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Relations and Functions

A relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of A × B obtained by describing a


relationship between the first element a and the second element b of the ordered
pairs in A × B. That is, R ⊆ {(a, b) ∈ A × B, a ∈ A, b ∈ B}
The domain of a relation R from set A to set B is the set of all first elements of
the ordered pairs in R.
The range of a relation R from set A to set B is the set of all second elements of
the ordered pairs in R. The whole set B is called the co-domain of R. Range ⊆
Co-domain
A relation R in a set A is called an empty relation, if no element of A is related
to any element of A. In this case, R = ⊂ A × A

Example: Consider a relation R in set A = {3, 4, 5} given by R = {(a, b): ab <


25, where a, b ∈ A}. It can be observed that no pair (a, b) satisfies this
condition. Therefore, R is an empty relation.

A relation R in a set A is called a universal relation, if each element of A is


related to every element of A. In this case, R = A × A
Example: Consider a relation R in the set A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} given by R = {(a,
b): a + b is an even number}.
Here, we may observe that all pairs (a, b) satisfy the condition R. Therefore, R
is a universal relation.

Both the empty and the universal relation are called trivial relations.
A relation R in a set A is called reflexive, if (a, a) ∈ R for every a ∈ R.
Example: Consider a relation R in the set A, where A = {2, 3, 4}, given by R =
{(a, b): ab = 4, 27 or 256}. Here, we may observe that R = {(2, 2), (3, 3), and
(4, 4)}. Since each element of R is related to itself (2 is related 2, 3 is related to
3, and 4 is related to 4), R is a reflexive relation.

A relation R in a set A is called symmetric, if (a1, a2) ∈ R ⇒ (a2, a1) ∈ R, ∀


(a1, a2) ∈ R
Example: Consider a relation R in the set A, where A is the set of natural
numbers, given by R = {(a, b): 2 ≤ ab < 20}. Here, it can be observed that (b, a)
∈ R since 2 ≤ ba < 20 [since for natural numbers a and b, ab = ba]
Therefore, the relation R is symmetric.

A relation R in a set A is called transitive, if (a1, a2) ∈ R and (a2, a3) ∈ R ⇒


(a1, a3) ∈ R for all a1, a2, a3 ∈ A
Example: Let us consider a relation R in the set of all subsets with respect to a
universal set U given by R = {(A, B): A is a subset of B}
Now, if A, B, and C are three sets in R, such that A ⊂ B and B ⊂ C, then we also
have A ⊂ C. Therefore, the relation R is a symmetric relation.

A relation R in a set A is said to be an equivalence relation, if R is altogether


reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
Example: Let (a, b) and (c, d) be two ordered pairs of numbers such that the
relation between them is given by a + d = b + c. This relation will be an
equivalence relation. Let us prove this.
(a, b) is related to (a, b) since a + b = b + a. Therefore, Ris reflexive.
If (a, b) is related to (c, d), then a + d = b + c ⇒ c + b = d + a. This shows that
(c, d) is related to (a, b). Hence, R is symmetric.
Let (a, b) is related to (c, d); and (c, d) is related to (e, f), then a + d = b + c and
c + f = d + e. Now, (a + d) + (c + f) = (b + c) + (d + e) ⇒ a + f = b + e. This
shows that (a, b) is related to (e, f). Hence, R is transitive.
Since R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive, R is an equivalence relation.

Given an arbitrary equivalence relation R in an arbitrary set X, R divides X into


mutually disjoint subsets Ai called partitions or subdivisions of X satisfying:
All elements of Ai are related to each other, for all i.
No element of Ai is related to any element of Aj , i ≠ j
Aj = X and Ai ∩ Aj= ø , i ≠ j
The subsets Ai are called equivalence classes.

A function f from set X to Y is a specific type of relation in which every element


x of X has one and only one image y in set Y. We write the function f as f: X →
Y, where f (x) = y
A function f: X → Y is said to be one-one or injective, if the image of distinct
elements of X under f are distinct. In other words, if x1, x2 ∈ X and f (x1) = f
(x2), then x1 = x2. If the function f is not one-one, then f is called a many-one
function.

The one-one and many-one functions can be illustrated by the following


figures:
A function f: X → Y can be defined as an onto (surjective) function, if ∀ y ∈ Y,
there exists x ∈ X such that f (x) = y.

The onto and many-one (not onto) functions can be illustrated by the following
figures:

A function f: X → Y is said to be bijective, if it is both one-one and onto. A


bijective function can be illustrated by the following figure:

Example: Show that the function f: R → N given by f (x) = x3 – 1 is


bijective.
Solution:
Let x1, x2 ∈ R
For f (x1) = f (x2), we have

Therefore, f is one-one.
Also, for any y in N, there exists in R such that

.
Therefore, f is onto.
Since f is both one-one and onto, f is bijective.

Composite function: Let f: A → B and g: B → C be two functions. The


composition of f and g,i.e. gof, is defined as a function from A to C given by gof
(x) = g (f (x)), ∀ x ∈ A

Example: Find gof and fog, if f: R → R and g: R → R are given by f (x) = x2 –


1 and g (x) = x3 + 1.

Solution:
A function f: X → Y is said to be invertible, if there exists a function g: Y → X
such that gof = IX and fog = IY. In this case, g is called inverse of f and is
written as g = f–1
A function f is invertible, if and only if f is bijective.

Example: Show that f: R+ ∪ {0} → N defined as f (x) = x3 + 1 is an invertible


function. Also, find f–1.

Solution:
Let x1, x2 ∈ R+ ∪ {0} and f (x1) = f (x2)

Therefore, f is one-one.
Also, for any y in N, there exists R+ ∪ {0} such that = y.
∴ f is onto.
Hence, f is bijective.
This shows that, f is invertible.
Let us consider a function g: N → R+ ∪ {0} such that
Now,
Therefore, we have
and fog (y) = IN

Relation: A relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of the Cartesian


product A × B, obtained by describing a relationship between the first element x
and the second element y of the ordered pairs (x, y) in A × B.
The image of an element x under a relation R is y, where (x, y) ∈ R
Domain: The set of all the first elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R
from a set A to a set B is called the domain of the relation R.
Range and Co-domain: The set of all the second elements in a relation R from
a set A to a set B is called the range of the relation R. The whole set B is called
the co-domain of the relation R. Range ⊆Co-domain

Example: In the relation X from W to R, given by X = {(x, y): y = 2x + 1; x ∈ W,


y ∈ R}, we obtain X = {(0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 7) …}. In this relation X, domain is
the set of all whole numbers, i.e., domain = {0, 1, 2, 3 …}; range is the set of all
positive odd integers, i.e., range = {1, 3, 5, 7 …}; and the co-domain is the set of
all real numbers. In this relation, 1, 3, 5 and 7 are called the images of 0, 1, 2 and 3
respectively.

The total number of relations that can be defined from a set A to a set B is the
number of possible subsets of A × B.

If n(A) = p and n(B) = q, then n(A × B) = pq and the total number of relations is
2pq.

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