ECOLOGY 5.

Synecology
Is the scientific study of the complex relationships Study of many species within an ecosystem
between organisms and their environment. An
environment refers to all the conditions in which an 6. Autecology
organism lives, such conditions include, Study of single organisms or populations of single
temperature, light, water and other organisms. species and their relationship to their environment
These interactions determine the distribution and e.g. considering a lion in the bush, what does it feed
abundance of organism within a particular on?, how does it reproduce?, what are its
environment. competitors?, what are its predators?, etc

The study of Ecology is significant in the following

ways, 7. Habitat
 Applied in the field of agriculture, forestry and Specific locality where an organism normally lives
fisheries. within the environment e.g. the underside of a log
 To predict incidences of pollution and how they for earthworms, intestines of man for tapeworms,
can be prevented. ponds for frogs, kitchen for cockroaches, etc. Habitat
 Understand the consequences to the environment is like the “address” of an organism.
of construction of dams, diversion of rivers,
reclamation of swamps and wet lands, Microhabitat
construction of infrastructure like roads, housing, Small locality within the habitat with particular
bridges and urban developments. conditions (microclimate) that support specific
 In application of biological conservation organisms e.g. mosses can grow at the upper side of
methods. a fallen log, while the underside supports
earthworms.
TERMS USED IN ECOLOGY
1. Ecosystem 8. Niche /Ecological niche
A natural unit composed of living (biotic) and non- Ecological niche is defined as a spatial habitat (an
living (abiotic) components whose interactions lead area where an organism lives) and the entire ways of
to a self-sustaining system e.g. ponds, lakes, forest, life and roles played in the community. A niche of
desert, stream. an organism in absence of predators are called
fundamental niche and its niche in presence of
2. Species predators and other competitors is known as realized
Group of organisms showing resemblance among niche
themselves in appearance, behaviour, chemistry and The role an organism plays in the habitat, and its
genetic makeup. interactions with other organisms. i.e. the sum of all
Organisms that reproduce sexually are classified as environmental factors that influence the growth,
members of the same species if, under natural survival and reproduction of a species. A niche is
conditions, they can (i) actually or potentially breed like the “profession” of an organism
with one another and (ii) produce fertile offspring.
a) Fundamental niche
3. Population The physical conditions under which a species might
Total number of members of a species occupying a live, in the absence of interactions with other
specific area at the same time. E.g. tilapia fish in a species.
pond, mahogany trees in a forest, people in a country
b) Realized niche
4. Community The role an organism plays in the habitat, and its
All the organisms of different species that interact in interactions with other organisms in the presence of
a given, well defined area e.g. all organisms within a competition and other constraining factors i.e. is the
pond set of conditions under which an organism exists in
nature.

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9. Native species ocean floor, 20 kilometers (12 miles) below sea
Species that normally and shrive in a particular level, to the top of the highest mountains.
ecosystem
c) Troposphere:
10. Non-native/alien/exotic species Inner layer of the earth extending about 17
Species that migrate into the ecosystem or are kilometers (11miles) above sea level, but containing
deliberately or accidentally introduced into an most of the planet‟s air, mostly nitrogen (78%) and
ecosystem by humans e.g. crops and game species oxygen (21%).

11. Indicator species d) Stratosphere:

Species that serve as early warnings of damage to a This is the layer stretching 17 – 48 kilometers (11 –
community or an ecosystem 30 miles) above the earth‟s surface. Its lower portion
contains ozone (O3) to filter out most of the sun‟s
12. Keystone species harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Species that play more important roles than others in
maintaining the structure and function of ecosystems e) Hydrosphere:
of which they are a part i.e. it is a dominant species It consists of the earth‟s (i) liquid water (both
that dictates community structure by affecting surface and underground), (ii) ice (polar ice,
abundances of other species. icebergs, and ice in frozen soil layers) (iii) water
vapour in the atmosphere.
Examples:
1) Top predator keystone species like lions, f) Lithosphere:
crocodiles and great white sharks exert a stabilizing This is the earth‟s crust and upper mantle. The crust
effect on their ecosystems by feeding on and helping contains nonrenewable fossil fuels and minerals as
regulate the populations of certain species. well as renewable soil nutrients needed for plant life.

BIOMES
2) Bats and birds regenerate deforested areas by
Biome is a region within the Biosphere with its
depositing plant seeds in their droppings.
unique set of environmental conditions where
3) Elephants uproot and break trees, creating forest specific type of animal species (fauna) and plant
openings in the savanna grasslands and woodlands, species (flora) are adapted to live or supported.
which promotes growth of grasses for grazers and Biomes of the world include tropical rain forests,
also accelerates nutrient recycling. tropical savannah, grass lands, deserts, tundra of
4) Dung beetles remove, bury and recycle animal arctic and Antarctic regions, temperate regions,
wastes (dung) oceans, etc. Biomes are divided into smaller units
called zones. For example tropical rain forest is
Note: all species play some role in their ecosystems divided into ground zones and canopy zones. Within
and thus are important; therefore the assertion that each biome are habitats.
some species are more important than others remains
controversial Examples of the major terrestrial biomes of the
world:
THE MAJOR PARTS OF THE EARTH’S LIFE a) Tropical forests
SUPPORT SYSTEM i) Tropical rainforests: occur at low latitudes where
a) Atmosphere: the rain falls abundantly all year long and
It is a thin envelope or membrane of air around the temperature is warm
planet.
ii) Tropical seasonal forests: occur where climate is
b) Biosphere: rather drier, and trees may lose their leaves during
The part of the earth in which living organisms exist the dry season.
and interact with one another and with their A forest biome is divided into ground zone
nonliving environment. It reaches from the deepest (consisting of millipedes & earthworms) and canopy

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zone/aerial zone; (consisting of birds & monkeys); (ii) Land (terrestrial) ecosystems which include
with each of these zones supporting different forests, deserts, savanna, etc
animals that are adapted to the conditions within
them. THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF AN
ECOSYSTEM
b) Savannah: warm and dry grasslands with few
• Abiotic component.
trees, typically supporting grazing of animals
• Biotic component.

c) Deserts: areas of very little rainfall, ranging from

Abiotic component.
entire barrenness to seasonal rainfall that supports
Is the physical and non-living component which
growth of some vegetation.
contains matter and energy.
Deserts can be: Hot and dry desert regions
(evaporation is high and there is too much heat),
Biotic component.
cold deserts (precipitation coming from colder
Is the living component of the environment
water sources than rain, such as snow or ice),
Both Abiotic and biotic components affect the
temperate region (winters and summers).
distribution and abundance of organisms in different
habitats.
d) Chaparral (temperate shrub land): grows
where summers are hot and dry, and the winters are
ABIOTIC (PHYSICAL) FACTORS
cool and wet. Vegetation is composed of mainly
dense spiny shrubs with tough evergreen leaves. AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION AND
e) Temperate grassland: are similar to savannas but ABUNDANCE OF ORGANISMS IN A
occur in cooler climates e.g. Canadian prairies and HABITAT.
pampas of Argentina. The main Abiotic (physical) factors include the
following,
f) Temperate forests: include deciduous and  Temperature.
evergreen forests but contain far fewer species than a  Water.
tropical rainforest.  Light.
 Humidity.
g) Taiga (coniferous forest/boreal forest): conifer  Wind and air currents.
forests in cold subarctic or subalpine conditions  pH.
 Mineral salts and trace elements.
ECOSYSTEM  Water currents.
It is natural unit of environment composed of living  Salinity.
(biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components whose  Wave action.
interactions lead to a self-sustaining system.  Topography/altitude/latitude.
An ecosystem is stable when it adjusts to changes in  Background.
different environmental conditions within itself  Soil (Edaphic factors e.g. Soil pH, Soil air,
(homeostasis/self-regulation).Small changes will Inorganic particles, Soil water, Organic matter
normally be countered by a feedback processes. (dead organic matter and living organisms), Soil
An ecosystem is said to be self-perpetuating when it temperature etc.
can continue on its own without the necessity for
humans or other interference.  Topography
There are two types of ecosystems:  Other physical factors e.g. fire and wave action
(i) Water (aquatic) ecosystems. These may be fresh etc.
water bodies (e.g. lakes, ponds, rivers) or marine
water bodies (e.g. sea, ocean). How do abiotic factors affect the distribution and
Organisms in water may be of large size (nektons) abundance of organisms?
e.g. fish, whales, turtles or very tiny (planktons) e.g.
phytoplankton and zooplanktons.

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TEMPERATURE (ii) Aestivation (seasonal response by animals to
1) Affects physiological processes (respiration, drought or excessive heat during which they
photosynthesis, and growth etc.) in organisms become dormant, and the metabolic rate
which in turn influence their distribution. followed by body temperature fall to the
2) Ultimate heating and cooling of rocks cause air to minimum required for maintaining the vital
break and crack into small pieces and finally activities of the body); allows them to survive
form soil. extremes of hot temperatures e E.g. African
lungfish burrows into mud till the dry season
3) These changes in turn may result into migration
ends, earthworms, garden snails , desert rats,
of organisms e.g. birds to avoid over heating or
termites also aestivate
freezing.
(iii) Movement with some body parts raised to
4) Low temperatures inactivate enzymes while
minimize direct contact with hot grounds e.g
excessive temperatures denature enzymes.
desert snakes
5) High temperature increase transpiration and
(iv) Salivation of the neck and legs; increasing heat
sweating
loss by evaporation e.g in tortoise
6) Low temperatures break dormancy of some
plants. Adaptations of animals for life in cold
7) Temperatures stimulate flowering in some plants environments
e.g. cabbage (vernalisation) Structural adaptations
8) Exposure to low temperature (stratification) 1) Thick layer of fat under the skin; to increase on
stimulate germination in some seeds after insulation by avoiding heat loss
imbibition. 2) Small body extremities to reduce the surface area
9) Organisms have evolved to have structural, over which heat is lost
physiological and behavioral adaptations to 3) Large sized; thus small surface area to volume
maintain their temperature in an optimum range. ratio; reducing amount of heat lost to the
surrounding
Adaptations of animals for life in hot and dry 4) Thick fur; to increase on insulation
deserts.
5) Tissues tolerant to extreme changes in
A. Structural adaptations,
temperature; maintaining their normal functions in
(i) Large body extremities e.g. ear lobes; to
the body
increase surface area over which heat is lost.
(ii) Small sized; to increase the surface area to
Behavioral adaptations
volume ratio, for heat loss
1) Hibernation (is seasonal response by animals to
(iii) Some animals like the camel, have long skinny
cold temperature during which they become
non fatty legs to increase heat loss during
dormant, body temperature and metabolic rate
locomotion
fall to the minimum required for maintaining the
(iv) Little or no fur to reduce on insulation, and
vital activities of the body) The animals, said to
increase amount of heat lost
be in „deep sleep‟ ably reduce energy needs to
(v) Thin subcutaneous fat layer under the skin to
survive the winter when food is scarce allowing
increase heat loss from the body
them survive extreme cold conditions e.g. in
(vi) Have tissues tolerant to extreme temperature
polar bears.
changes, maintaining the body‟s main functions
2) Gathering in groups to warm themselves e.g.
penguins
B. Physiological adaptations
Enzymes work under a high optimum
temperature range to maintain metabolism during RAIN FALL;
day and night. Amount of rainfall in a given area determines the
abundance, distribution and types of plants in the
C. Behavioral adaptations area. Vegetation cover is influenced by the amount
of precipitation in an area.
(i) Most are nocturnal, i.e. most active at night, when
temperatures are relatively low
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Ecological significances of water 4) Controls opening and closure of stomata;
 Habitat for many aquatic organisms e.g frogs, therefore, affecting rate of photosynthesis and
fish etc transpiration.
 Raw material for photosynthesis; main energy
source for body processes of other organisms WIND / AIR CURRENTS
 High thermal capacities; acting as cooling agent It influences the following,
for terrestrial organisms e.g plants during 1) Dispersal or migration of flying mammals,
transpiration, some animals during sweating. winged insects; thus reducing the level of
 Agent for fruit, seed, spore, larva and gamete competition.
dispersal 2) Pollination
 Condition for germination 3) Dispersal of seeds and spores; increasing the
spread of non-motile organisms e.g fungi and some
 Highly transparent; therefore allowing light to
bacteria.
reach aquatic organisms, for photosynthesis; and
4) Takes part in rain formation
aquatic predators to locate their prey
5) Current and wave formation in seas and lakes
 Important factor in decay and decomposition; enables distribution of mineral salts.
therefore, increases in recycling of nutrients in an 6) Increase transpiration; thus promoting water and
ecosystem. mineral salt uptake from the soil by plant roots
 For plant growth because essential mineral salts 7) Increases evaporation and reduces sweating.
are carried dissolved in water i.e in solution form. 8) Causes physical damage to vegetation and soils
 For seed germination. e.g soil erosion.
 Regulate body temperatures in plants and • Increases dissolution of oxygen in aquatic bodies;
animals. When water evaporates from the surface thereby increasing aerobic activities of organisms.
of plants or animals, it results into cooling.
 Important in nutrient recycling.
TOPOGRAPHY
 It is a raw material for photosynthesis, where it
Refers to the nature of the landscape, which includes
reduces carbondioxide to form sugars in presence
features like mountains, valleys, lakes etc.
of sun light trapped by the chlorophylls.
 Medium for most metabolic reactions, medium High altitude is associated with, low atmospheric
through which male gametes are transferred to pressure; low average temperatures, increased wind
the female eggs in reproduction. speed; decreased partial pressures of oxygen, thus
few organisms live permanently here.
HUMIDITY Slope reduces water logging and there is a lot of soil
Amount of water in the atmosphere affects the rate erosion preventing proper plant establishment
at which water evaporates from organisms‟ i.e Low especially at steep slopes
humidity results to increasing evaporation while At low altitudes, average temperatures are high, high
high humidity causes low rate of evaporation; atmospheric pressure, partial pressures of oxygen are
through stomata of leaves in plants. high, and in some places there is water logging.
Accordingly, organisms within areas of low
humidity are adapted to avoid excessive loss of These differences cause differences in the
water by; distribution of living organisms along area different
1) Having reduced number of sweat glands e.g. in in topography. For example the population size of
kangaroo rat organisms on the side well illuminated will be
2) Presence of leaf spines in cactus plants; to reduce greater than on the side not well illuminated. This is
surface area over which water is lost through because of better climatic conditions on the
transpiration. illuminated side.
3) Controls other activities of animals like feeding,
hunting, and movements e.g earth worms experience The population size of organisms and the number of
a larger ecological niche when the environment is species is higher at lower altitudes and latitudes,
humid. lower altitudes and latitudes have favourable
temperatures, high partial pressures of oxygen and

