-based agent is a type of intelligent agent that operates by pursuing
specific goals or objectives.
● The behavior of a goal-based agent is directed towards achieving desired
states or outcomes in its environment.
● The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable situations.
● These agents may have to consider a long sequence of possible actions
before deciding whether the goal is achieved or not.
 8. Write Short note on learning agent
Ans:
● (Que 9 che pahile 2 points and 3 subpoints and diagram)
● A learning agent is an intelligent agent that possesses the ability to improve
its performance over time through experience and adaptation.
● A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn from its past
experiences, or it has learning capabilities.
● It starts with basic knowledge and then is able to act and adapt
automatically through learning.
● Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and look for
new ways to improve the performance.

9. What is PEAS? Explain with two Suitable example

Ans:
● PEAS stands for Performance measure, Environment, Actuators, and
Sensors.
● It is a framework used to define the key components and characteristics of
an intelligent agent.
● Performance measures: These are the parameters used to measure the
performance of the agent.
● Environment: It is the task environment of the agent.The agent interacts
with its environment.
● Actuators: These are the means of performing calculated actions on the
environment. For a human agent; hands and legs are the actuators.
● Sensors: These are the means of taking the input from the environment.
For a human agent; ears, eyes, and nose are the sensors.
● Let's suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:
 1. Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort
2. Environment: Roads, other vehicles, road signs, pedestrian
3. Actuators: Steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn
4. Sensors: Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.

10.Explain BFS With An Example

Ans:
● Breadth-First Search (BFS) is a graph traversal algorithm that explores all
the vertices of a graph level by level, starting from the source vertex.
● It systematically explores the vertices at the current level before moving on
to the vertices at the next level.
● Process:

● Implementation of BFS algorithm:

1. In BFS we use FIFO queue for the fringe
2. Because of which the newly inserted nodes in the fringe will
automatically be placed after their parents
● Algorithm :
1. Put root node on a queue
2. While (queue id not empty)
a. Remove a node from queue
1) If return success;
2) Put all children of node onto the queue
3. Return failure
● Performance evaluation:
1. Completeness: it is complete provided the shallowest goal node is at
some finite depth.
2. Optimality: it is optimal as it always finds the shallowest solution.
3. Time complexity: O(bd) no.of nodes in the fringe.
4. Space complexity: O(bd), total number of nodes explored.

11.What is a Heuristic function?

Ans:
● A heuristic function in artificial intelligence is a function that helps guide
the search for solutions in a more efficient way.
 ● It provides an estimated cost or value for each possible action or state in a
problem-solving process.
● In the context of search algorithms, heuristics are often used in informed
search strategies, such as A* (A-star) algorithm.
● A heuristic function is designed to provide a "best guess" estimate of the
cost or distance from a given state to the goal state.
● This estimation helps the algorithm make intelligent decisions about which
paths to explore first, improving the efficiency of the search process.
● Heuristics are particularly useful in problems where an exhaustive search
is impractical or too time-consuming.

12.Give an example 8 -Puzzle

Ans:
● The 8-Puzzle is a classic puzzle that involves arranging 8 numbered tiles in
a 3x3 grid with one empty space.
● The goal is to reach a specific configuration by sliding the tiles into the
empty space.
● Here's an example of an initial and goal configuration:
1. Initial Configuration:
1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8
2. Goal Configuration:
1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8
a. To solve the 8-Puzzle, you can perform a sequence of moves
such as swapping tiles with the empty space.
b. For example, one possible move might be to swap the tile '1'
with the empty space, resulting in the following configuration:
1 3

4 2 5

7 8 6
 c. The goal is to find a sequence of moves that transforms the
initial configuration into the goal configuration.
d. The 8-Puzzle is often used as a problem in artificial
intelligence to explore search algorithms
e. heuristic search methods like A* search, to find the most
efficient solution.

13.Explain following task environment

● Discrete vs Continuous
● Known vs Unknown
Ans:
● Discrete vs. Continuous:
1. Discrete:
a. In a discrete task environment, the set of possible actions and
states is distinct, countable, and often finite.
b. Examples include board games, puzzle-solving, or any
scenario with a finite number of possible outcomes.
2. Continuous:
a. In a continuous task environment, actions and states form a
continuous and often infinite space.
b. Examples include robotics, control systems, or simulations of
physical processes with continuous parameters.
● Known vs. Unknown:
1. Known:
a. In a known task environment, the rules governing the system
are well-understood and can be precisely modeled.
b. Examples include games with well-defined rules, deterministic
systems, or simulations where the underlying dynamics are
fully disclosed.
2. Unknown:
a. In an unknown task environment, the rules or dynamics may
be partially or completely undisclosed to the agent.
b. Real-world scenarios, dynamic systems with unpredictable
elements, or situations with evolving dynamics often fall into
the unknown category.
 14. Explain AI with the Turing test approach?
Ans:
● The Turing test was developed by Alan Turing(A computer scientist) in
1950.
● The Turing Test is a widely used measure of a machine's ability to
demonstrate human-like intelligence.

● As shown in Above diagram , in the Turing test, a computer needs to

interact with a human interrogator by answering his questions in written
format.
● Computer passes the test if a human interrogator cannot identify whether
the written responses are from a person or a computer.
● For this test, the computer would need to possess the following capabilities:

● Natural Language Processing (NLP): This unit enables computer to

interpret the English language and communicate successfully
● Knowledge Representation: This unit is used to store knowledge gathered
by the system through input devices.
● Automated Reasoning: This unit enables us to analyze the knowledge
stored in the system and makes new inferences to answer questions.
● Machine Learning: This unit learns new knowledge by taking current input
from the environment and adapts to new circumstances
● Robotics: Robotics empowers AI with physical interaction, autonomous
capabilities, and learning.
● Computer vision: Enables machines to interpret and analyze visual
information, replicating human sight