CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Stimuli: The changes in the environment to which living organisms respond are called stimuli.
Eg :- heat, cold, sound, smell, taste, touch, pressure, gravity, water etc.
Living organisms respond to stimuli in the form of body movements.

Coordination: For a proper response to a stimulus many organs in i) In animals control and co ordination is done by
the body should work together. The working the nervous system and endocrine system.
together of various organs in an organism to produceii) In plants control and co ordination is done by
a proper response to a stimulus is called chemical substances called plant hormones or
phytohormones.
coordination.
Coordination in animals :-

In animals, control and coordination is done by the nervous system, comprising of brain, spinal cord and senses and endocrine
system.

PHOTORECEPTORS in the eyes detect light.

RECEPTORS are sense organs which receive the stimuli and PHONORECEPTORS in the ears detect sound
pass the message to the brain or spinal cord through the sensory OLFACTORY RECEPTORS in the nose detect smell.
nerves. GUSTATORY RECPTORS in the tongue detect taste.
TANGORECEPTORS n the skin detect touch.

EFFECTORS include muscles and glands which respond to the information from brain and spinal cord. Through the motor
nerves.

SENSORY NERVES are nerves which carry information from the receptors(sense organs) to the brain and spinal cord.

MOTOR NERVES are nerves which carry information from brain and spinal cord to the effectors ( muscles and glands).
HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Parts of Human nervous system

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - Brain & Spinal cord

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – Cranial nerves arising from the brain

and spinal nerves arising from the spinal cord.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Neuron / nerve cell
Neuron is the structural and functional unit of the It has a cell body called cyton containing a nucleus and cytoplasm.
It has several branched structures called dendrites.
nervous system that is specialized to receive, It has a long nerve fibre called axon which is covered by a protective covering
conduct and transmit nerve impulses. called Myelin sheath.

The junction between two neurons is called synapse.

The junction between a neuron and a muscle fiber is called a neuro-muscular junction.

Messages pass through the nerve cell in the form of chemical and electrical signals called nerve
impulse. The dendrites receive the information and starts a chemical reaction which produce electrical
impulse which passes through the axon.
NCERT : What is the function of receptors in our body? Think of situations where receptors donot work properly. What
problems are likely to arise?
Ans: Receptors in our body are specialized cells or nerve endings that detect various stimuli such as light, sound, temperature, and
chemical changes. They convert these stimuli into electrical signals, which are then sent to the brain or spinal cord for
interpretation, appropriate instructions are sent to the effectors (glands/muscles) allowing the body to respond accordingly.
Receptors are crucial for sensing and adapting to the environment.
If receptors do not work properly, several problems can arise depending on which type of receptor is affected:
Vision Problems(photoreceptors), Hearing Issues(auditory receptors), Loss of Touch Sensation(mechanoreceptors), Balance and
Coordination Problems(receptors responsible for balance in the inner ear), Taste and Smell Disorders (chemoreceptors) and
Neurological Problems. In each of these cases, the body may struggle to interact with its surroundings, leading to safety risks or
quality of life concerns.

BQ2024: (i) Write the significance of peripheral nervous system in human beings. Homeostasis is the process by which living organisms
(ii) How is human brain protected from mechanical injuries and shocks? maintain a stable internal environment despite changes
Ans: (i) The peripheral nervous system connects the brain and the spinal cord to the rest of inthe body
external and the external
conditions.
environment.
It consists of sensory nerves that carry information from sensory receptors in the body to the CNS, and motor nerves that
transmit instructions from the CNS to muscles and glands, controlling movement and response.
PNS regulates involuntary functions, such as heartbeat, digestion, and breathing thus maintaining internal homeostasis. It
can regulate the strength of muscle
PNS is responsible for quick reflex actions that help protect the body from harm by sending immediate signals from
sensory receptors to the spinal cord, bypassing the brain for faster responses.
(ii) A brain is protected by a skull on the outside, followed by meninges towards the inside and cerebrospinal fluid in between the
meningeal layers.
BQ : What happens at the synapse between two neurons?
Ans: Receptors in our body are specialized cells or nerve endings that detect various stimuli such as light, sound, temperature, and
chemical changes. They convert these stimuli into electrical signals, which are then sent to the brain or spinal cord for interpretation,
appropriate instructions are sent to the effectors (glands/muscles) allowing the body to respond accordingly. Receptors are crucial for
sensing and adapting to the environment.
If receptors do not work properly, several problems can arise depending on which type of receptor is affected:
Vision Problems(photoreceptors), Hearing Issues(auditory receptors), Loss of Touch Sensation(mechanoreceptors), Balance and
Coordination Problems(receptors responsible for balance in the inner ear), Taste and Smell Disorders (chemoreceptors) and
Neurological Problems. In each of these cases, the body may struggle to interact with its surroundings, leading to safety risks or quality
of life concerns.
BQ 2024:
Structure of neuron (Nerve cell)
Transmission of messages through neurons
 Brain

Main coordinating center in the human body – protected by cranium – covered by three membranes called MENINGES filled with
cerebrospinal fluid – protects against shocks.