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atmospheric pressures. This provides favourable 8) Predation; (hunting and killing of prey by
climatic conditions which favour plant growth predators require certain levels of illumination and
through out the year, providing enough food, visibility
shelter/habitats for many animals. 9) Courtship; with some animals preferring light so
At high altitudes and latitudes, the population size of as to carry out courtship while others prefer darkness
organisms and number of species of organisms is 10) Light breaks dormancy of seeds.
low. High altitudes and latitudes have unfavourable
11) Stimulates synthesis of vitamin D in mammals;
climatic conditions these include, cold temperatures,
where lipids(sterols) in the dermis are converted to
low partial pressures of oxygen and atmospheric
vitamin D by uv light
pressure. This reduces plant growth and reduces
12) It enables the mechanisms photoreceptions in
plant population size, providing little food for other
eyes
organisms and the population size is low.
13) Absence of light results in failure of chlorophyll
formation in plants i.e. plant remains yellow, and
LIGHT.
leaves fail to expand.
Light availability when adequate, it favours the
growth of plant population through the process of 14) Photoperiod affects migratory and reproductive
photosynthesis. More primary producers will highly behaviour in various animals e.g. sunlight
support survival of many primary consumers like the polarised by water acts as a compass for
herbivores; this will favour the survival of other migration of salmon fish.
animals directly or indirectly. In adequacy of light or 15) Necessary for the germination of certain seeds
its absence limits the plant populations. More e.g. lettuce
organisms are distributed where light intensity is
adequate than where light intensity is low. MINERAL SALTS AND TRACE
The amount light intensity can determine the ELEMENTS.
temperature of a particular habitat. These particularly affect the distribution of plants in
the soil. Sufficient minerals favours growth and
EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON A development of plants and increase in population
HABITAT/ECOSYSTEM. size and deficiency of the mineral salts leads to low
(a) Positive effects. growth and death of some plants and hence decrease
Light (intensity, quality, and duration) in population size.
1) Influences many physiological activities of Some minerals are more abundant than others for
organisms ie certain reasons; they react more readily than others,
2) It is a source of energy for photolysis (breakdown more soluble and can easily be leached out by the
of water during photosynthesis.). rain and carried into the water bodies, evaporation of
3) Absence of light causes etiolation (elongation of water also increases the concentrations of the
shoot inter nodes). mineral salts, selective reabsorbtion, minerals being
4) Induces flowering in long-day plants e.g. barley, more essential to particular plants.
but inhibits flowering in short day plants.
5) Phototropism, by redistributing auxins on the Sources of mineral salts in aquatic environment
darker sides of shoots and roots, with cells on include the following,
darker side elongating more than those on  Salts that dissolve in the rain water are carried
illuminated side. into the water bodies. Salts that dissolve in river
water can also be carried into sea water.
6) Germination; some seeds are positively
 Minerals obtained from deposition of marine
photoblastic; germination only in presence of
organic materials.
light while other do not require light to
 Minerals deposited into the water bodies by run
germinate.(are negatively photoblastic)
water washed down from the neighboring land
7) Stomatal opening and closure; with most plant masses.
species opening their stomata during day (when  Dust particles carried into the water bodies.
there is light) and closing during night (in  From the dissolution of minerals from the
absence of light/darkness). underlying rocks in the water bodies.
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In the terrestrial environment the mineral salts  Provides water and mineral salts.
can be obtained in the following ways,  Provides anchorage (support) to the plants.
 Weathering or mineralization of rocks.  For root aeration.
 Decomposition of organic materials.  Habitat for some animals. For example,
 Use of fertilizers in agricultural land. earthworms, beetles, insects etc.
 Rain dissolves minerals in the atmospheric gases.
 Nitrification process and nitrogen fixation by Edaphic factors affecting population size and
nitrogen fixing bacteria. distribution of plants and animals.
 From pesticide and insecticide sprays. These include the following,
a) Water content;
Importance of mineral salts to plants 1) Varies markedly in any well-defined soil,
1. The mineral salts favour growth and increase in 2) Any finely drained soil holding much water as
population size in required quantities, high possible is said to be at full capacity
concentration of mineral ions are toxic to 3) Addition of more water which cannot be drained
particular plant species and this limits their away leads to water logging; and anaerobic
distribution and population size. conditions, affecting mineral ion uptake by active
2. Mineral salts in water affect the distribution of transport, subsequently affecting osmotic uptake
plant species, which in turn affects the animals of water, due to decreased osmotic potential
that depend on plants for food. gradient, causing plants to dry out.
3) Plants growing in soils deficient of certain salts, 4) Plants like rice, marshes, and sedges have
e.g insectivorous plants in nitrogen deficient soils, developed air spaces among root tissues allowing
obtain nitrogen feeding on insects. some diffusion of oxygen from aerial parts to
4) Significances of mineral salts to plants help supply the roots.
5) Mineral salts together with other solutes
determine the osmotic pressure of cells and body b) Soil micro-organisms.
fluids These include Bacteria and fungi. They affect the
6) Determinants in anion and cation balance in cells, lives of organisms in the following ways,
e.g Na+ and Cl-, involved in transmission of  Cause rapid decomposition of organic matter in
nerve the soil, releasing nutrients that promote plant
7) Constituents of certain pigments like growth.
haemoglobin, and chlorophyll containing iron  Increase soil aeration since the process of
and magnesium respectively. decomposition release gases and more room for
8) Metabolic activators; some ions activate enzymes, air is created.
e.g chloride ions activate salivary amylase,  Break seed dormancy, promoting plant growth.
magnesium activate enzymes in phosphate  Promote nitrogen recycling by working as
metabolism, and phosphorus as phosphate is nitrogen fixing organism..
required in activation of sugars during Glycolysis
in tissue respiration. c) Air content;
9) Mineral salts like potassium are involved in This is the amount of air in the soil and it is
formation of cell membrane and opening of determined by the following,
stomata;  Number of air spaces in the soil.
10) Development of stem and root e.g. calcium  Size of air spaces in the soil.
pectate in formation of plant cell wall. Etc  Water content of the soil.
 Humus content of the soil
SOIL FACTORS.
Soil is a complex mixture of in-organic, organic and Importance of soil air,
organic decaying matter that occurs above the  For seed germination.
earth‟s crust. Soil factors affecting plants and  Respiration of soil micro-organism.
animals life are referred as edaphic factors. They are  Respiration of plant roots.
physio-chemical factors.  Decomposition of organic matter
Soil is important for plants in the following ways,
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d) Soil moisture. estuarine animals. These have special physiological
Dissolve mineral salts in the water so that they are or behavioural adaptations to withstand fluctuations
rapidly absorbed and utilized by plants. in salinity and these are,
Activate the process of seed germination.  Possession of more salt containing body b
High water content of the soil lowers rate of animals. This prevents the loss of the water from
absorption of mineral salts, reduces aeration and the animal‟s body to the surrounding by
decomposition of organic matter. Some plants may osmosis.
dry up in conditions of water logging.  Active pumping of the mineral salts into the
organism‟s body from the surrounding.
e) Soil texture.
This is the proportion of sand and clay particles. Soil WATER WAVES.
texture influences drainage and water retention of This affects organisms living in the intertidal zone.
the soil, determining survival of plants. Good soil To withstand the waves action conditions, special
texture favour large population size of plants and adaptations are needed. These include,
their distribution than poor soil texture.  Sessile habits eg. In sea anemones.
 Burrowing by shrimps and sand hoppers.
f) Soil structure.  Firm attachment to rocks and general seaweeds
Is the arrangement of soil particles, it influences eg. Fucus and laminaria.
drainage, aeration and soil erosion.
BACKGROUND.
g) Soil temperature. This is the overall coloration of the environment in
It influences physical, chemical and biological which particular organisms live. The population size
processes. is high and organisms are well distributed where the
A physical process affected is soil formation. organisms resemble the background, they
Chemical process influenced is decomposition, camouflage and survive selective predation. In the
while the biological processes affected by the other hand, the population size is low and organisms
temperature are respiration, water absorption, seed are scantly distributed where they do not resemble
germination, root growth and activities of the micro- their environment, such organisms can not
organisms. At optimum temperatures of 35oC upto camouflage and easily spotted by the predators and
40oC the physical, chemical and biological processes consumed at higher rates.
are increased, while at temperatures below and
above the optimum, these processes are lowered. FIRE.
Soil temperatures is affected by,
Types of fire
 colour of the soil.
a) Natural fires; are set up by natural causes like
 Soil texture.
lightening, volcanic eruptions etc
 Water content.
b) Artificial fires; are set up by man either
 Humus content.
intentionally or carelessly
 Vegetation covers of the soil.
c) Wild fires; burn in the direction of wind
d) Early fires; set up at beginning of dry season
h) Soil PH.
e) Prescribed fires; under ecological management
It affects the following,
where prevention measures are taken when stting up
 Activities of nitrifying bacteria and other soil
the fire.
organisms.
 Solubility of solutes such as Fe2+, Fe3+
Properties of fire
 Vegetation distribution of some crops. Some
Fire intensity;
plants prefer acidic conditions while others
Is the heat content of the fire,
prefer alkaline.
Depends on environmental factors such as wind,
temperature as well as the amount and type of
SALINITY.
vegetation.
Refers to the salt content of a given aquatic
environment. It influences the distribution of

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Fire duration; ADAPTATIONS OF SOME PLANTS TO
Is the time taken by the fire to destroy a given area. SURVIVE IN FIRE STRESSING
c) Fire severity; is measured in terms of major CONDITIONS.
vegetation destroyed by the fire.  Possession of thick bark not easily destroyed by
fire.
Source of fire.  Succulent stem with high water content. Eg
Fire can be wild. This is fire whose source is Banana plantations. However, stem succulent
unknown or prescribed, this is fire whose source is plants are not common in deserts because of the
well known often set by ecologists on some following reasons, their tissues are not heat
schedule. resistant, stem succulent plants have high water
content with low rate of transpiration and are
Season of burn. liable to overheating.
Fires can be early burn. This is set at the beginning  Possession of under ground vegetative
of the dry season. While the late burn fires are set up propagation structures which are hidden from
at the end of the dry season. direct effects of fire and rapidly sprouts after
fire. It is noted that fire favours grasses at the
Fire intensity. expense of the tress. This is because grasses
It is the heat content of the fire and it depends on the have meristems at leaf bases, at the levels of the
type of fuel, amount of fuel present, environmental soil but well protected by the leaf bases and the
temperatures, wind and humidity. thin layers of the soil. Trees grow from cambium
and buds which are exposed to high
Fire duration and spread. temperatures during fire and die off.
It refers to how much area has been covered by the  Lack of branching at lower parts but lateral
fire (spread)and how long a fire has spent burning in branching more pronounced at the top. This
an area (duration). protects the plant from fires since they hardly
reach the top.
Fire frequency.
It refers to the number of times per year an area is ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF FIRE
burnt. Positive effects
Reasons for burning vegetation at a suitable 1) Removes old leaves and stimulates trees and
frequency include the following, grasses to produce new buds.
 Removing top old unpalatable vegetation to pave 2) Breaks dormancy (seed dormancy), incase seed
way for fresh, young and palatable vegetation. coats are hard and impermeable.
 To prevent accumulation of litter which could 3) Causes release of mineral nutrients in form ash;
harbour pests. on burning organic matter, releasing nitrate and
 It can be applied to enhance weeding. phosphate compounds into soil, and subsequently
 To give way to wood vegetation so that stable improving on soil fertility.
climax community can be maintained. 4) Improves on visibility of organisms such as
predators, prey, mates allowing them easily carry
CAUSES OF FIRE. out their activities.
Human carelessness or intentions. 5) Improves on food productivity in terms of quality,
In tropics, pastoralists are known to start fire in order quantity and productivity, because after burning
to clear the old unpalatable vegetation to pave way new species with high protein content grows.
for the young, soft palatable vegetation. 6) Destroys pests
7) Controls undesirable plant species and weeds
Natural causes.
This is brought about by lightening, volcanic Negative effects
activity, extremely high temperatures in some areas. 1) Increase soil erosion; leading soil infertility
These conditions can spark off fire naturally in many 2) Kills slow moving animals e.g snails, earthworms
forests, grass lands like in California and British 3) Destruction of habitat for most of the animal
Colombia. species may leading migration or extinction.

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4) Increases fire resistant species. preys are being fed on by the large number of
5) Reduction in population density and biodiversity. predators, while a large number of prey in area
6) Destroys food for animals like herbivores which results into an increase in number of predators
may lead to starvation and eventually death. because of the adequate available food, this
7) Air pollution by products such as carbon increases the biotic potential of the predators.
monoxide and carbon dioxide, increasing on Predation is an interspecific relationship where only
global warmimg. one organism benefits (the predator, while the other
8) It disrupts the hydrological cycle (water cycle), losses.
since it destroys vegetation which would
contribute to rain formation. (II) COMPETITION.
9) It also disrupts the nitrogen cycle by killing Competition is a relation where two or more species
nitrogen fixing bacteria. of organisms try to or struggle to obtain the same
10)When fire kills decomposers, organic pollutants limited natural resources.
accumulate and recycling of matter is hindered. Organisms of different species frequently compete
with one another for natural resources such as food,
Adaptations of plants to fire light, water and breeding sites (space), mates and
shelter. The relationship is harmful to both species
of heat. because they are unable to exploit the resources as
fully as they would in the absence of competition.
growing buds.
Competition among organisms may cause organisms
parenchyma cells to reduce on the effects of fire to starve to death, migrate to occupy other habitats
heat. or change their mode of feeding. These reduce their
uals to avoid fire severity in population size in an area. Competition is divided
into two types,
form of seeds, which may be underground. Some
1. Interspecific competition.
trees have heat resistant tissues.
2. Intraspecific competition.

THE BIOTIC ENVIRONMENT.

Interspecific competition is the one that exists
This is the living component of the environment. It
between organisms of different species. While
is made up of all the other organisms interacting
intraspecific competition is the one that exists
together.
between organisms of the same species. There are
certain factors that may increase the levels of
How biotic factors affect the distribution and competition among organisms,
abundancy of organisms  Shortage of natural resources.
Biotic factors are those that arise in organisms
 Increase in population size.
interacting with each other. Examples include (i)
 When organisms of different species occupy
diseases (ii) competition, (iii) parasitism, (iv)
the same ecological niche.
pollution, (v) pollination &dispersal,(vi) antibiosis
(vii) mimicry.
(i) Intraspecific competition
Is the competition between members of the same
(I) PREDATION. species for the same resources. Intraspecific
A predator is an organism which hunts, attacks and competition tends to have a stabilizing influence on
feeds on other animals. The animals which are fed population size.
on are called the preys. In this case, the distribution If the population gets too big, intraspecific
of predator and prey are related. Predators are found population increases, so the population falls again. If
where there are suitable preys. i.e the herbivores are the population gets too small, intraspecific
only found where there are suitable plant food and population decreases, so the population increases
carnivorous plants are found where there are insects. again.
The large number of predators in an area results into
decrease in population size of preys because more

10
(ii) Interspecific competition
Is the competition between members of two or more
different species for food, space, good hiding place,
water, sunlight, nesting sites or any other limited
resource.
Competition is very intense when there is significant
overlap of niches, and in this case one of the
competing species must:
1 Migrate to another area if possible
2 Shift its feeding habits or behaviour through
natural selection and evolution
3 Suffer a sharp population decline or
4 Become extinct in that area, otherwise two species Observation
can never occupy exactly the same ecological 1) When cultured separately, each species has
niche. maximum population, only coming almost constant
According to Gause’s (Russian biologist) with time due to;
competitive exclusion principle “no two species can (i) -Presence of toxic wastes which can poison
occupy the same ecological niche” paramecium.
e.g. (i). Two species of flour beetles, Tribolium (ii) -Heat generated during respiration may kill some
castenum and T. confusum were kept in the paramecium.
laboratory in bottles of flour acting as a habitat and (iii) -Decrease in food measures.
providing food for them, under variable temperature
conditions(24-34) and humid conditions (very humid 2) When the two species of paramecium are cultured
, 70%RH& 30% RH). together, paramecium aurelia gets competitive
Observation. At high temperatures and in very advantage over P. caudatum and after several days,
humid conditions, Tribolium castenum succeded population of P. caudatum gradually decreases and
better, while at low temperatures and very dry later decreases rapidly until its excluded hence
conditions T. confusum did better. Whatever the competitive exclusion principle. P.caudatum
conditions, only one of the species eventually therefore,goes to extinction. Competitive advantages
survived. of P.aurelia are;
(i) High rate of reproduction.
(ii). Two species of Paramecium Aurelia and (ii) High growth rate.
P.caudatum were grown separately in the same (iii) Good nutrient absorptive capacity/greater
culture, then later cultured together. efficiency in obtaining food.
(iv) Being small, it requires less food hence can
easily survive when food is scarce. - Survivorship,
long life span.

11
 The results of the experiment were summarized
as follows:
 Hot-moist (340C, 70% RH) Single- Both
populations persisted over the entire duration of
the experiment in equal proportions, hence T.
confusum population is equal to that of T.
castaneum
 Hot- moist (340C, 70% RH) Mixed, Tribolium
castaneum excludes Tribolium confusum
 Cool-dry (240C, 30% RH) Single, Tribolium
castaneum dies off after a short while therefore,
T. confusum is greater than T. castaneum
 Cool-dry (240C, 30% RH) Mixed, Tribolium
castaneum was excluded.
 Temperate- moist (290C, 70% RH) single, Both
populations persisted, but T. castaneum thrived
better, hence, T. confusum was less than T.
castaneum
 Temperate- moist (290C, 70% RH) mixed, T.
castaneum excluded T. confusum more times
 Hot-dry (340C, 30% RH) Single, Both
populations persisted, but T. confusum shrived
better, hence, T. confusum is greater than T.
castaneum
 Hot-dry (340C, 30% RH) Mixed, Tribolium
confusum excluded Tribolium castaneum more
times
 Temperate-dry (290C, 30% RH) single, Both
populations persisted, but T. confusum thrived
EXPERIMENTS WITH FLOUR BEETLES:
better, hence, T. confusum is greater than T.
Tribolium, beetles of the family Tenebrionidae,
castaneum
attack stored grains and grain products. Thomas Park
 Temperate-dry (290C, 30% RH) mixed,
(1948) explored interspecific (interspecies)
Tribolium confusum won Tribolium castaneum
competition between Tribolium confusum and
 Cool- moist (240C, 70% RH) Single, Both
Tribolium castaneum. The variables studied
populations persisted, but T. castaneum thrived
included climate, initial density, food, volume of
better hence T. confusum is less than T.
flour and presence or absence of a parasite called
castaneum
Adelina.
 Cool- moist (240C, 70% RH) Mixed, Tribolium
One such experiment was conducted under six
confusum won Tribolium castaneum.
environmental conditions below:
Deductions and interpretations of results:
i) Cool-dry conditions appear to favour Tribolium
confusum

ii) Under a particular set of conditions, either

Tribolium confusum or Tribolium castaneum was
usually favoured, but not always.

iii) Under intermediate environment conditions, each

species did well when grown alone but the
outcome of interspecific competition was not

12
 completely predictable. Sometimes T. confusum 4. Different species of eagles in a forest feed at
won, sometimes T. castaneum won different times of the day e.g. bald headed eagles are
most active early mornings and evenings while the
iv) Growing the two species separately showed that white-breasted eagles feed vigorously towards noon.
the fundamental niche of Tribolium castaneum
includes five of the six environmental conditions 5. When three species of ground finches of
in the experiment, while the fundamental niche of Galapagos Islands occur on separate islands, their
Tribolium confusum includes all the six bills tend to be the same intermediate size, enabling
environmental conditions. each to feed on a wider range of seeds, but where
they co-occur, there is divergence in beak size to suit
v) Growing the two species together suggests that each finch species to feeding on seeds of either
interspecies competition restricts the realized small, medium or large size, but not all sizes.
niches of both species to fewer environmental
conditions. 6. In an abandoned field, drought tolerant grasses
with shallow, fibrous root system grow near the soil
vi) Interspecific competition restricts the realized
surface to absorb moisture; plants with a taproot
niches of species in nature.
system grow in deeper soil while those with a
taproot system that even branches to the topsoil and
How species reduce or avoid below the roots of other species grow where soil is
competition through resource continuously moist.
partitioning
NB:
Resource partitioning is the dividing up of scarce i) The more than two species in the same habitat
resources so that species with similar needs use them differ in their use of resources, the more likely they
(i) at different times (ii) in different ways or (iii) in can coexist.
different places.
Some species that are in competition for the same ii) Two competing species also may coexist by
resources have evolved adaptations that reduce or sharing the same resource in different ways or at
avoid competition or an overlap of their fundamental different times.
niches.
iii) The tendency for characteristics to be more
Resource partitioning decreases competition divergent when populations belong to the same
between two species leading to increased niche community than when they are isolated is termed
specialization character displacement e.g Galapagos finches.

Examples of resource partitioning: It is impossible for any organisms of two different

1. When living in the same area, lions prey mostly species to occupy exactly the same ecological niche.
on larger animals while leopards on smaller ones. This is a biological or ecological principle referred
to as Competitive exclusion principle. It states, No
2. Hawks and owls feed on similar prey, but hawks two different species of organisms competing for the
hunt during the day and owls hunt at night. same natural resources will occupy exactly the same
ecological niche. Co-existence between the two
3. Each of the five species of common warblers
different species can not occur, the better adapted
(insect-eating birds) minimizes competition with
organism, will have better mode of feeding, more
the others by
tolerant to high temperatures and toxic conditions
(i) Spending at least half its feeding time in a than the less adapted one. The better adapted will
different part of spruce tree branches e.g. some continue to survive and reproduce more rapidly and
hunt at the extreme top, others at the lower its population size increases more rapidly as it out
portion, some mid-way etc competes the less adapted one. The less adapted
organism will continue to die and its population size
(ii) Consuming somewhat different insect species. decreases more rapidly until extinction.

13
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF environmental conditions. For example the eggs
COMPETITION. of the round worms are believed to stay in the
 It has enabled organisms of the same closely soil for a period of 2 years.
related species to evolve into different distinct  Many parasites occupy strategic locations in the
species of organisms in order to occupy different host, to ensure maximum utilization of the
ecological niche (adaptive radiation). available resources which increase their chances
 It leads to colonization of wide range of habitats. for survival. For example the gut parasites are
 A better quality and better adapted species of found in the duodenum and ileum where soluble
organisms develop since selection pressure tends products of digestion are found. Liver flukes are
to favour only the better competitors over the found in the liver where end products of digestion
weak competitors. are stored.
 Leads to polymorphism. This is the existence of
the same species of organisms in two or more (iv) Mutualism.
genetically discontinuous forms or morphs Is the close association between organisms of
living within the same habitat. This results into different species where both organisms benefit
maximum utilization of resources in a wide equally from the association. For example, the
range of environment. lichen which is an association between fungi and
algae. Algae are photosynthetic and provide food
(iii) Parasitism. (carbohydrates) and oxygen for aerobic respiration
Parasitism is the relationship between two organisms to the fungi while the fungi offer shelter and
of different species where one organism called the protection to the algae. The fungi also absorb
parasite lives on or in another organism called the mineral salts and water for the algae.
host where it obtains all its nutrients and shelter.
While the host organism does not benefit from this Another example is the nitrifying bacteria in the root
relationship at all and may even be harmed. The host nodules of legumes, bacteria fixes nitrogen for the
organism is one from which nutrients and shelter is plants, while the legumes provide shelter for the
derived by another organism called the parasite. bacteria. The population size of nitrifying bacteria is
Parasites are distributed in large numbers where large and distributed more where leguminous plants
suitable hosts are present. For example, ticks are grow than where legumes are absent or few.
always found where there are cattle, Tsetse flies are Other examples of mutualism include the following,
found in areas where grazers like and Buffalos are  Cellulase secreting bacteria, protozoa and the
present. ruminants for example, goats, rabbits. The
Ruminants obtain glucose from the breakdown of
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF HOST- cellulose; they also obtain proteins from the
PARASITE RELATIOSHIP. digestion of the bacteria, while the micro-
 Parasites can be used as biological control agents organisms get shelter and protection. They also
to eradicate harmful organisms. get free carbohydrates.
 Reduces competition since parasites lead to death  The green algae and green hydra (chlorohydra).
of organisms. The green algae obtains shelter and protection,
 May lead to development of new species which also obtains carbondioxide for photosynthesis,
may become resistant to parasites or parasites that carbondioxide released from the respiration of
can withstand the immune response of the host it‟s host, They also obtains nitrates and phosphate
and this will lead to increased biodiversity. from the excretory activities of the hydra. In the
 It influences distribution of parasites. For other hand, the green hydra obtains oxygen for
example Tsetse flies can be found in areas with respiration from the photosynthetic activities of
grazers like the cattle and Buffaloes. the algae, obtains carbohydrate food, gains
 It leads to rapid production of the offsprings of camouflage from the green algae, the green
the parasites since the immune defence responses colour of the algae attracts zooplanktons on the
of the hosts tend to destroy many of the parasites. which the hydra feeds.
 Development of the resistant stages in the life  The hermit crab and sea anemones. The hermit
cycle of the parasites to survive under harsh crab gains defense from stinging cells of the

14
 anemones, these anemones camouflage the crab Interspecific antibiosis.
from potential predators, obtains free transport This is an association where by organisms of
through unfavourable medium where it could not different species are prevented from living together
have transported it self. by antibiotics secreted by one of them. For example
the saprophytic penicillium notatum produce
Mycorrhiza. Is a mutualistic relationship between antibiotics which kill or prevent growth of bacteria.
the roots of the plants and a fungus. The fungal
hyphae grow on the surface of the root or may Allelopathy. Is an interspecific interaction where one
penetrate into the plant tissues. The fungal hyphae in organism releases a chemical substance into the
the soil break down organic matter to release soluble environment that has a harmful effect on another
mineral nutrients such as phosphates, calcium salts organism of different species. This interaction
and potassium ions. S benefits individual of one species but is harmful to
ome of the soluble products are absorbed by the those of the other species. For example sunflower
fungus and the remaining ones are obtained by the plants release chemicals from their roots and fallen
plants. The extensive net work of the fungal hyphae leaves which prevent seed germination in other plant
increases surface area greater than those of the plant species but not seeds of the sunflowers. Allelopathy
roots alone. The fungus also provides carbondioxide. has a strong effect on the plant community.
The plant in turn benefits by utilizing the soluble
nutrients for growth and carbondioxide to synthesize ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF
carbohydrates such as glucose through the process of ANTIBIOSIS.
photosynthesis. So, the fungus is provided with food  Some organisms which produce antibiotics are
inform of carbohydrates (sugars). used to biologically control pests, pathogens and
weeds.
(v) Commensalism.  It influences the distribution of organisms in a
This is an interspecific association between two habitat where pheromones are produced.
different species, where by one species of organism  Interspecific antibiosis is important in that it
benefits and the other species of organism neither prevents growth of individuals of the different
benefits nor losses or harmed. For example, young species hence causing harm one organism but
epiphytes and host plants, vectors and the pathogens ensuring the survival of another.
they carry. Lion and hyena, white egrets and (d) Pollination and dispersal
buffaloes.  Pollination is an ecological interaction because
plants and animals interact with each other.
(vi) Antibiosis and Allelopathy. Insects transfer pollen grains from anthers to
Antibiosis is an association where one species stigma.
inhibits growth and survival of another but does not
exploit it for food. The organism produces  Dispersal of seeds and fruits introduces new
antibiotics that deter other organisms from its plants to new habitats and this minimizes
surrounding. There are two types of antibiosis, competition among species.
1. Interspecific antibiosis.
 Both interactions between the flowering plants
2. Intraspecific antibiosis.
and animals like insects, birds & bats may be
highly elaborate and species specific.
Intraspecific antibiosis.
This is an association where organisms of the same  This co- evolution ensures that the distribution
species produce pheromones that are used to mark of the plants with their pollinations or agents of
their territories and prevent other organisms of the dispersal are related e.g arum lily flowers are
same species entering their territories. For example pollinated by dung flies.
male Rabbits secrete pheromones from their salivary
glands to mark their territory, cat families also NB. Co evolution is a long term evolutionary
secrete pheromones contained in their urine. adjustment of two or more groups of organisms
that facilitate those organisms living with one
another.

15
Examples include; PREDATOR-PREY RELATIONSHIP
(i) Many features of flowering plants have evolved This is Interspecific association where by the
as a result of dispersal of plant‟s gametes by insects predator hunts, captures, kills and feeds on another
and insects have in turn evolved special traits for organism called the prey.
obtaining nectar The biological significance of the predator-prey
relationship is that, it determines the distribution and
(ii) Grasses have evolved the ability to deposit silica
abundance of prey, it can applied in the biological
in their leaves and stems to reduce their risks of
pest control, may result into evolution of new
being grazed, large herbivores have in turn evolved
species, and may lead into dispersal of fruits, seeds
complex molars with enamel ridges for grinding up
since it involves movement of organisms from one
the plant material.
place to another.

(viii) Camouflage.
ADAPTATIONS OF THE PREDATOR TO
Camouflage is where some animals possess body
CAPTURE THEIR PREY
colorations that resemble closely the colour patterns
 The ability to camouflage in their environment
of their environment (background) so that they are
and not easily seen by the preys.
not easily spotted by their predators and successfully
 They have high locomotory speed to chase and
hide or closely resemble parts of a plant or specific
capture the preys.
insects/some animals. This offers protection against
 They possess long, pointed and curved canine
predation. In such cases the plant species concerned
teeth which pierce and kill the prey.
form the most important part of the insect‟s biotic
 Possession of strong visual acuity and ability. For
environment. Most organisms will prefer to stay in
example the eagles very high up in the sky can
habitats with a background resembling the colour
easily distinguish the chicks on the ground from
patterns of their bodies.
the vegetation.
 Some predators are nocturnals, they hunt, capture
(ix) Mimicry.
and feed at night when their preys are resting.
This is where some animals resemble other harmful
Most preys have poor vision at night.
or unpalatable animals to predators in order to
 Development of tentacles in lower animals like
escape predation.The unpalatable species generally
the hydra and squids which trap and direct the
possess distractive colours or markings (warning
prey into the mouth of the predator.
colourations). Predators learn to recognize these
 Some have stinging cells for paralyzing the prey.
signs and avoid attacking this particular species. For
For example the sea anemones.
example The African swallow tail Butterfly (Papilio
 Possession of sensitive olfactory cells for
dardanu) mimics another butterfly (Amaurus
detecting the smell of the preys from a distance
abimaculata) which is distasteful to predators.
and of those hiding.
 Making specific traps for capturing their preys.
(xi) Human influence.
For example the webs made by spiders.
Is the most powerful biotic factor. It‟s interaction
 High intelligence due to relatively large size of
with other species of organisms can affect their
the brain, so have the ability to use foot marks,
distribution and abundance within certain habitat.
sounds, droppings to locate their preys.
Man achieves this through his work of cultivation of
 Group hunting to increase chances of capturing
crops, bush burning, reclamation of wetlands and
preys.
swamps, pollution of land, air, lakes and rivers,
 Possession of soft pads in the soles, this enables
industrialization, urban development. Man can
them to locomote without making noise and not
change habitats and create new ones i.e new
easily detected by the preys.
reservoir creates a new aquatic habitat for new
 They possess strong curved claws for capturing
aquatic species.
and holding the prey. For example eagles.

16
How are prey species suited to avoid predation? 17) Some preys secrete poisonous or repellant
1) Ability to run, swim or fly faster. substances e.g. scorpions, caterpillars, some
2) Possession of highly developed sense of sight or grasshoppers, culex mosquito eggs
smell alerting the presence of predators. 18) The electric fish Malapterurus (a cat fish)
3) Possession of protective shells eg in tortoise and produces high voltage discharge of up to 350v
snails for rolling into armour-plated ball that shocks any predator that makes contact with
4) Possession of spines to prick the predators. it.
5) In some lizards, the tail breaks off when attacked 19) Other preys employ alarm signals and calls e.g.
giving the animal (lizard) time to escape. ants, various fish, small birds and mammals.
6) Possession of spines (porcupines) or thorns (cacti 20) Group defense, occurring among those that live
and rose-bushes) for pricking predators. and feed in herds.
7) In some lizards tails break off when attacked,
giving the animal enough time to escape. NB. Camouflage is the use of any combination of
8) Some prey camouflage by changing colour e.g. materials, coloration, or illumination for
chameleon and cuttlefish, or having deceptive concealment, either by making animals difficult to
colours that blend with the background e.g. arctic see, or by disguising them as something else.
hare in its winter fur blends into snow. Exists in various forms;
9) Some prey species discourage predators with (i) Warning coloration, conspicuous colouring that
chemicals that are poisonous (e.g. oleander warns a predator that an animal is unplalable or
plants), irritating (e.g. bombardier beetles), foul poisonous e.g poisonous frogs, some snakes,
smelling (e.g. stinkbugs and skunk cabbages) or monarch butterflies, and some grasshoppers
bad tasting (e.g. monarch butterflies and
buttercups) (ii) Disruptive colouration/patterning, works by
10) Some prey species have evolved warning breaking up the outlines of an animal with a strongly
coloration – contrasting pattern of advertising contrasting pattern, thus decreasing detectability e.g.
colours that enable predators to recognize and group of zebras
avoid such prey e.g. the poisonous frogs, some
snakes, monarch butterflies and some (iii) Cryptic colouration allows an organism to
grasshoppers. match its background and hence become less
11) Some species gain protection to avoid predation vulnerable to predation e.g chameleon.
by mimicking (looking and acting like) other
species that are distasteful to the predator e.g. the NB: Predation
non-poisonous viceroy butterfly mimics the 1.Determines distribution and abundance of the prey
poisonous monarch butterfly. because predators will always be found in places
12) Batesian mimicry occurs when the palatable of their potential prey.
species mimics other distasteful species e.g .
Viceroy butterfly mimics the poisonous monarch 2. -leads to dispersal of animals which reduces
butterfly, the harmless hoverfly mimics the competition, since it involves movement of animals
painful stinging wasp while: from place to place.

13) Mullerian mimicry occurs when both the 3. Is a biological control method.
mimic and mimicked are unpalatable and
dangerous e.g. the five spot Burnet and related ADVANTAGES OF THE PREDATOR-PREY
moths. RELATIONSHIPS.
14) Other preys gain some protection by living in (a) TO THE PREDATORS.
large groups e.g. schools of fish, herd of antelope,  Availability of food for the predators, increase
flocks of birds. their biotic potential and population size.
15) Some prey scare predators by puffing up e.g.  Intraspecific competition eliminates the less
blowfish, or spreading wings e.g. peacock. adapted organisms.
16) The flesh of some slow-moving fish is  Leads into existence of better adapted species of
poisonous e.g. porcupine fish. predators.

17
 Leads to formation of new species with better  Some plants open their leaves at night and close
adaptive features. them during the day. This makes grazing by the
animals impossible.
(b) TO THE PREY.
 Lowers the levels of intraspecific competition. ADAPTATIONS OF HERBIVORES TO OBTAIN
 Decreases overcrowdness among the prey PLANT MATERIALS.
species.  Possession of very flexible tongue that can move
 Food resources, breeding sites, habitats become in all directions to easily pluck off the vegetation.
sufficient.  Some possess horny pad which is very hard and
 Selection pressure exerted eliminates the less minimizes the piercing effect of the thorns.
adapted and better adapted species evolve.  Some have long snout to probe through the thorns
 Better adapted mechanisms for survival evolve in order to get leaves. For example giraffes.
among the prey species.  Some have long necks to enable them graze on
 Decreased intraspecific aggression. leaves high up on the canopy.
 Colonization of new ecological niches or  Herbivores have well developed teeth that crash
localities occurs. plant materials. For example large molars and
premolars of the cattle.
Evolutionary significance of predator –prey  Herbivores have Cellulase secreting bacteria in
Predation usually eliminates the unfit (aged, sick, their guts for digestion of cellulose in the plant
weak). This gives the remaining prey access to the materials.
available food supply and also improves their
genetic stock hence, enhances the chances of ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
reproductive success and longtime survival, thus PLANT-GRAZER RELATIONSHIP.
pass on their good traits to their off springs which  It determines the distribution of grazers since
can improve their evolution. they tend to be more abundant where there are
BROWSING (GRAZING). suitable pastures.
This is a form of predation in which animals feed on  Man uses grazers to biologically control plant
plant materials. Such animals are called Browsers if species that may compete with the crops. For
feed on branches (thorny branches) of shrubs. They example the cactus moths control the cactus
are called grazers if they feed on grasses. For plants (prickly pea).
example, cows, goats, etc.  It may lead to dispersal of fruits, spores, seeds,
parasites since grazers move from place to place
ADAPTATIONS OF PLANTS TO DETER in search of pastures
BROWSERS AND GRAZERS.
 They possess thorns, hairs which reduce on STRUCTURE OF THE ECOSYSTEM
palatability and also used as defence devices. The overall structure of an ecosystem consists of the
 Some are brightly coloured which does not attract Biotic and abiotic components. The biotic
the browsers and the grazers. components consist of autotrophic and heterotrophic
 Some secrete moulting hormones that interrupt organisms. Heterotrophs are dependent on the
the life cycles of insects such as butterfly. autotrophs for their existence.
 Some secrete toxic chemicals. For example Autotrophic organisms are the primary producers
carcinogens and others which cause haemorrhage and are typically green plants and algae. Some
and tumors in mammals. Others secrete chemical bacteria such as blue-green bacteria also
substances that results into nasty smells that photosynthesize and are thus producers.
offend the grazers. Heterotrophic organisms are the primary consumers.
 Secretion of bitter sap which deter the grazers. They are also called herbivores. Some primary
 Some plants like the Mimosa pudica fold their consumers do not eat the producers but live as plant
leaves in response to touch and this threatens the parasites. E.g. aphids and some fungi.
animals.
An ecosystem also consists of carnivores which are
the flesh eaters. They are the secondary, tertiary and
18
other top consumers. Secondary consumers feed on environment, sludge worms in fresh waters.
herbivores, while the tertiary consumers feed on the Decomposers are micro-organisms mainly fungi and
secondary consumers. Secondary and tertiary bacteria which live as saprotrophs on dead organic
consumers may be predators which hunt, capture and matter. They secrete digestive enzymes onto dead or
kill their prey, or carrion feeders which feed on waste material and absorb the products of digestion.
corpses, or parasites which lives on and obtain all
nutrients from the host organism. Generally, the Characteristics of an ecosystem.
carnivores become larger and fewer in number at An Ecosystem exhibits the following properties,
each successive trophic level, while parasites get  Energy flow/Energy transfers.
smaller and increase in numbers.  Feeding relations.
 Cycling of materials/ nutrient recycling.
There are also decomposers and detritivores.  Succession and climax (changes in an
Decomposers are micro-organisms mainly fungi and ecosystem).
bacteria which live as saprotrophs on dead organic  Productivity in an ecosystem (changes in an
matter. Detritivores feed on small fragments of ecosystem).
decomposing or dead materials called detritus.  Self regulating systems (Homeostasis) or control.
 Evolution (Speciation).
The abiotic components of an ecosystem include
soil, water and climate. Soil and water contain a ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM
mixture of in-organic and organic nutrients. The The energy flow in an ecosystem is basically non-
organic nutrients include mainly proteins and cyclic. It is passed along a feeding hierarchy in a
carbohydrates. In-organic substances include carbon, chain called food chain. Each feeding level in a food
nitrogen, oxygen and carbondioxide. chain is called trophic level.
Climate include such environmental variables as
light, temperature, humidity and rain or snow which The sun is the primary source of energy in the
influences the population size, types of organisms ecosystem. Light energy is trapped by
and distribution of organisms in an ecosystem. photosynthetic organisms (green plants, algae, and
some bacteria); converted into chemical energy
In terrestrial Ecosystem, the primary producers are during photosynthesis.
mainly dominated by large plants like the trees, It is then transferred from one feeding level to
herbs and grasses. The primary consumers are the another through feeding relationships like food
herbivores which include, insects, reptiles, birds and chains or food webs.
mammals. The small animals are the detritivores
such as earth worms, wood lice, mites, centipedes, As primary consumers (herbivores) feed on
millipedes, etc. Detritivores may be eaten by producers, they obtain about 5 – 10% of the energy.
carnivores. Decomposers are micro-organisms 90 – 95% energy loss occurs because of:
mainly fungi and bacteria which live as saprotrophs  Egestion
on dead organic matter. They secrete digestive  Excretion and
enzymes onto dead or waste material and absorb the  Indigestibility of materials like lignin or
products of digestion. cellulose