FOREBRAIN – consist of CEREBRUM – two cerebral hemispheres- Thalamus, Hypothalamus & OLFACTORY LOBES.
Cranial nerves - arising from the brain
Spinal nerves - arising from the spinal cord.
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 HUMAN BRAIN

FOREBRAIN – largest anterior part of

FOREBRAIN – largest anterior part of brain: consist of

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 HUMAN BRAIN
• On average, an adult brain weighs between 1.0 kg – 1.5 kg. It is mainly composed
of neurons – the fundamental unit of the brain and nervous system. Recent
estimates have suggested that the brain contains anywhere between 86 billion to 100
billion neurons. The brain, along with the spinal cord, constitutes the central
nervous system. It is responsible for thoughts, interpretation and origin of control
for body movements. The brain is lodged inside a bony structure called the cranium
(skull). Three membranes called Meninges protect the spongy brain from friction
against the cranium. Cerebrospinal fluid is found between the inner meninges to
cushion the brain from any damage.
• How is the spinal cord protected?

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 • FOREBRAIN – largest anterior part of brain: consist of Cerebrum [2 cerebral hemispheres
(left & right)]. The two hemispheres are connected via Corpus callosum. Each cerebral
hemisphere has regions which receive sensory information like sight, smell, taste, etc. This
information is processed, helping us perceive the world around us. This is the thinking part
of the brain and is responsible for thinking, sensing, creating memories, emotions, hunger,
sleep, thirst, etc.
• Cerebrum comprises of the outer cerebral cortex, and inner region having thalamus and
hypothalamus. The cerebral cortex has different lobes for sensing and processing information.
• a. Sensory area- to receive impulses from sense organs via receptors.
ocessed,•helping
b. Motor
us perceive area-
the worldcontrol voluntary
around us. This is the thinkingmovements.
part of the

• c. Association areas- Reasoning, learning & intelligence.

• In general, the cerebral cortex is divided into 4 lobes based on the kind of sensory
information being processed. They include Frontal lobes, Occipital lobes, Temporal Lobes
and Parietal lobes.
• Thalamus – It relays sensory information to the Cerebrum.
• Hypothalamus- It forms the link between Nervous system & Endocrine system.

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• MIDBRAIN – Smallest & central-most part of the brain: Midbrain controls reflex movements of the head, neck and body
in response to visual and auditory stimuli.
• HINDBRAIN – lower part of brain: composed of Cerebellum, Medulla (medulla oblongata) and Pons. These three regions
of the hindbrain coordinate all processes necessary for survival of the individual. These induce breathing, heartbeat, sleep,
wakefulness and motor learning.
• Cerebellum - precision of voluntary actions and maintaining the posture and balance of the body (Motor memory).
• Medulla – Involuntary actions like rate of heartbeat, breathing, digestion, etc. and reflexes like coughing and swallowing are
regulated.
• Pons – relays the signals to and from the brain. It also regulates the process of breathing.

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 Spinal Cord

The spinal cord starts from the brain and extends through the vertebral column. It has 31 pairs of
spinal nerves. It carries messages to and from the brain and controls reflex actions too.
 Reflex Action
Reflex action is a sudden, unconscious and involuntary response of the effectors to a stimulus.
Eg :- We suddenly withdraw our hand if we suddenly touch a hot object.
In this reflex action, the nerves in the skin (receptor) detects the heat and passes the message
through the sensory nerves to the spinal cord. Then the information passes through the motor
nerves to the muscles (effector) of the hand and we withdraw our hand.
Reflex Action
 Reflex Arc
The pathway of a reflex action is called reflex arc. In a reflex arc, the stimulus is
received by the receptors (sense organs) and it passes through the sensory nerves to the
spinal cord. From the spinal cord, the information passes through the motor nerves to the
effectors (muscles/glands) for the response.

Stimulus

Receptors
Sensory nerves
(Sense organ)

Spinal cord

Effectors
Motor nerves
(Muscles/Glands)

Response
Reflex Arc
Difference between reflex action and walking? Reflex action Walking
Immediate and automatic response to a Response generated by thought, where
dangerous stimulus the information is transmitted by nerve
to leg muscles,
Spinal cord controls and coordinates the Brain instructs and controls the leg
effectors muscles
It is an involuntary action. It is a voluntary action.

What happens at the synapse between two neurons?