In aquatic Ecosystem, the primary producers are As secondary consumers (carnivores) feed on
mainly dominated by microscopic algae and blue- herbivores, they obtain only about 10-20% of
green bacteria together referred to as energy.
phytoplanktons. The herbivores are typically small 80 – 90% energy loss therefore occurs because:
crustaceans, such as water flea, crab larvae, (i) Animal tissues e.g. bones, hooves, hides not
barnacles and mollusks, they are filter feeders and readily digestible.
extract producers from water, the other herbivores (ii) Feeding is not 100% efficient – much digestible
are protozoans. The aquatic herbivores form the material e.g. blood and food fragments may be lost
primary consumers referred to as zooplanktons. The to the environment.
aquatic detritivores include ragworms in estuarine

19
However, energy transfer from herbivores to a) Gross primary productivity (GPP)
carnivores is more efficient than from producers to b) Net primary productivity (NPP)
herbivores because:
(i) Animal tissue is more digestible than plant Gross primary productivity (GPP).
tissue Is the rate at which certain amount of energy and
(ii) Animal tissue has a higher energy value Biomass is produced and stored by primary
(iii) Carnivores may be extremely specialized for producers per unit time in a unit area before any lose
prey consumption. of energy due to respiration and photorespiration.

Feeding levels are thus limited to 4 or rarely 5 It is the total amount of energy fixed by producers
because of the cumulative energy losses along per unit area of photosynthetic surface per unit time.
successive trophic levels. Productivity may be expressed as units of energy
(e.g. kJm-2yr-1 or kCal m-2yr-1), or units of mass
TROPHIC EFFICIENCY/ ECOLOGICAL (e.g. kg m-2yr-1)
EFFICIENCY
Is the percentage of energy at one trophic level that GPP is greatest:;
is converted into organic substances at the next (i) In shallow waters
trophic level. (ii) Along coral reefs where abundant light, heat and
nutrients stimulate the growth of algae.
Energy flows out of the trophic levels in the (iii) Where upwelling currents bring nitrogen and
following ways, phosphorus from the ocean bottom to the
 Lost as heat. surface.
 In structures synthesized by the plant but not
contributing to increase in biomass. For GPP is lowest in:
example shedding leaves, bark, flowers and (i) deserts due to low precipitation and intense heat
production of seeds for dispersal. (ii) The open ocean due to lack of nutrients and
 Death of plants and animals. sunlight except near the surface.
 Plants eaten by herbivores
Net primary productivity (NPP).
PRODUCTIVITY IN ECOSYSTEM Is the amount energy and biomass available per unit
Productivity refers to the rate at which energy and time in a unit area after loss of some energy from the
Biomass or organic matter is produced per unit time Gross primary productivity due to respiration and
in a unit area by organisms in an ecosystem. photorespiration.

Productivity can be measured using several methods i.e NPP = GPP - Respiration.
i.e.
 Harvest crop In C3 plants;
 Through oxygen production of the given NPP = GPP - Respiration + Photorespiration.
area of the ecosystem.
Note: C3 plants have a lower NPP than C4 plants.
 Amount of carbon dioxide consumed during
photosynthesis.
NPP most productive ecosystems are:
(i) Estuaries
Types of Productivity (ii) Swamps and marshes
I. Primary productivity. (iii) Tropical rainforests
II. Secondary productivity.
NPP least productive ecosystems are:
PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY (i) Open ocean
Is the rate at which certain amount of energy and (ii) Tundra – arctic and alpine grasslands
Biomass is produced and stored by primary (iii) Desert.
producers per unit time in a unit area.. It is further
divided into,
20
SECONDARY PRODUCTIVITY
Is the amount of energy incorporated into the body (v) Availability of water. Plenty of water increases
of consumers. Also known as Gross secondary rate of photosynthesis since water is a raw
material for photosynthesis, hence more energy is
productivity.
fixed raising the productivity.

Gross Secondary Productivity (GSP). (vi) Length of growing season. The greater the
Is the rate at which certain amount of energy and length, the higher the productivity. The shorter
Biomass is produced and stored by primary the length, the lower the productivity.
consumers per unit time in a unit area.
The amount of the energy and biomass that remains (vii) Relative population size of primary producers.
The greater size of green plants, the more energy
in primary consumer per unit time in a unit area after
fixed and the higher the productivity.
some energy have been lost from the GSP due to
excretion, egestion and respiration is referred to as (ix) Nature and type of tree species. Certain tree
the Net Secondary Productivity (NSP). species tend to be more productive than others,
there fore the more abundant these tree species
Carnivores have higher Net secondary productivity are, the greater the productivity. The fewer such
(NSP) than herbivores because of the following tree species, the lower the productivity.
reasons;
(x) Concentration of pollutants in air. The higher the
concentration, the lower the amount of
 The diet of carnivores is rich in proteins which is photosynthesis and less energy fixation, hence the
easily digested and soluble products efficiently lower productivity.
absorbed. In this case, very little energy is lost,
while herbivores feed on diet rich in carbohydrate (xi) Chlorophyll concentration in case of aquatic
ecosystem, upper zones of lake have higher
cellulose (plant material) which is not easily
chlorophyll content than deeper zones, hence the
digested or only partially digested, a lot of energy greater the concentration of chlorophyll, the
is lost in the undigested parts and hence herbivores higher the productivity.
have lower NSP.
(xii) Soil fertility, humus, mineral content.
 Carnivores do not have symbiotic microbes to Productivity increases with increase in Soil
consume part of the energy from their diet, while fertility, humus, mineral content. They are
utilized in protein synthesis and formation of new
herbivores have Cellulase secreting bacteria in
organic matter. Decrease in Soil fertility,
their guts, these bacteria utilize some of the energy humus, mineral content, decreases productivity.
from the cellulose.
(xiii) Abundance of decomposers which enable
Factors that influence productivity of an nutrient recycling making the nutrients available
ecosystem. for synthesis of new organic matter. This will
(i) Level of nutrients especially phosphate and increase productivity. Few decomposers reduce
nitrates. The higher the level the greater the productivity.
productivity as they are used in protein synthesis
hence more dry matter is formed. FEEDING INTER-RELATIONSHIPS IN

(ii) Temperature. The higher the temperature the AN ECOSYSTEM.

higher the productivity since temperature
activate enzymes involved in photosynthesis. FOOD CHAINS.
(iii)Carbondioxide concentration. The higher its Food chain is a linear sequence or series of
concentration in air, the greater the productivity organisms existing in an ecosystem through which
since carbondioxide is a raw material for
chemical energy formed and stored (Carbon
photosynthesis. The lower the concentration of
carbondioxide the, the lower the productivity. compounds produced) by the green plants and other
photosynthetic organisms is systematically
(iv) Amount of light available. The higher the light transferred.
intensity, the more energy fixed and the greater
the productivity. Lower light intensity results into
decreased productivity.
21
Each organisms in the series feeds on and derives (i) Grazing food chains.
energy from the preceding one, it is also consumed (ii) Detritus food chains.
by another organisms following it and provides
energy for that organism. Grazing food chains
Each feeding level in a food chain is called a trophic Is the linear nutritional sequence of organisms in an
level. Some energy is lost when it passed from one ecosystem where the chemical energy is passed in
level to another; this is why food chains are short. which the first trophic level is occupied b a green
plant or green algae and the second trophic level is a
Types of food chains. grazing animal (Herbivore) and the subsequent
There are two types of food chains, levels by the carnivores.

Examples.

Detritus food chains

Is the linear nutritional sequence of organisms in an ecosystem through which a chemical energy is passed
and in this case the first trophic level is occupied by the detritus, second by detritivores and the subsequent
levels by the carnivores.

Examples.

Fragments of decomposing materials are called detritus and many small animals feed on them, contributing to
the process of breakdown (decomposition), these animals are called detritivores.

FOOD WEB.
Is a complex nutritional interrelationship that illustrates alternative food sources and predator for each
organism.
This is a complex nutritional relationship showing alternative sources of food for each organism in a food
chain i.e. a complex network of food chains linked to one another.
In a food web, there are several food chains.

22
EXAMPLE OF A FOOD WEB IN A TYPICAL FRSH WATER POND.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS. Short comings of the Ecological pyramids:

These are histograms that provide information about  It is quite not easy to identify the trophic levels of
trophic levels in ecosystems. an organism as many organisms feed at several
There three types of ecological pyramids, these trophic levels.
include the following,  It omits the detritivores organic matter content,
 Pyramid of numbers. yet much of the energy fixed may be passed into
 Pyramid of Biomass. the detritivores.
 Pyramid of Energy.  It only considers energy stored by the green parts
of the plant and consumed by the herbivores, yet

23
 some herbivores cannot digest chlorophyll, others same scales other species in food chain with
eat only seeds or fruits or nectar. considerable numbers. For example, Millions of
black flies may feed on a single rose-bush and
Pyramid of Numbers this relationship can not be effectively drawn to
It is a histogramatic representation of the numbers of scale on a pyramid of numbers. Such conditions
different organisms at each trophic level in an give rise to unusual pyramids of numbers.
ecosystem at any one time. (iv) Does not indicate the source of energy in an
The number of organisms at any trophic level is
ecosystem.
represented by the length (or area) of a rectangle
EXAMPLES OF UN USUAL PYRAMIDS OF
Example.
NUMBERS.

The length of each bar indicates the relative number

of organisms at each trophic level.
It can be noticed from the pyramid of numbers that
there is progressive decline in the number of
individuals at each trophic level.
This is because; a lot of energy is lost each time it
passed from one trophic level to another in a food
chain. This places a natural limit or reduces the
biomass and this loses of energy causes the food
chain be short, i.e. not more than six levels exist.
Therefore to support individuals at one trophic level
more energy from the individuals at the levels below
is required and is achieved by having more
individuals at the lower trophic levels.

ADVANTAGES OF PYRAMID OF NUMBERS.

(i) It is easy to carry out. (a) In a, normal pyramid of numbers for comparison.
(ii) It is relatively cheaper to conduct, does not (b) The producer is a single plant such as a single
require many equipments to do tree.
measurements. (c) Producer is a single plant, infested with parasites
(primary consumers) and the later are parasitized by
DISADVANTAGES OF PYRAMID OF further parasites.
NUMBERS. (d) A large number of producers are eaten by a
(i) All individuals are counted as the same, yet not single primary consumer which is infested with
all individuals have the same sizes. For example parasites (Secondary consumers)
an oak tree is counted as one individual in the
same way as an aphid. PYRAMID OF BIOMASS.
(ii) No account is made for juveniles and other Is a histogram showing the total dry mass of
immature forms of species whose diet and organisms present at each feeding level.
energy requirements may differ from that of the It is a histogramatic representation of the biomass
adults. (number of individuals x mass of each individual) at
(iii) The numbers of some individuals is so large that each trophic level in an ecosystem at any one time.
it is difficult to represent them accurately on the

24
Advantages of pyramid of biomass. (vi) The energy content of each individual is
(i) Biomass provides a relatively accurate measure determined independently of the others; it shows
of the amount of energy in each trophic level. that no two individual species can have the same
(ii) It gives the measure of total productivity in each energy content.
trophic level.
Disadvantages.
Disadvantages of the pyramid of biomass. (i) It is most difficult to obtain data for pyramid of
(i) It is impossible to measure exactly the biomass energy since it requires a lot of technical know
of all individuals in a population. A sample is how.
usually taken and measured and this sample may (ii) It is expensive to carry out because it requires
not be a representative of all organisms at a some sophisticated equipments to do
particular trophic level. measurements.
(ii) The biomass of individuals varies from one
season to another. For example Biomass of CYCLING OF MATTER (BIOCHEMICAL
deciduous tree in summer may be different from CYCLES).
those in winter, so, the sample only measures the
This is another feature or characteristic of an
amount material present at a particular time.
ecosystem. It is the means by which essential
This is called standing crop and gives no
nutrients in nature like nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen
indication of total productivity.
and water are maintained constant. The Bio-
(iii) It involves destroying or killing of the living
chemical cycles existing in an ecosystem include,
organisms in order to obtain the dry weight.
 Nitrogen cycle.
(iv) No source of energy is indicated.
 Carbon cycle.
(v) It is more laborious and expensive to conduct.
 Hydrological or water cycle.
(vi) It is very much time consuming because it
involves many steps.
NITROGEN CYCLE.
(vii) The standing biomass or standing crop
biomass which is the biomass at the time of Nitrogen comprises about 78% of all atmospheric
sampling does not indicate exactly the gases. Atmospheric nitrogen is converted into
productivity. nitrates by the following processes,

Atmospheric electrical discharges in the form of

PYRAMID OF ENERGY.
lightning causes nitrogen and oxygen in the
Is a bar diagram in proportion to indicate the total atmosphere to react and produce oxides of nitrogen,
energy utilized at each trophic level. The total which dissolve in rainwater and fall to the ground as
productivity of primary producers of a given area weakly acidic solutions .
can be measured for a given period. But obtaining
Nitrogen fixation occurs when the nitrogen in soil
the necessary data can be a complex and difficult is reduced to ammonium ions, catalysed by nitrogen-
affairs. fixing bacteria which may be free-living e.g.
Azotobacter and Clostridium; symbiotic bacteria
Advantages of pyramid of energy. in root nodules e.g. Rhizobium or blue- green
(i) It represents the amount of energy per unit area algae e.g. Nostoc.
or volume passed from one trophic level to
Nitrification occurs when ammonium compounds in
another. So, it is more accurate. soil are converted first to nitrite ions (highly toxic to
(ii) It represents total productivity at each trophic plants) by Nitrosomonas bacteria and later to
level. nitrate ions by Nitrobacter bacteria.
(iii) It takes into account the energy from the sun
Ammonification (putrefaction) occurs when
which is the source of energy in an ecosystem.
decomposers e.g. saprophytic bacteria and fungi
(iv) It enables comparison of different ecosystems, convert nitrogen-rich organic compounds, wastes
so, the importance of one ecosystem to another like urea and dead bodies of organisms into
can be determined. ammonia and ammonium ion-containing salts.
(v) Unusual and inverted pyramids are not obtained.

25
Assimilation occurs when inorganic ammonia, dig up their land in order to improve drainage and
ammonium and nitrate ions are absorbed by plant aeration so as to avoid anaerobic conditions but
roots to make nucleic acids, amino acids and protein. instead promote aerobic conditions for the activities
of the nitrifying bacteria.
Some of the nitrates in the soil can be converted
back into atmospheric nitrogen in a process called
Note that, nitrogen enters the food chain in the
Denitrification.
following ways,
Denitrification is the process by which nitrates in
• Lightening. Includes electrical and photochemical
the soil are converted into gaseous nitrogen which is
fixation of atmospheric nitrogen to form nitrates.
given off into the atmosphere. It is carried out by
• Nitrification process.
anaerobic bacteria like Pseudomonas dinitrificans
• Nitrogen fixation.
and Thiobacilus dinitrificans.
• Use of organic fertilizers.

The necessary anaerobic conditions are in water

Denitrification releases nitrogen into the atmosphere.
logged soils, where the denitrificans thrive and by
converting nitrates to atmospheric nitrogen, they
reduce soil fertility. This is why farmers plough and

THE NITROGEN CYCLE IN AN ECOSYSTEM.

SIGNIFICANCE OF NITROGEN IN (iii) Forms structure of vitamins needed for healthy

ECOSYSTEM body.
(i) Used for synthesis of amino acids and proteins (iv) Used in synthesis of nucleotides which are
in plants. subunits for nucleic acids, DNA and RNA.
(ii) The amino acids and proteins are used for (v) Utilized in synthesis of chlorophyll which traps
making structural and fibrous proteins eg. sun energy for photosynthesis.
Muscles and cartilage in animals. The proteins (vi) Components of plant hormones auxin,
are also used to form functional proteins like responsible for cell division, elongation
enzymes, antibodies and hormones. resulting into growth. Also used in synthesis of

26
 insulin in animals, required for regulation of  During aerobic respiration by all organisms,
sugar levels in blood. carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere or
Deficiency of Nitrogen in plants causes, dissolves in water.
 Stunted growth.
 Chlorosis (yellowing of leaves).  Over millions of years, buried deposits of dead
While in animals, it‟s deficiency is due to deficiency plant debris and bacteria are compressed
of proteins in the diet and causes, between layers of sediment to form the carbon-
 Kwashiokors. containing fossil fuels e.g. coal, oil and natural
 Stunted growth. gas, which when burnt release carbon dioxide
 General body weakneses. into air.
 And oedema.  In aquatic ecosystems, carbon dioxide may;
(i) remain dissolved
How human activities affect the nitrogen cycle (ii) Be utilized in photosynthesis
1. Burning of fuels forms nitric oxide, which reacts (iii) React with water to form carbonate ions and
with atmospheric oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide bicarbonate ions. As water warms, more
gas that reacts with water vapour to form acid rain dissolved carbon dioxide returns to the
containing nitric acid. Nitric acid together with atmosphere.
other air pollutants:  In marine ecosystems, some organisms take up
 Damages trees dissolved carbon dioxide molecules, carbonate
 Corrodes metals ions and bicarbonate ions and these ions react
 Upsets aquatic ecosystems. with calcium ions to form calcium carbonate
2.The inorganic fertilizers applied to soil are acted (CaCO3) to build their shells and skeletons.
upon by anaerobic bacteria to release nitrous oxide  When the animals with calcium in shells and
into the stratosphere, where it; skeletons die and drift into deep bottom
 Contributes to ozone depletion sediments of oceans, immense pressure causes
 Contributes to greenhouse effect. limestone and chalk to form after a very long
3. Nitrogen is removed from top soil when we; period of time.
harvest nitrogen-rich crops  Weathering processes release a small percentage
 Irrigate crops of carbon dioxide from limestone into the
 Burn or clear grasslands and forests before atmosphere.
planting crops
4. Adding nitrogen compounds to aquatic THE CARBON CYCLE.
ecosystems e.g. sewage algal blooming, which
upon death, their decomposition causes oxygen
shortage resulting into death of aerobic organisms
e.g. some fish.
5. The accelerated deposition of acidic nitrogen
containing compounds e.g. NO2 and HNO3 onto
terrestrial ecosystems stimulates growth of weeds,
which outcompete other plants that cannot take up
nitrogen as efficiently.

CARBON CYCLE.
Based on carbon dioxide gas, making up 0.036% of
the volume of the troposphere and is also dissolved
in water.

 Carbon fixation involves the reduction of carbon

dioxide to large organic molecules during
photosynthesis and chemosynthesis.

27
How human activities affect the carbon cycle
(i) Cutting trees and other plants that absorb CO2 Human activities that affect water cycle.
through photosynthesis increases carbon dioxide in (i) Dam construction which slows down the
the atmosphere. speed of water movements.
(ii) Swamp and land reclamation which
(ii) Burning of fossil fuels like coal, petroleum oil etc drains water bodies and reduces the
and wood adds large amounts of CO2 into the amount of water in the open water
troposphere. systems.
(iii) De-forestation which reduces the rate at which
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE (WATER underground water is reabsorbed by the plants
CYCLE). since the trees are cleared which absorb the
underground water.
Water in the atmosphere exists as water vapour which
(iv) Over utilization of the underground water by
form part of the cloud, subsequent condensation
excessive construction of bore holes and use of
results into rain fall. Rain water is carried into water
underground water pumping machines.
bodies and some rain water infiltrates the soil. Some
water from various water bodies like rivers, lakes,
Human activities that affect nutrient cycling and
seas also infiltrate into the soil to collect as soil water.
energy flow in an ecosystem.
Excretion of urine and faeces to a small extent add to
(i) Deforestation.
the water bodies.
This is cutting down or felling down of trees. It
Plants absorb soil water by the root hairs. Animals
reduces amount of sunlight absorbed due to decrease
drink water drawn from the water bodies. Animals can
in number of producers. Soil erosion occurs, resulting
also obtain water when they feed on plant parts such
into lose of more nutrients since soil layer is removed
as fruits, stem, roots which store high amounts of
in the process.
water.
Water is returned into the atmosphere when water
(ii) Air pollution.
evaporates from the surfaces of the skin of the
This results from addition in excess of green house
animals, surfaces of the leaves, stem of plants through
gasses into the atmosphere, such gases include,
transpiration, and evaporation from water bodies.
carbondioxide, chloroflorocarbon (CFC), and sulphur
dioxide gas. Green house gases results into depletion
DIAGRAM OF WATER CYCLE.
of ozone layer. While the rain water can dissolve
sulphur dioxide gas to form acid rains.
Ozone depletion results into global warming may
cause death of many consumers. Global warming and
acid rains cause destruction of producers, decreasing
the number of producers, productivity is lowered
which also lowers energy along the trophic levels.

(iii) Use of green houses and lighting of red and

blue. Red and blue Wave lengths increase
photosynthesis and number of producers, increasing
light energy trapped.

(iv) Mulching reduces weed growth, thereby

decreasing light energy absorbed by plants.

28
(v) Harvesting of crops. It involves removal of crops TYPES OF SUCCESSION
which reduces food energy available for herbivores. a) Primary succession
The herbivores (primary consumers) are eaten by b) Secondary succession
humans.
A) PRIMARY SUCCESSION
(vi) Hunting. This removes energy available for This is the gradual change in species composition of
carnivores and other organisms in food web. an area that has never had any vegetation growing on
it.
(vii) Burning dead organisms including humans. It occurs on Bare rocks exposed by erosion, newly
Forest fires started by humans reduces energy cooled lava, newly created shallow ponds, Sand
available for decomposers and detritivores. dunes, Abandoned highway or parking yard.

(viii) Use of pesticides and herbicides. This affect Description of primary succession in terrestrial
decomposers making recycling of materials slower. ecosystem

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION  Pioneer stage.

This is a long- term directional change in the During this stage, bare rock breaks down physically
composition of a community from its origin to its and chemically during the process of weathering. The
climax through a number of stages brought about by acidic rains in tropics dissolve more minerals which
the actions of the organisms themselves. cause further disintegration of the rocks. The existing
conditions do not favour growth of most plant species
It is a process by which plants and animal but lichen which is an association between algae and
communities in a given area change gradually over fungi are the first to inhabit the rock.
time, becoming replaced by different and usually
more complex communities. They are referred to as the pioneer organisms. Algae
Pioneers are first sets of organisms to occupy the area, are a drought resistant and photosynthetic, providing
collectively such organisms constitute the pioneer food for the fungi. Some invertebrates exist and feed
community. on the algae. Then the hyphae of the fungus penetrate
tinny cracks, absorbing minerals and widening the
Climax community: the final community at the end cracks further, the hyphae also provide support. Some
of succession, which a particular environment can lichen die, decay and add onto the organic matter.
sustain. Climax community is characterized by (i)
diverse species (ii) complex feeding relationships and After the activity of the lichen has enlarged the cracks
(iii) progressive increases in biomass. in the rocks and filled them with decomposing dead
lichens, the conditions within the rock become
The process of succession continues through stages favourable for the growth drought resistant and sun
known as seral stages and there are a number of sere tolerant mosses as well as insects that feed on them.
(complete succession) according to the environment Mosses form a dense mat like net work which traps
being colonized: tiny particles of rocks, some organic debris and water.
(i) Hydrosere; succession in aquatic environment some thin soil layer begin to form and lichens
(ii) Halosere; succession in salty environment gradually replaced by the mosses and liverworts.
(iii) Xerosere; succession dry envirionments e.g
deserts  Spruce stage.
(iii) Lithosere; succession on a rocky surface. Death and decay of the moss plants adds nutrients to
the rock particles. Thickness of soil increase and this
favours the growth of herbs like the ferns, grasses and

29
other angiosperms. Animals like amphibians, reptiles  Species are poor competitors and hence get
and birds also come in. Some herbs die off and add on replaced by higher, more demanding plants like
the organic matter. The soil layer become thick grasses, shrubs and trees.
enough.  The community is mostly is mostly composed of
producers and a few decomposers.
 Climax stage.  Net productivity is high.
Soon large woody shrubs begin to grow in the newly  Feeding relationships are simple, mostly
formed soil. The mosses and the lichens may be herbivores feeding on plant with few
shaded or covered by decaying leaves and other decomposers.
vegetation. Eventually as a thicker layer of soil
develops, trees are able to take root in deeper rock b) Late succession
crevices and the shrubs disappear. Larger animals may  Plants are of large size and complex.
also come in. After a very long period of time, a  Species diversity is high
mature forest community grows. This is the climax  Community is a mixture of producers, consumers
community. and decomposers.
Climax community is defined as the relatively stable  Biomass is high
community which is in equilibrium with its  Net productivity is low
environment. A single type of climax community is  Community takes a longtime to establish.
known as climatic climax. A community where  Climax community is often determined by one
human interventions have led to a relatively stable dominant species.
community very different from the original climax is  There is increased soil depth and nutrients.
termed as a plagioclimax. The succession is said to  Interspecific competition is very high.
have been deflected. A climax community can have  There is little space for new species
one dominant or several co-dominant species.  The climax community is stable and is in
Dominance in this case, refers to the species with the equilibrium with its environment.
greatest collective biomass or productivity. Species  Feeding relationships are complex, dominated by
with larger size can be referred to as being dominant. decomposers.

Diagram of summery of primary succession. PRIMARY SUCCESSION IN A WATER BODY

In ponds and lakes, organic matter builds up from
dead remains of plants and animals and sediments
brought by the water run offs from the land. This
causes the water in these water bodies to become
Characteristics of the stages of primary succession; shallower and richer in nutrients, allowing rooted
a) Early succession plants to grow and crowd along the shores of the
 Species grow very close to the ground and have ponds, rivers and lakes.
low biomass.
 Species have short life span. The growth of these plants extends further into the
 Species are simple and small sized. pond, river and lake. More sediment is trapped in the
 Species diversity (number of species present in a process and the water become even shallower. The
habitat) is very low. ponds, rivers and
 Community is open ie allows space for other
colonizers. lakes develop into mashes, then into swamps which
 Species may show symbiotic relationships to aid support growth of many herbs and shrubs. Given good
their establishment. climatic and ecological conditions, after a long time a
wood land develops and eventually large trees
forming climax community.

30
SECONDARY SUCCESSION. communities without eliminating some early
This is the gradual change in species composition of successional and midsuccessional plants.
an area where the natural community of organisms has
4) Plagioclimax climax community: one that is
been disturbed, removed or destroyed but some soil or
gradually established after human interference, and it
bottom sediment remains.
appears very different from the original climax. This
It occurs on abandoned farmlands, burnt or cut forests,
is termed deflected succession:
heavily polluted streams, flooded land.
Due to some soil or sediment present, vegetation
DRIVING FORCES OF SUCCESSION
usually begins to germinate within a few weeks.
(INITIATIVES OF THE SUCCESSION
Seeds and spores can be present in the soil and can be
PROCESS).
carried from nearby plants by wind, birds and insects.
(i) Nudation.
The ground may even contain resistant
This is exposure of a given locality to succession
plants/vegetative organs of the colonizing plants that
stages. For example clearing a given plant community
survived the changes.
to have an open land.

Reasons why invasive species are often successful

(ii) Arrival of propergules.
in colonizing new habitats.
In this case, the propagation structures such as seeds,
1. No natural predators, parasites, pathogens;
stolons, rhizomes and corms etc are dispersed to the
2. Effective aggressive mechanism of invasive locality or the already existing propergules begin to
organism; establish.
3. No limitation on resources.
4. No environmental inhibitors (e.g., pollutants). (iii) Germination (Easis).
5. R-selected species; increased season for The established propergules together with the newly
reproduction; large or logarithmic populations. introduced ones germinate.

6. Variation in phenotype of large population.

(iv) Competition.
7. Available niche not occupied by any other species, The germinated propergules begin to exhibit both
hence no successful competitors. interspecific and intraspecific competitions.
8. Prey lack effective defense mechanism against (v) Reaction.
introduced species. A better adapted and well established individuals out
9. Appropriate environmental conditions (e.g., compete those which are less adapted to the
rainfall, temperature). environment.

During succession: (vi) Establishment.

1) Each species facilitates the emergence of other A better competitor establish a climax community.
species by modifying the environment, making it
more suitable for new species with different niche CHANGES THAT TAKE PLACE IN A
requirements. COMMUNITY DURING THE
2) Early species inhibit / hinder the establishment and SUCCESSION PROCESS.
growth of other species by releasing toxic chemicals (i) Species composition changes and its more
that reduce competition from other plants. rapid in the pioneer or early stages.
(ii) Biomass and non-living organic matter
3) Late successional plants are largely unaffected by increases.
plants at earlier stages of succession, explaining why (iii) There is increased specialization in the trophic
late successional plants can thrive in mature levels which become longer with up to five

31
 levels. Food webs become established from widely in an area.
food chains. (v) Are small in size.
(iv) Primary productivity in the community reduce (vii) Occupy long lived
because of increased specialization. (vi) Disperse widely. habitats e.g. Trees in a
forest.
(v) Total number of species represented in a
(vii) Occupy short lived
community becomes fairly stable. habitats eg. Bacteria (viii) Have a longer life
(vi) Species diversity becomes high. on rotting. span.
(vii) The structure of the community
change from simple to complex with many (viii) Have shorter life (ix) Are good
microhabitats and stratification. cycle. competitors.
(viii) Niche specialization become narrow from
(ix) Are poor (x) They become
being broad. competitors. dominant in an area.
(ix) The size of organisms become large.
(x) Do not become
r-SPECIES AND k- SPECIES. dominant in an area.
The first species to colonise an area are known as r-
species (opportunists) and the last species to colonise
the land are known as the k-species (equilibrium POPULATION DYNAMICS
species). Population is a group of organisms of the same
Examples of r-species. species occupying a particular place at a given period
Annual plants like the herbs, bacteria, paramecium, of time; a population is usually isolated to some extent
aphids, beetles etc. from other similar groups by geographical barriers.
And a population size is the number of individual
Examples of the k-species. organisms of the same species living in an area at a
Perenial plants, large birds, tropical butterflies, given period of time.
humans etc.
Population density. Is the number of individuals per
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN r-SPECIES AND k- unit area.
SPECIES.
PROPERTIES/CHARACTERITICS OF ANY
r-SPECIES. k- SPECIES GIVEN POPULATION.
(i) Reproduce rapidly. (i) Reproduce slowly. (i) Density.
Is the number of individuals per unit area of the living
(ii) Reproductive rate (ii) Reproductive rate is space.
not sensitive to sensitive topopulation (ii) Mortality rate.
population density to density (they stop Is the number of individuals which die within a
population producing when the
population in a given area at a given period of time.
density (i.e they do number is large)
not stop producing
when the number is (iii) Birth rate/natality rate.
large). (ii) Population size is Is the number of individuals born reproduced within a
close to equilibrium. population in a given area
(iii) Show significant
population (iv) Are very persistent (iv) Fecundity.
fluctuations. in the Environment.
Is the reproductive capacity of individual female
(iv) Are not very (v) Larger in size. species.
persistent in the
environment. (vi) Do not disperse

32
In mammals the birth rate is used to measure the Random and Regular or uniform distributions are
fecundity. And therefore the size of a population is quite rare in a population for the reasons that,
regulated by, environment is not usually uniform in terms of
 Balance between its fecundity and its mortality. availability of resources, there is not intense
 Migration rate, these include, Immigration, this is competition.
where individuals join or enter into a population
from neighbouring areas and Emigration, this is In the other hand, clumped or clustered distribution is
where individuals depart or leave a population. quite common because of the following,
- Resources are clustered in nature or rarely
(v) Age distribution or age structure. uniform.
It refers to the proportional distribution of individuals - Social interactions are common resulting in
of various ages in a given area. It gives information social groups.
about the future trends of a population growth. More - Some reproductive patterns favour clumping
young individuals than the old ones indicate a for example vegetative propagation in plants,
growing population, while less young individuals than the young animals remain with their parents
the old ones indicate declining population. for long among animals.

(vi) Biotic potential. Advantages of random and uniform distribution.

Is the maximum rate at which members of the species (i) Competition for natural resources like food,
can reproduce with unlimited resources and under an mates, space among the organisms is reduced.
ideal environmental condition. (ii) Prevents spread of diseases since the organisms
are not overcrowded.
(Vii) Growth form. (iii) Leads to maximum utilization of resources in the
It refers to the variation of a population size with time. habitat since wide range of habitats are occupied.

(viii) Carrying capacity. Disadvantages of random and uniform distribution.

Is the maximum number of individuals that can be (i) The organisms may lack group protection
supported or sustained by available natural resources against their predators.
in an environment. (ii) The organisms some how far apart, reducing
chances of locating mates.
(ix) Dispersion (Distribution).
It is the spatial distribution of individuals within a (iii) Plants are not properly protected from strong
given area. Dispersion is divided into three types, winds.
dispersion or distribution is divided into,
- Random distribution. Advantages of clumped distribution.
- Uniform or Regular distribution. (i) Both the adult and young organisms are offered
- Clamped or clustered distribution. better defence and protections against predators.
(ii) Plants are quite close and can resist strong winds.
TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION/DISPERSION. (iii) There are better chances of locating mates.