The space between two nerve cells is called synapse. At synapse, a chemical substance called neurotransmitter is produced at the end of
axon of one nerve cell. Receptors for this neurotransmitter will be present on the dendrites of the next neuron. Once, the
neurotransmitter binds, changes occur at the dendrite, which allows in the transmission of information from one nerve cell to other nerve
cell through the synapse.
Which part of the brain maintains posture and equilibrium of the body ? Cerebellum
How do we detect the smell of an agarbatti (incense stick) ?
The smell of agarbatti (incense stick) diffuses in the air. It is detected by olfactory receptors present in the nose. This information is sent
to olfactory lobe by sensory nerves located in the forebrain, which responds to the information.
What is the role of the brain in reflex action ?
There is no role of brain in reflex action. These involuntary actions are controlled by the spinal cord which take place immediately
without thinking of how to respond to the stimuli. The thinking part of the brain, the cerebrum is not involved at all.
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 Coordination in Plants
In plants, control and coordination is done by chemical substances called plant hormones or
phytohormones.
There are five main types of plant hormones. They are :-
Auxins, Gibberillins, Cytokinins, Abscisic acid and Ethylene.

i) Auxins :- help in cell division, cell elongation and growth.

ii) Gibberillins :- help in growth of stem and branches.

iii) Cytokinins:- help in cell division, formation of fruits and seeds.

iv) Abscisic acid :- inhibits growth and affects wilting of leaves.

vi) Ethylene :- helps in flowering and ripening of fruits.

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 Movements in plants
Movements in plants are of two main types. They are :-Tropic movements and Nastic movements.
a) Tropic movements :- are directional movements towards or away from the stimulus and it depends on growth.
They are of different types like Phototropism, Geotropism, Chemotropism, Hydrotropism etc.

i) Phototropism :- is movement of plants in response to light. If it is towards light, it is called positive phototropism.
Eg:- Bending of shoot towards light. If it is away from light, it is called negative phototropism. Eg:- Bending of root away
from light.

ii) Geotropism :- is the movement of plants in response to gravity. If it is towards gravity it is called positive geotropism.
Eg:- Downward growth of roots. If it is away from gravity it is called negative geotropism. Eg:- Upward growth of shoot.

iii) Chemotropism :- is movement of plant in response to chemical stimuli. Eg:- Growth of pollen tube towards the ovule.

iv) Hydrotropism :- is the movement of plants in response to water. Eg :- Growth of roots towards water.
PHOTOTROPISM GEOTROPISM CHEMOTROPISM
NCERT : What is the function of receptors in our body? Think of situations where receptors donot work properly. What
problems are likely to arise?
Ans: Receptors in our body are specialized cells or nerve endings that detect various stimuli such as light, sound, temperature, and
chemical changes. They convert these stimuli into electrical signals, which are then sent to the brain or spinal cord for
interpretation, appropriate instructions are sent to the effectors (glands/muscles) allowing the body to respond accordingly.
Receptors are crucial for sensing and adapting to the environment.
If receptors do not work properly, several problems can arise depending on which type of receptor is affected:
Vision Problems(photoreceptors), Hearing Issues(auditory receptors), Loss of Touch Sensation(mechanoreceptors), Balance and
Coordination Problems(receptors responsible for balance in the inner ear), Taste and Smell Disorders (chemoreceptors) and
Neurological Problems. In each of these cases, the body may struggle to interact with its surroundings, leading to safety risks or
quality of life concerns.

BQ2023: (i) Name one directional growth movement each in response to chemicals and water in plants. Write an example for
each of them.
Ans: (i) The peripheral nervous system connects the brain and the spinal cord to the rest of the body and the external
environment.
It consists of sensory nerves that carry information from sensory receptors in the body to the CNS, and motor nerves that
transmit instructions from the CNS to muscles and glands, controlling movement and response.
PNS regulates involuntary functions, such as heartbeat, digestion, and breathing thus maintaining internal homeostasis. It
can regulate the strength of muscle
PNS is responsible for quick reflex actions that help protect the body from harm by sending immediate signals from
sensory receptors to the spinal cord, bypassing the brain for faster responses.
(ii) A brain is protected by a skull on the outside, followed by meninges towards the inside and cerebrospinal fluid in between the
meningeal layers.
Nastic movements :- are non directional movements which are neither towards or away from the stimulus and it
does not depend on growth.
Eg :- If we touch the leaves of touch me not plant, its leaves fold up and droops down immediately due to the change
in the amount of water in the leaves. Depending upon the amount of water in the leaves, it swells or shrinks.
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 Endocrine glands in human beings :-
The endocrine glands also help in control and coordination by producing chemical substances which help to control and coordinate
various activities in the body.
The endocrine glands in our body are :- pineal, hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, testes and ovary.
Examples of coordination by endocrine glands :-
i) When we are frightened or angry, the adrenal glands produce more adrenalin hormone which is sent through the blood to the heart, rib
muscles and diaphragm. This increases breathing rate to supply more oxygen to the muscles to prepare the body to either run away or fight
with the enemy.

ii) Iodine is needed by the thyroid gland to produce the hormone thyroxin. Thyroxin controls the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and
proteins and helps in proper growth. If the diet is deficient in iodine it causes goitre.

iii) The pituitary gland produce growth hormones. Deficiency of this hormone in childhood causes dwarfism. Excess of this hormone
causes tall growth.

iv) The pancreas produces the hormone insulin which controls the blood sugar level. Increase in blood sugar level causes diabetes. A
diabetic patient has to take insulin injections to control his blood sugar level.

v) The testes in males produces the hormone testosterone which controls the production of sperms and changes during puberty.
The ovary in females produces the hormone oestrogen which controls the production of eggs and changes during puberty.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS IN HUMAN BEINGS