Disadvantages.
(i) Increases competition for resources.
(ii) Increase spread of diseases.
(iii) There is little utilization of natural resources since
small range of habitat is occupied.

33
POPULATION GROWTH AND CHANGES IN
POPULATION. (i) Availability of food/water/nutrients.
Population growth is the measure of change in a Plenty of food favours reproduction and increase in
population. The change can either be positive when population size and lack of food and water leads to
the number of organisms increase and negative reproductive failures and death. This causes declines
change when the number of organisms decrease. in the size of the population.
There is no change in population growth when the
number of the organisms remained constant. (iii) Diseases and pests.
Where there is a large number of individuals crowded
IMPORTANCE OF POPULATION GROWTH together diseases spread rapidly and cause deaths,
AND POPULATION SIZE OF DIFFERENT reducing the population and where there is
ORGANISMS IN ECOSYSTEM. overcrowding of individuals, diseases are rare and
(i) To construct food webs, food chains, pyramid of population grows.
numbers, pyramid of Biomass and energy.
(ii) To be able to understand the existing food (v) Accumulation of toxic wastes.
relationships within the habitats. The predator Toxic wastes can cause death of some organisms and
and prey organisms are easily identified. reduce their population size. Non-toxic environment
(iii) To realize population changes overtime or provides favourable condition for growth of organism
seasons, so as to understand the way populations and the size of population increase.
are affected by various environmental factors.
(iv) It determines the population of the pests, to help (vi) Predation.
in designation of control methods and rapid Predators feed on other organisms called the preys.
prevention of its spread. Where the number of predators are few or individuals
(v) To determine the carrying capacity of a habitat of have the ability to avoid predators, the population size
different populations so as to maintain increase. While a decline in the size of population is
ecologically balanced habitats. caused by large population size of predators or
(vi) For management of national parks, game parks, individuals lack ability to avoid predators.
game reserves and forest reserves to enable plans
for cropping programmes. (vii) Availability of space/shelter.
(vii) To be able to value wild life reserves (national This includes breeding sites. It determines protection
parks) and design or alter boundaries of various of organisms from hostile environmental conditions,
conservation areas. determining their survival. Plenty of suitable space
increases population size. While, lack of suitable
FACTORS THAT AFFECT OR INFLUENCE space or in adequate space decreases population size.
SIZE OF POPULATIONS IN AN ECOSYSTEM.
(viii) Reproductive or Biotic potential.
These factors are divided into two broad categories, High biotic potential increases size population of
the density dependent and density independent organisms, while low Biotic potential decreases the
factors.
population size of organisms in an ecosystem. Large
DENSITY DEPENDENT FACTORS THAT size of reproducing individuals in a population will
INFLUENCE SIZE OF POPULATION. increase size of population; few reproducing
Density dependent factors are those factors whose individuals in a population will maintain low
effectiveness in controlling the size of population population size.
depends on the number of individuals or organisms
per unit area. These factors are usually biotic and they
include the following,

34
(ix) Stress factors /psychological factors. (iv) Catastrophies such as fire, storms, and floods
These include stress factors arising from may lead to sudden mass deaths of organisms,
overcrowding. It leads to abnormal behaviours that reducing size of population. In absence of such
may lead to reproductive failures, low food intake, Catastrophies population size remain increasing.
decreasing population size. Absence of stress
conditions increase size of population. (v) Edaphic factors, these are soil factors such as soil
(x) Territorial behaviour/territoriality. It occurs temperature, pH, air, water content, mineral and
among wide range of animals such as certain fish, organic matter when favourable favour plants growth
reptiles, birds, mammals and social insects where a and activities of micro-organisms, increasing the size
male or both male and female animals demarcate an of population and when un favourable will decrease
area which they defend against members of the same the size of population.
species. Territoriality limit size of a population within
the territory more than out side it. (vii) Pollution, high levels of any kind of pollution
will limit the population size of organisms compared
DENSITY INDEPENDENT FACTORS THAT to low level or no pollution of the ecosystem.
INFLUENCE SIZE OF POPULATION.
Density independent factors are those factors whose (viii) Topography. It influences local climate and soil
effectiveness in controlling size of population does factors. The main topographic factor is altitude.
not depend on the number of individuals or organisms Higher altitudes are associated with lower average
per unit area. These factors are usually abiotic and temperatures, higher precipitation, increased wind
they include, speed, lower atmospheric pressures, more intense
radiations, these lower growth rate and support
(i) Availability of light. smaller size of population than lower altitudes.
Sufficient light intensity provides light energy for Mountains are climatic barriers to dispersal and
photosynthesis and favours the growth of plant migration, limiting increase in population size.
population. This causes increase in the population size
of the plants (primary producers). The animals feed on Population grows and declines in characteristic ways.
these plants, they reproduce rapidly and their The size of population increase is determined
population size too increases. In- adequacy of light or generally by the reproductive potential (Biotic
its absence limit plant population. potential and environmental resistance.

(ii) Availability of oxygen. Maximum Biotic potential (Reproductive potential)

Oxygen is utilized by aerobic organisms for of an organism is the rate of reproduction given
respiration, its presence in sufficient amounts favours unlimited environmental resources.
growth of aerobic organisms, hence growth of
population size of these aerobic organisms and its Environmental resistance is both biotic and abiotic
absence or insufficient amounts limits size of factors that together prevent the maximum
populations, especially in aquatic organisms. reproductive potential to be achieved and as such limit
growth of a population. They include external factors
(iii) Climatic conditions such as, temperature, relative such as shortage of food, water or oxygen, lack of
humidity, salinity, wind when favourable increase light, presence of predators and parasites, lack of
growth of plants and survival of animals, hence leads shelter (space), excessive heat, intraspecific
to increase in size of population size and when these competition and behavioural adaptations.
climatic conditions are not favourable lowers survival The balance between biotic potential and
of organisms, hence decrease population size. environmental resistance determines the carrying
capacity for particular population.

35
CARRYING CAPACITY. referred as boom and bust populations. Its growth is
Carrying capacity is the maximum number of regulated by density independent factors.
individuals that can be supported or sustained using Overpopulation can damage the environment leading
the available natural resource in an environment. to a new lower carrying capacity. After the crash the
population fluctuates around the new carrying
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE CARRYING capacity.
CAPACITY OF THE ENVIRONMENT. The abrupt stop (population crash) may be caused by,
 Food shortage.  Application of pesticides or insecticides to control
 Increased predation. an insect pest.
 Overcrowding.  Harsh environmental conditions.
 Competition.  End of breeding season.

CONDITIONS THAT MAY CAUSE CARRYING  End of particular stage in the life cycle of some
CAPACITY TO BE EXCEEDED. organisms.
 Removal, death or absence of predators in an area.
 Abundant food supply. J-SHAPED GROWTH CURVE.
 Favourable climatic or weather conditions.
 Adequate space/shelter/breeding sites.
 High Biotic potential.
 Low mortality rate.

ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS FOR A

POPULATION THAT HAS EXCEEDED ITS
CARRYING CAPACITY.
 Destruction of vegetation, rapid environmental
degradation.
 Extinction of some species of organisms.
 Accumulation of wastes.
 Increased rate of emigration. Rate of emigration THE SIGMOID GROWTH CURVE.
exceeds immigration. The type of population that exhibits the sigmoid
 Death rate exceeds birth rate. growth curve has population growth controlled by the
density dependent factors. It is associated with a
POPULATION GROWTH CURVES. population living in an area with limited resources.
These are graphs which show the trends of population
growth over a period of time. There are two types of S-SHAPED SIGMOID GROWTH CURVE.
growth curves,
- J-shaped growth curve.
- S-shaped or Sigmoid growth curve.

J-SHAPED GROWTH CURVE.

It describes a situation where organisms better adapt
in the initial lag phase, then the population size
increase rapidly during the exponential phase that it
exceeds the carrying capacity then population growth
suddenly stops and declines, population crash occurs.
The populations that show this type of growth curve is

36
 resulting into increased competition, death rate
increases exceeding the birth rate.
(iv) Stable phase/ constant phase.
The population of the individuals remains constant. In
this case the population has reached its carrying
capacity. The birth rate and the death rate exactly
balance each other resulting in equilibrium.
(v) Declining phase.
The population rapidly/steeply declines or decreases.
This is because the environmental resistance at its
maximum. There is intense overcrowding, more
competition for food, space, oxygen, etc occurs, there
occurs production and accumulation of toxic wastes
from the organisms, reproduction potential rapidly
DESCRIPTION OF THE SHAPE OF THE declines, death rate exceeds the birth rate.
GRAPH.
Initially the number of individuals in a population THE CYCLIC GROWTH CURVES IN
increase gradually and then the increase become PREDATOR-PREY RELATIONSHIPS
drastic/rapid, but as it is approaching the carrying
capacity, the number of the individuals in the
population begin to increase slowly until it reached
maximum, after which it remained constant for while
and gradually decrease.

EXPLANATION OF THE GRAPH.

(i) Lag phase.
Population increase slowly because there are fewer
reproducing individuals and they are widely
dispersed. In some cases, the organisms are not fully
adapted to the environmental conditions, only the few EXPLANATION OF THE PREY-PREDATOR
individuals start to reproduce. CURVES.
(ii) Exponential phase.
Population increase or grow DESCRIPTION.
drastically/rapidly/steeply/fast. This is because there Initially the population of the preys increases more
are more individuals reproducing, there is no rapidly than that of the predators until the population
environmental resistance, food and space are of the preys reach maximum, then the population of
sufficient, there is no competition for the available the preys decline rapidly as the population of the
natural resources such as food, shelter, water, oxygen, predators increase rapidly until the population of the
light and biotic potential is higher and hence the predators reach maximum or peak, there after the
natality, or birth rate exceeds mortality rate. In some populations of the preys and the predators rises
cases, the organisms have adapted to the rapidly and falls rapidly (fluctuates).
environmental conditions which is more favourable to
the organism. REASONS FOR THE CHANGES IN THE
(iii) Decelerating phase. PREYS AND THE PREDATOR POPULATIONS
The population increase slowly/gradually until it Predators feed on the preys and there fore the
reaches maximum. This is because the environmental predators reduce the numbers of the prey. When the
resistance sets in like shortage for food, space,

37
population of the preys is higher, predators are normal. And when the population size decreases
provided with enough food and there is no below the normal, the environmental stress factors are
competition. This increases their reproductive removed, encouraging population growth and the size
potential and the number of predators rapidly of the population increases back to norm.
increases until it reaches it‟s peak. At this stage more
preys are fed on and the number of the preys decline However, human population cannot be regulated by
rapidly, then the predators begin to compete with each negative feedback mechanisms. This is due the
other for the scarce food available which are the few following reasons,
preys. Some predators die of starvation. The predator  Modern methods of food production have led to
population therefore declines. The reduction in the production of plenty of food hence deaths due to
numbers of the predators results in fewer preys being hunger have been minimized.
eaten and so allows the numbers of the preys to  Manufacture of drugs has minimized deaths due
increase again, this increases in turn leads to an to diseases and other pathogenic infections.
increase in the predators‟ population.  Improved standards of living such as good
hygiene, people tend to live longer.
Predator and prey populations are there fore regulated  Use of contraceptives or birth control methods has
by a negative feedback mechanism that keeps the controlled abnormal rise in human population.
populations balanced at levels that the environment
can support. SURVIVORSHIP CURVES.
It indicates the relationship of the new born
THE ROLE OF NEGATIVE FEED BACK individuals and the decrease in numbers of survivors
MECANISM IN CONTROL OF POPULATION with time. When number of survivors is plotted
SIZE OF ORGANISMS. against time, a survivorship curve is obtained. On the
vertical axis, actual numbers of survivors may be
Feed back mechanisms: Are systems that detect a plotted or percentage survival.
change in the level or amounts of a particular The percentage of individuals which die before
parameter from the norm or normal levels, then the reaching reproductive age (pre-reproductive mortality)
system is stimulated or triggered to bring into action is one of the major factors affecting population size.
corrective processes or regulatory processes. In Different organisms have characteristic survivorship
negative feedback mechanisms, a change in the curves, some examples are shown in the graph below.
amounts of the parameter about the norm or set point,
triggers processes that will bring the amounts or the Numbers of survivors X 100
levels of the parameter back to norm. Percentage survival = Number in original
population
Regulation of population size of most organisms in an
ecosystem is by negative feedback mechanism, which A GRAPH SHOWING SURVIVORSHIP CURVES.
maintains size of population at the carrying capacity
(the Norm) with minimum oscillations or deviations.
When the population size increases far beyond or
above the carrying

capacity, environmental resistance or environmental

stress factors set in, like competition for scarce natural
resources such as food, space, mates. Other stress
factors such as accumulation of own toxic wastes,
starvations also occur, resulting into death of some
organisms. The population size declines back to

38
 there is no special risks attached to being young, most
EXPLANATION OF THE CURVES. non-vertebrates and plants.
Curve (a).
Shows ideal curve for a population in which NOTE: Minor variations in survivorship curves may
senescence is the major factor affecting mortality. An occur within species due to sexual differences, for
example is a human population in modern example in humans female life expectancy is slightly
industrialized country in which the standards of greater than for males.
medicine and nutrition are maintained and so most FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE
people live to old age. But the life expectancy cannot DETERMINING POPULATION SIZE OF
be prolonged beyond 75 years of age. The initial ORGANISMS.
gradual decrease of the curve is due to the infant
mortality. The drastic decrease of the curve can be due (i) Size of the area.
to the following, (ii) Nature of vegetation.
 Accidental deaths i.e deaths through car accidents, (iii) Topography or terrain.
etc. (iv) Size of organisms to be counted.
 Senescence (ageing). Is the general decline in the (v) Behaviour of the organism or its social structure
normal physiological functions of the body and activities.
systems (declining vigour) with increasing age (vi) Nature of the habitat whether terrestrial or
beyond maturity, resulting eventually into death aquatic, concealed or non-concealed habitat.
of the organisms. (vii) Resources available for example, apparatus,
The immediate cause of the senescence are, money etc.
reduced resistance to external factors such as Importance of estimating population size
diseases, others causes include, mistakes in 1) Enables monitoring of population growth
protein synthesis, degeneration of cells, in-
2) Enables determination of habitat requirements of
efficient homeostasis, auto immunity. Auto- species.
immunity is where old people produce anti-bodies
against their own antigens. 3) Enables determination of carrying capacity in the
In curve (a) the population would combine its high area. i.e determine whether existing population are
survival rate with low reproductive rate to maintain a likely to be sustainable.
stable population. 4) Enables determination of age structure, and
sometimes sex ratio of a population.
Curve (b).
Is for a population with a high mortality rate early in 5) It enables projection of how population size is
life like for humans in a country in which starvation likely to change with time for proper planning eg
and diseases are prevalent. determining the peak populations of organisms e.g
mosquitoes enables control measures to be prepared
In this case, the population would need a higher
reproductive rate to maintain a stable population since METHODS/TECHNIQUES FOR ESTIMATING
high percentage of individuals would die before THE SIZE OF POPULATION IN AN
reproductive age is reached. ECOSYSTEM.
The methods used to estimate the size of a population
Curve (c) is divided into two categories,
It indicates a smooth curve that would be obtained if - Total count methods.
there was a constant mortality through out life. In this - Sampling methods.
case, chance is the major factor influencing mortality
and organisms die before senescence with high
juvenile mortality, examples is in the hydra where

39
TOTAL COUNT METHODS.
This method involves physical count of all the ADVANTAGES.
organisms in an area under study. In this method, the (i) It is fairly quick.
whole area is searched, all organisms are counted and (ii) It is comparatively cheaper than aerial
it should give absolute number of organisms in the photography.
whole area. These methods include the following,
- Direct observation. DISADVANTAGES.
- Aerial photography. (i) The animals may be scared by the passing vehicles
- Removal methods. or even by the presence of the human beings and
scared away, such animals may not be counted at
DIRECT OBSERVATION. all.
This involves direct counting of all the animals in the (ii)Some animals avoid paths and therefore may not
whole area of study. The total number of the animals be counted.
observed and counted is recorded. It is applied to (iii) Very many counts must be conducted in order
sessile, slow moving animals and also applied to to get reliable information.
many larger mobile organisms that do not live in (iv) Some of the animals are too mobile and are
concealed areas such as deer, lions, wood pigeons and likely to be counted twice.
bats as they leave their roost. Direct observation
methods is further divided into, • Direct counting using a low flying air crafts.

• Drive and Count methods. This method involves physical counting of all the
Here the animals are driven by number of people to a animals within the study area. It is applied to large
particular spot and they are counted. It applies to large animals living in non-concealed habitats for example,
animals which live in non-concealed areas and less Lions, Buffaloes, Rhinos, giraffes and elephants.
hostile.
In this method, the study area within the park is
ADVANTAGES. surveyed using a low flying light air crafts, then a low
(i) It reduces the chances of counting the same flying light air craft is flown along a transect and
animals more than once. animals along the transect are counted. The air craft
(ii) It is a fairly quick and easy method for animals then flies back along another adjacent transect and
which live in herds. counting continues until the whole area sampled is
covered. Several such counting are carried out and an
DISADVANTAGES. average is determined, the product of the average
(i) It involves disturbance of the animals which may count and the total square per unit area of the study
make them aggressive. area gives the estimated size of population of the
(ii) It can be applied on aggressive animals. organisms.
(iii) It is difficult to apply on animals which live in
herds. ADVANTAGES.
(i) Is a very quick method of estimating population.
• Strip census. (ii) It can be done concurrently with other studies for
In this method, animals are counted along paths while example studying feeding habits.
walking or in vehicles. Population density is (iii) It can be applied in some aggressive animals like
determined as number of individuals per unit area of lions since it has minimum risks of the researcher
the strips. It is applied to large animals which live in being attacked.
non-concealed areas. (iv) It is less tiresome and not laborious.
(v) It reduces the chances of counting the same
animals more than once since it very organized.

40
 DISADVANTAGES.
DISADVANTAGES. (vi) It is very expensive since it involves expensive
(i) It is very expensive since it involves expensive equipment like air-crafts.
equipments like air-crafts. (vii) The air craft may scare away the animals which
(ii) The air craft may scare away the animals which may go into hiding and end up not being
may go into hiding and end up not being counted. counted.
(iii) It is difficult to apply on animals that live in (viii) It is difficult to apply on animals that live in
concealed habitats. concealed habitats.
(iv) It can be applied to very small animals since they (ix) It can be applied to very small animals since they
may not be seen from a distance. may not be seen from a distance.
(v) It‟s operation can be affected by bad weather or Its operation can be affected by bad weather or poor
poor climatic conditions for example when the climatic conditions for example when the weather is
weather is misty or foggy. misty or foggy.

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY. REMOVAL METHOD.

This method is also applied to larger animals which It suitable to estimate numbers of small organisms,
live in non-concealed habitats, particularly insects within a known area of grass land
or volume of water. Using a sweep net, the number of
Procedure. animals captured is recorded and the animals kept.
Survey the area of the park with low flying light air This procedure is repeated three times and the
craft, photograph the animals in places within the gradually reducing numbers recorded. A graph is
study area where they are present in groups or herds, plotted of number of animals captured per sample
count their number from the developed photographs, against the previous cumulative number of animals
repeat the process of photography and counting captured. By extrapolating the line of the graph to the
animals from the developed photographs at regular point at which no further animals would be captured
intervals of time over a given period of time, the i.e number in the sample = 0 , the example of how the
average number of animals counted from photographs population will be estimated is shown below,
is obtained, then the product of the average count and
the total area gives the number of the individuals per Sample Number in Cumulative
unit area. sample sample size
Note: The advantages and the disadvantages of this 1. 120 0
method is the same as those for direct counting. 2. 93 120
3. 60 213
ADVANTAGES. 4. 35 273
(vi) Is a very quick method of estimating population.

(vii) It can be done concurrently with other studies for

example studying feeding habits.
(viii) It can be applied in some aggressive animals like
lions since it has minimum risks of the researcher
being attacked.
(ix) It is less tiresome and not laborious.
(x) It reduces the chances of counting the same
animals more than once since it very organized.

41
A GRAPH SHOWING VARIATION OF NUMBER In this method, a number of animals are captured
IN SAMPLES WITH CUMULATIVE SAMPLE using traps which are set up randomly within an area.
SIZE The animals are marked for instance arthropods may
be marked on their back with non-toxic dabs of paint,
fish can have tags attached to their opercula,
mammals may have tags

clipped to their ears and birds can have their legs

ringed. The number of the marked animals recorded is
labeled N and then they are all released back into the
population and given sufficient time to mix freely in
the population. After a period of time, the raps are set
up again randomly in the area and the animals are
captured for the second time and the number of the
animals captured for the second time is labeled as M,
at the same time the number of the animals captured
and marked (recaptured animals) is labeled R.

The estimated population size is equal to the The size of the population size is estimated is
cumulative sample size when the number in sample is determined using Lincoln index as,
zero (0), according to the graph = 350 individuals.
Estimated population size =
SAMPLING METHODS OF ESTIMATING
SIZE OF A POPULATION.
Is the random determination of the number or
distribution of organisms within a population. In this
method, only part of the area is surveyed, only a few
organisms within the study area are counted but bias = N X M
should be avoided and every organism must have R
equal chances of being chosen in the sample, which ASSUMPTION OF THE CAPTURE MARK
must be large and the total number of organisms in the RELEASE RECAPTURE METHOD.
whole area is calculated or estimated from the (i) Organisms mix randomly within the population.
sampled plots. These methods include, (ii) Sufficient time must elapse between capture and
 Capture-mark release recapture method. recapture to allow random mixing. The less
 Quadrat method. mobile the species of animals the longer the time
 Use of line transect/Belt transect. lapse must be.
(iii) It is only applicable to populations whose
(i) CAPTURE – MARK RELEASE movement is restricted geographically.
(iv) Organisms disperse evenly within the
RECAPTURE METHOD. (LINCOLIN
geographical area of the population.
METHOD) (v) Changes in population size as a result of
This method is suitable to determining population of immigration, emigration, births and deaths are
animals which are small, mobile, fast moving, live in negligible.
concealed habitats and they can easily be tagged or (vi) Marking does not hinder the movements of the
marked, examples include, arthropods, fish, small organisms or make them conspicuous to
mammals and birds. predators or death of the animals.

42
(vii) The population of the marked to unmarked The size of population can be estimated as follows,
individuals in the second sample is the same as
the proportion of marked to unmarked 5 quadrats = 20 plant species.
individuals in the whole population. 1 quadrate of 1m2 = 20 = 4 plant
(viii) Every marked animal has the same probability of species.
surviving the sampling period. 5
(ix) Every animal captured, marked and released
have the same or equal probability of being Therefore 1m2 quadrats = 4 plant species.
recaptured. 500m2 = 4 x 500
= 2000 plant species.
PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN.
(i) The marks should not be harmful to the animals. The quadrate method provides means of studying
(ii) The marks or the tags used should not be three aspects of species,
conspicuous to the predators.
(iii) Sufficient time should elapse between the first (i) Species density.
and second capture. This is the number of individuals of a given species in
a given area. It is obtained by counting the number of
(ii) QUADRAT METHOD. organisms in randomly thrown quadrats.
A quadrat is a metal or wooden frame with one metre
sides. It encloses an area of 1m2, however, larger (ii) Species frequency.
quadrats marked on ground by either ropes or suitable This is a measure of the probability or chance of
materials may also be used. It is a random sampling finding a given species within any one throw of a
method. This method is suitable to estimate quadrat in a given area. This is obtained by recording
population size of plant species and sessile organisms the presence or absence of the species in a randomly
or very slow moving organisms. thrown quadrat.
In this method, survey the area under study and
establish its size in square metres, then a quadrate of (iii) Species cover.
known square meters i.e 1m2 is thrown at random on This is the measure of the proportion of the ground
an area marked randomly and the number of enclosed occupied by the species. It gives the estimate of the
organisms are counted, such of these of throws are percentage of the area covered by the species. It is
carried out several times. An average of these counts obtained by observing the species covering the ground
is taken and the population size is estimated by at a number of random points.
determining the product of the average count taken
and total square meter of the area under study. ADVANTAGES OF USING QUADRAT
METHODS.
Size of population = (i) It is cheap method to carry out since it does not
Average number of animals in 1m2 X Total square require many expensive types of equipment to
metre use.
Quadrat of area under study (ii) The aspect of species density makes this method
accurate enabling different areas and different
EXAMPLE: species to be compared.
If 5 quadrats of 1m2 show number of certain plant (iii) Species density provides an absolute measure of
species as 1st quadrat = 3, 2nd quadrat = 7 3rd = 2. 4th = abundance of species in an area.
4, 5th = 4 respectively, if the total area under study = (iv) The aspect of Species frequency is easy and quick
500m2. to conduct.
(v) It can be applied in large ecosystem such as wood
land.

43
DISADVANTAGES. Over a short distance a line transects is used and over
(i) It is time consuming like in determination of a longer distance the species present every metre or
species density. any other suitable distance is recorded. Height
(ii) In determining species frequency, the quadrat variations recorded along line or belt transects
size, plant size and spatial distribution affect the produce a profile of transect known as profile transect.
results.
(iii) It is slow and tedious like in determining species NOTE : State advantages and disadvantages of using
cover. line transects.
(iv) It can only be efficiently applied in estimating
population size of plants species. WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY (BIOLOGICAL
DIVERSITY)?
(iii) LINE TRANSECT/BELT TRANSECT. The different life forms and life-sustaining processes
This consists of record of plants occurring along a line that can best survive the variety of conditions
taken by stretching a string in a study area. Survey the currently on earth.
area under study to establish its size in square metres.
Then a tape or string is stretched along the transect KINDS OF BIODIVERSITY:
line and only plants touching or beneath the tape or Genetic diversity – variety in the genetic make up
string are counted or the plant species touching or among individuals within a species.
beneath the tape or string are recorded. This method Species diversity (species richness) – number of
is useful to study changes in plant species in an area species present in a habitat.
(Qualitative data) however, to establish size of
population of plant species using this method Ecological diversity – the different biological
(Quantitative data), several counts are made, and an communities e.g. forests, deserts, lakes etc.
average of such counts is taken, the population size is Functional diversity – biological and chemical
a product of average count and total size of the area processes or functions such as energy flow and matter
under study in square metres. cycling needed for the survival of species and
biological communities.
Belt transect
Is where parallel strings called twines are tied across a Distinguish between Species diversity (species
habitat by help of pegs. The areas between the strings richness) and species abundance.
are belts which can be divided into small squares. Species abundance: the number of individuals of each
Organisms species

within the belts are recorded. This method can be Rare species
applied for both plants and animals in larger area of Species with small populations either restricted
study. geographically with localized habitats or with widely
In belt transect method, both a quadrat and a line scattered individuals.
transect can be used. The type of a transect to use
depends on the following factors, Endangered species
 Qualitative or quantitative nature of the Species with low population numbers that are in
investigation. considerable danger of becoming extinct.
 Degree of accuracy required.
 Nature of organisms present. Extinct species
 Size of the area to be investigated. Species, which cannot be found in areas they
 Time available. previously inhabited nor in other likely habitats.

44
 i) Size of the island.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT SPECIES ii) Distance of the island from the nearest main land.
DIVERSITY ON LAND AND IN WATER
1. Latitude (distance from equator) in terrestrial Size of the island
Larger islands tend to have higher species diversity than
communities – species diversity decrease steadily with
Small islands because of two reasons:
distance from the equator toward either pole, resulting
Small islands generally have lower immigration rates since
in the highest species diversity in tropical areas e.g. they are a smaller target for potential colonizers
tropical rain forests and lowest in polar areas such as (ii) Smaller islands should have a higher extinction rate
arctic tundra. The main effect of latitude is on because they generally have fewer resources and less
temperature, which later affects life. diverse habitats for colonizing species.
2. Depth in aquatic systems - in marine communities,
species diversity increases from the surface to a depth Distance of the island from the nearest main land:
of 2,000 metres and then begins to decline with depth For two islands of about equal size and other factors, the
until the deep-sea bottom is reached, where species island closest to the main land which is a source of
immigration, species will have the higher immigration rate
diversity is very high. This change is attributed to
and thus a higher species diversity (assuming that
light penetration which affects photosynthesis,
extinction rates on both islands are about the same
availability of oxygen and availability of dead
organisms at the sea bottom.
3. Pollution in aquatic systems – increased pollution
kills off or impairs the reproductively of various
aquatic species hence reducing species diversity and
abundance.
4. Increased solar radiation increases species diversity
in terrestrial communities.
5. Increased precipitation in terrestrial communities
increases species diversity.
6. Increased elevation decreases species diversity.
7. Pronounced seasonal changes increase species
diversity.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT SPECIES DIVERSITY IN

AN ISLAND ECOSYSTEM
Robert MacArthur and Edward O. Wilson (1960s)
studied communities on islands after which they proposed
the species equilibrium model or the theory of island
biogeography.
According to this model, the number of species found on an
island is determined by a balance between two factors:
(i) The rate at which new species immigrate to the island
and

(ii) The rate at which species become extinct on the island.

The model predicts that at some point the rates of
immigration and extinction will reach an equilibrium point
that determines the island‟s average number of different
species (species diversity)
The model also predicts that immigration and extinction
rates (and thus species diversity) are affected by two
important features of the island:

45
 c) Effect of distance from mainland on
immigration and extinction rates:
For both near and far islands, immigration rate
decreases with increase in species number, but
immigration rate is higher on near island than on the
distant island. The higher immigration rate on near
island is because of the easy reach by organisms
enabled by its proximity to the main land.
Since extinction rate increases with increasing species
number that exert interspecific and intraspecific
competition, extinction rate is far higher on small
islands due to the fierce competition caused by the
higher immigration rate because of easy reach by
organisms enabled by its proximity to the main land.

EXPLANATIONS FROM THE OBSERVATIONS

EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON
MADE FROM THE GRAPHS
a) Immigration and extinction rates: ECOSYSTEM.
These include the following,
The rate of immigration decreases with increase in
 Interruption of biogeochemical cycles.
species number, while the extinction rate increases
 Natural resources imbalances and exhaustion.
with increase in species number on the island.
 Population imbalances.
The equilibrium number of species on the island is
 Decline in Biodiversity/species diversity.
reached when immigration rate and extinction rate
 Soil erosion/soil exhaustion/loss in soil fertility.
equal.
 Extinction.
Extinction rate increases with increasing species
 Environmental pollution.
number because of interspecific and intraspecific
 Drought/Desertification.
competition for the limited available resources.
 Green house effects/Global warming.
b) Effect of island size on immigration and
 Disease out breaks.
extinction rates:
 Famine.
The rate of extinction increases with increase in
 Loss of habitats.
species number on the island on both small and large
 Speciation.
islands, but it is higher on small islands than on large
islands. The higher extinction rate on small islands is
HUMAN ACTIVITIES AFFECTING AN
because of the fewer resources and less diverse
ECOSYSTEM.
habitats for colonizing species.
 Pesticide use to control pests.
The rate of immigration decreases with increase in
 Pollution.
species number on both small and large islands. But
 Deforestation.
with a large island having a higher immigration rate
than a small island. Small islands generally have  Agricultural practices such as use of fertilizers,
lower immigration rates because they are a smaller mulching, crop rotation, weeding, harvesting of
target for potential colonizers, while a large island has standing crops.
more resources and becomes a large target for the  Over fishing.
incoming species of animals.  Urban development. These include activities such
as construction of dams, bridges, houses, roads,
recreation centers and reclaimation of swamps and
wet lands for urban development.
 Hunting and poaching.

46
 Use of fire to burn forests and grasslands.  Covering the soil with organic material (mulching)
 Mining activities. which prevents light from reaching weeds.
 Nuclear plants.  Growing crops or harvesting crops at a particular
 Industrialization. time in the life cycle of the pest when the pests
can do least damage. For example in maize.
PEST CONTROL AND PESTICIDES.
A pest is any organism that people find undesirable.  Intercropping. Planting two different crops in the
It may cause harm economically or affect someone‟s same field, for example under sowing cereal crops
health. with rye grass provides suitable conditions for
Agricultural pests cause economic damage to crops ladybirds which control aphids on the cereals.
and farm animals.
Most pests cause significant damage when their Chemical Control of Pests
populations reach economic injury level. This method involves the application of toxic
Economic injury level is the pest population level chemicals that control pest population called
which cause significant economic level. Therefore pesticides.
economic damage threshold pest control measures Pesticides are defined as chemical substances used by
must be started at a lower pest population level called humans to control pests. Different types of pesticides
economic damage threshold. are classified according to the pest organisms that they
treat. These include,
Economic damage threshold is the pest population • Herbicides. These are pesticides that kill plant
level at which treatment is needed to prevent species.
population of pests reaching the economic injury • Insecticides. Are pesticides that kill insects.
level. • Fungicides. Are pesticides that kill fungi.
• Contact pesticides kill pests without being eaten for
METHODS OF PEST CONTROL. example penetrating cuticles of insects.
Pests can be controlled by any one of the following • Systematic pesticides are taken into a plant and
methods, translocated within the plant and enter the pest when it
1. Cultural control methods. eats the plant or its sap.
2. Chemical control. • Broad-spectrum pesticides, designed to control a
3. Biological control. wide range of pests, may also kill harmless or
4. Integrated pest management/Combination of the beneficial ones such as the predators of the pest.
control methods.
ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
PESTICIDES.
(1) Cultural Control Methods.  Toxicity
 Cultural methods include: Toxicity is defined by the lethal dose 50 (LD50). This
 Weeding is the single dose which kills half an experimental
 Tillage population i.e kills 50% of the experimental
population.
 Crop rotation
Weeding and tillage remove weeds and overturn the  Persistence.
soil that may expose insect pests to predatory birds.
This is the length of time that pesticide remains in the
Crop rotation often prevents the buildup of pests that
environment and within organisms without being
occur in monoculture.
broken down.
An example of a persistent insecticide is DDT.
Other cultural methods of pest control include the
Persistence is undesirable quality of a pesticide
following:
particularly on food crops. However, in the control of
 Removing the remains of crops and badly damaged
animal parasites and soil-borne diseases, persistence
plants which might harbour pasts. makes the pesticides effective and efficient, but
 Creating physical barriers for example apple trees persistence for too long is very damaging to
are protected from their potential pests by putting organisms.
sticky bands on their trunks.

47
 Specificity. the pest population to survive and reproduce
This is the range of organisms the pesticide can affect. in large numbers, leading to rapid growth of
On the basis of specicity we group pesticides as either the pest population, beyond the original
broad spectrum or narrow spectrum. size/carrying capacity.
DDT is an example of a broad spectrum pesticide, it
 Use of sub lethal/low toxic or lower than
seriously affects many different kinds of animals.
Narrow-spectrum pesticides only affect a restricted adequate doses of lethal/ highly toxic pesticides
range of organisms. allows some pests to survive, and may induce
Use of broad-spectrum pesticides can lead to pest mutation and resistance, which coupled with rapid
resurgence. pest life cycles, leads to rapid build-up of large
numbers of a resistance pest population.
Properties of an Ideal/Good Pesticide
 Use of persistent and non-biodegradable pesticide,
 Adequate toxicity to be effective against the target
which persists and accumulates in bodies of
pest to avoid pest resistance and resurgence.
organisms, leading to biological magnification up
 Low persistence/ non-persistence, to avoid
the food chain.
incorporation in food chains where it may be
 Bioaccumulation and biomagnifications kills
mobilized in to a more toxic form, or accumulated
the predators of the pest, the pest becomes
by biological magnification to toxic levels in top-of
less fed upon, survives and reproducers in
–the chain predators.
large numbers and its population grows
 High specificity to avoid killing non-target species,
rapidly beyond the original size.
which may be natural enemies of the pest, such as
its predators, competitors, pathogens and parasites Effects of Use of Pesticides on Ecosystems
leading to pest resurgence.  Kills pests and disease vectors, leading improved
 Biodegradable to non-toxic forms by yields and reduced disease prevalence and
microorganism and in bodies of beneficial incidence.
organisms to avoid storage in bodies of organisms,  Are often non- specific, so may kill even beneficial
and bio magnifications. organisms thus disrupting food chains and food
 Affordable/cheap to ensure availability to human webs.
populations in adequate doses for effective pest  Persistent, non-biodegradable pesticides bio
control. accumulates and progressively gets concentrated
 Effective against all stages of the pest life cycle to along food chains killing animals at higher atrophic
avoid survivals of the pest in resistant forms, such levels.
as eggs, spores.  Bioaccumulation and biomagnifications may
interfere with animal metabolism, affect animal
PEST RESURGENCE. products, and reduce fertility or cause infertility.
This is when numbers of the pests after treatment  May interfere with hormonal balance and
increase to more than before the treatment. This is
synchronization, leading to infertility such as
because the pesticide kills both the pest and predator
of the pest. thinning of bird egg shells leading to egg breakage,
and reduced biotic potential.
Causes of Pest resurgence.
 Use of broad-spectrum/non-specific pesticides
which not only kill the pest, but also kill the  Persistent, non-biodegradable pesticides are not
natural enemies of the pest, such as its predators, broken down and remain in the environment, even
parasites, pathogens and competitors. in the bodies of organisms, leading to unexpected
 This reduces environmental resistance against long-term effects and pollution.
the pest population due to reduced predation,
reduced parasitism, reduced infection and
disease, and reduced competition, allowing

48
 Poor use of pesticides may lead to resistance of BIOACCUMULATION
pests to its toxic effects, leading to pests Is the progressive increase in concentration of a
resurgence. chemical/pesticide in the tissues of organisms along
the food chain. The organism cumulatively takes in
 Killing pests and non-target organisms starves the organochemical/pesticide which gets stored in
other organisms who depend on these organisms as adipose tissues and are not easily eliminated
prey, disrupting food chains. metabolically from the cells.
 Killing natural enemies of the pests and other
organisms, such as their predators, competitors,
parasites and pathogens. This reduces Both bioaccumulation and bio-magnification decrease
productivity at higher trophic levels, decrease
environmental resistance against pest populations,
reproductive potential, decrease species diversity,
increasing their populations and promoting pest cause mutations etc.
resurgence.
 Killing non-target soil detritiores and decomposers, The Causes of Biological Magnification
reduce rates of decomposition of dead organic Persistent pesticides remain active in the environment,
matter, disrupt nutrient cycles and reduce soil including within organisms, for long periods of time,
without being broken down.
fertility.
These persistent pesticides diffuse into bodies of
 Killing pollinating and dispersing animal species of phytoplankton from water in aquatic ecosystems, or
plants such as pollinating bees, birds, bats and are absorbed by green plants via roots from the soil in
moths, reduce the abundance and spread of plant terrestrial ecosystems.
species.
 Killing of organism threatens and reduces Once inside the bodies of organisms they persist and
remain and accumulate as they are not biodegradable,
biodiversity. hence not metabolized or excreted, (organic pesticides
particularly bio accumulated in fatty material as they
CONCENTRATION EFFECTS OF are fat-soluble/non-polar, and are not excreted).
PESTICIDES IN FOOD CHAINS. From these primary producers the pesticides are
This is the progressive accumulation of certain toxic passed on along the food chain through the feeding
chemicals such as herbicides and pesticides in the relationship between organisms.
body of organisms at particular trophic levels and is
availed in even much higher concentrations to the As each animal in the food chain consumes a larger
organisms in the next trophic levels. weight of the preceding animal, and hence an
This occurs in two ways: increasingly larger amount of pesticide, the
1. Bio-magnification/biological magnification. concentrations of the pesticide taken, in at each meal
accumulate in the bodies of the animals leading to
2. Bioaccumulation progressive concentration of the pesticide up the food
chain.
BIO-MAGNIFICATION Examples of the toxic pesticides that can accumulate
Biological magnification is the progressive increase in the food chain include, DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl
in concentration of a chemical/pesticide in the tissues Trichloroethane), Dieldrin and aldrin.
of organisms with increasing feeding/trophic levels. Disadvantages of DDT pesticide in food chains in an
The chemical is higher in the quartenary and tertiary ecosystem include,
consumers and lowest in the secondary and primary  High mortality rate (death) among vertebrates
consumers. especially birds.
 Leads to extinction of some species of organisms
This is because at high feeding levels, organisms feed especially birds from an ecosystem due rampant
on a variety of organisms, most of them already
deaths.
contaminated and also feeding on organisms with a lot
adipose tissue which are stores of the organochemical.  It reduces resistance to diseases in some
organisms.

49
 Reduction in fertility (low fertility) among (iv) The top carnivores
organisms especially carnivorous vertebrates.
 Leads to reduction in calcium metabolism in
birds, resulting to production of thinner egg shells SOLUTION.
(i) 0.04 = 2 times.
which easily break. 0.02
- It kills species of some insects, pests and other
organisms. (ii) 10 = 500 times
0.02
Advantages of DDT Pesticide
- Easily affordable and relatively cheap to produce. (iii) 50 = 2500 times
- It effectively kills mosquitoes and their larvae and 0.02
therefore very efficient in control of malaria, which
(iv) 75 = 3750 times.
is the biggest killer disease in sub-Saharan Africa.
0.02
- It is quite persistent and have a long lasting effects
and more efficient in eliminating pests, important (3) BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL.
in controlling animal parasites and soil- borne Biological control is the control of the population of
diseases. pests and weeds by using other living organisms that
are natural enemies or predators or parasites to the
target pests.
NOTE: The control organisms are used to keep the pest or
DDT and all other organochemicals are mainly stored weed population below the economic injury level.
in fatty tissues because these pesticides are more
soluble in fats than in water. Examples/techniques of biological pesticides.
During times of food shortage/starvation, fat is  Cane toads introduced into Australia to control
mobilized and used by the body as the energy source. beetle infestations of sugar cane.
So the organochemical/pesticide that has accumulated
over a long period of time is released into the blood  In green houses, parasitic wasps are introduced to
stream in relatively high concentrations, causing control whitefly and lady
severe effects. birds to control aphids.

Example Showing Concentration Effects of DDT  In natural environments, caterpillars of the moth
Pesticide control the population of prickly pear population
The figure below shows the amount of DDT at successfully and bacillus bacteria (Bacillus
different levels in a food chain. Study it carefully and
thuringiensis) applied as sprays to cabbage plants
answer the questions that follow.
infected with caterpillars.
The bacteria infects and kills the caterpillars
without harming other insects.

 Myxomatosis is a viral disease introduced

deliberately in Australia to control rabbit
populations. However, this virus infected other
non-targeted domestic rabbits and lost its
effectiveness as the pests evolve resistance.
(a) If the concentration of DDT in the water
surrounding the algae was 0.02ppm. Determine the  Irradiation is another method of biological control.
final concentration factor for DDT in passing from It involves breeding the pest species, separating the
water into,
males and sterilizing them by exposure to x-rays.
(i) Primary producers.
(ii) Small fish. Sterile males are released into the population to
(iii) Large fish. mate with females which produce infertile eggs.

50
ADVANTAGES OF BIOLOGICAL PEST (vii) The control agents should be environmentally
CONTROL. friendly and not turn in to a nuisance/ pest itself
- Control agents are specific to their target
organisms. So, they cannot destroy other useful Risks associated with biological pest control
organisms in the environment.  Climatic conditions unfavorable for survival of the
- No danger of polluting or harming the control agent may lead to death of the agent and
environment. failure to control the pest population.
- Control agents may become useful food materials
for other organisms.  When the control agent is highly palatable to
predators which greatly reduces its population size
- It does not lead into extinction of the target
leading to increase in pest population.
organisms.
- Have few incidences of pest resurgence.  When the control agent is not specific to the pest
- They are very effective and efficient; they can and turns against unintended beneficial organisms.
control population of pests within the shortest time
possible.  Pests may evolve new and effective defensive
- No recurrent cost are incurred once the control mechanisms against the control agent, such as
avoiding predation, resistance to a pathogen.
agent has been introduced in to the environment, as
the agent population is self-sustaining, unlike
 When the pest population is greatly reduced to
pesticides which need to be re-applied wherever levels insufficient to support the control agent
pest populations reach economic damage population, leading to death of the agent and failure
thresholds. to control the pest population.

PRECAUTIONS TAKEN IN USING  Introduction of the non-native control species may

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL METHODS. disrupted and interfere with local food chains of
(i) Careful matching of climatic conditions to ensure the native ecosystem.
that they favor the survival of the natural enemy
of the pest.  May result in extinction of the pest species.

(ii) Monitoring of interactions with other native (4) INTEGRATED PEST

species, to ensure that the natural enemy/control CONTROL/MANAGEMENT.
agent is not fed upon/ killed by unsuspected Is pest population management which combines and
organisms, and the control agent should be integrates biological and chemical controls in a
specific as not to turn against other unintended sensitive way, to maintain the pest population at a
beneficial organisms. level below the economic injury level or even prevent
their development. This method must ensure
(iii) Release of control agents should be done at a time minimum harm and disruption to a crop, natural
when pest populations are large enough to provide ecosystem and the natural enemies of the pest species.
sufficient food for the agent, so that the agent is
not wiped out prematurely. While applying this method, favourable
environmental conditions and biology of the pest be
(iv) Control measures should be put in place to considered. Pest population densities be monitored
regulate the population of the control agent after and pesticides used only when the pest reaches the
pest control. economic damage threshold.

(v) The reproductive rate of the control agent should DEFORESTATION.

be sufficiently high to effectively regulate the pest This is the permanent removal of trees and
population. undergrowth. Many forests have been destroyed by
burning and felling of trees. Many forests have been
(vi) The control agent should not be harmful to converted to agricultural lands, grass lands and
humans. shrubs.

51
Reasons for deforestation.
(i) To open land for agricultural practices. POLLUTION
(ii) Supplying firewood as fuel and making charcoal. Pollution is the natural or artificial addition to an
(iii) To make room for houses, industrial buildings, ecosystem of anything to the extent that it harms the
roads and dams. ecosystem in any way.
(iv) To obtain trees for manufacture of pulp and paper. A pollutant is a natural or artificial substance that
(v) Cutting trees for timber used in the construction enters the ecosystem in such quantities that it does
industry and getting poles for construction of harm to it.
houses.
AIR POLLUTION
(vi) Destruction of some trees by atmospheric
All air pollutants are gases added to the mixture of air
pollution such acid rains. which supports life. All air pollutants is a result of
(vii) Replacement of native trees with fast growing burning fossil fuels either in the homes, in industries
species such as conifers, eucalyptus and rubber or internal combustion engine. Examples of the air
trees. pollutants are,
• Smoke.
Disadvantages/effects of deforestation • Sulphur dioxide.
(i) There is a loss of traditionally harvested products • Lead.
such as timber, poles, fire wood, honey, fruit, • Nitrogen oxide.
game animals and herbs that are one time supply • Carbon monoxide.
local people with their needs. • Carbondioxide.

(ii) More rapid run-off of rain water results in soil SMOKE

erosion, resulting into loss of soil structure and Smoke is tiny particles of soot (carbon) suspended in
soil fertility, crop production and yields is the air which are produced as a result of burning fossil
lowered. This may cause famine and great fuels such as coal and oil.
economic losses.
Sources
(iii) Leads to floods in low lying plain lands. (i) House smoke/soot
(ii) Motor vehicle exhausts
(iv) Increases global carbon dioxide which causes (iii) tobacco smocking
global warming.
(iv) Incomplete combustion of refuse in incinerators
(v) Rain fall regimes are interrupted, leads to and bonfires
reduction in the amount and frequency of rain fall
and supply of water from spring waters is lost, Harmful effects:
resulting into change in climatic conditions, water (i) When breathed in, it blackens the alveoli causing
shortage, drought and desertification. damage to their epithelial lining.
(ii) It also increases the risks of bronchitis.
(vi) Leads to loss of genetic variety and reduction in (iii) It reduces light intensity at the ground level. This
biodiversity. lowers overall rate of photosynthesis and hence
productivity.
(vii) Habitat loss/destruction for many organisms.
(iv) Deposits of soot and ash coats plant leaves,
(viii) Leads to extinction of some plant and animal blocking the stomata thus reducing rate of
species since forest has the most species-rich and photosynthesis in green plants.
diverse wild life. (v) Smoke, soot and ash dirtens or blackens clothes,
ears and building, these are costly to clean.
(ix) Leads to loss of some important medicinal plants.
For example, tropical rain forest tree species have
Control measures
great human value, rosy periwinkle used for anti
cancer drug, others tropical rain forest trees are (i) Usage of smokeless fuels
used as antibiotics and anti-malarial drugs. (ii) Efficient combustion

52
(iii) No smoking (ii) Installation of Sulphurdioxide extraction units in
(iv) Vehicle exhausts gas control industrial fluels and chimneys

CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) NB. Lichens are indicator species for sulphurdioxide
Sources pollution. The presence of many lichen species
(i) Motor vehicle exhausts indicates low level of sulphurdioxide pollution in that
(ii) Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels area
(iii) Tobacco smoking
NITROGEN OXIDE (NO)
Effects/ consequences They are produced by burning of fuel in car engines
 When carbon monoxide is inhaled, it combines and emitted as exhaust. Also contained in industrial
irreversibly with haemoglobin to form carboxy- fuel gases.
haemoglobin reducing the capacity of red blood
cells to transport oxygen. Effects/consequences
 Small concentrations cause dizziness and (i) Acid rain formation
headache ii) Contribute to greenhouse effect

Control measures Control measures

 Efficient combustion of fuels in industry and homes (i) Car exhausts control
 Avoid smoking
 Vehicle exhausts gas control LEAD (Pb).
Lead can be emitted into the air through car exhausts.
Tetra-ethyl lead (TEL) is added to petrol as an anti-
SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO2).
knock agent to help it burn more evenly in car
Sources
engines.
Burning of fossil fuels or Sulphur containing fuels,
If breathed into the lungs and then into the general
oil, coal gas at home or from industries, emit some
body, it will have the following effects,
amount of sulphur dioxide.
(i) Digestive problems. For example Intestinal colic.
Harmful effects of sulphur dioxide include: (ii) Impairing the functioning of the kidney.
(i) It causes irritations of the respiratory systems (iii) Nervous problems including convulsions.
and damages the lining of the alveoli of the (iv) Brain damage and mental retardation in children.
lungs.
(ii) It can damage the eyes by causing irritations of DUST
the conjuctiva of the eye. Sources:
(iii) It kills the lichens on the surfaces of trees and on (i) Solid fuel ash
rocks. This reduces photosynthetic activities of (ii) Soil
the blue-green algae, reducing primary (iii) quarrying
productivity of the ecosystem. Absence of (iv) Mining, etc.
lichens may expose certain insects like the
peppered moths to their predators. Effects/consequences
(iv) Sulphur dioxide dissolve in rain water and falls (i) Lung diseases
down as acid rain that enters lakes and oceans, ( ii) stomatal blockage
causing death of aquatic plants. Acid rains also iii) Stunted growth of plants.
cause great destruction and damages of forests. (iv) Smog – forms when temperature inversion occurs
For example coniferous trees. (layer of warm air traps cool air containing dust and
smoke close to the earth‟ surface).
Control measures Control measures
(i) Use of Sulphur free fuel e.g. natural gas. (i) Installation of dust precipitators in industrial
chimneys.

53
(ii) Efficient combustion. deforestation and increased burning of fossil fuels has
(iii) Wearing of face masks by factory workers resulted into excess release of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
This has caused unnecessary rise and increase in
CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS CFCs
concentration of atmospheric carbondioxide, causing
Sources: occurrence of the three world problems, ozone
(i) Aerosol propellants depletion, greenhouse effect and Global warming.
(ii) refrigerator
(iii) air conditioner coolants Control measures
(iv) Expanded plastics. E.g. bubbles in plastic (i)Planting more green plants
foam used for insulation and packaging (ii) Reduction in combustion of fossil fuels by relying
Effects/consequences on alternative sources of energy e.g. solar energy.
Enters stratosphere, the chlorine reacts with ozone
hence reducing the ozone layer and permitting greater GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL
penetration of UV light to cause global warming. WARMING

Control measures GREENHOUSE GASES

Ban on the use of CFCs 1. Carbondioxide.
It is produced naturally from respiration,
OZONE decomposition and volcanic activities. Burning of
Sources: fossil fuels is another source of carbondioxide. It
(i) Motor vehicle exhausts contributes the largest percentage of the green house,
about 50%
(ii) Combustion of fossil fuels to form nitrogen .
dioxide which decomposes to form oxygen atoms that 2. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCS)
combines with oxygen molecules to form ozone. Are organic molecules that are not natural and are
manufactured artificially for use as refrigerator
coolant in
Effects/consequences
Low level (tropospheric) ozone causes: air conditioning units, as aerosol propellants, and in
(i) Internal damage to leaves hence reducing the manufacture of foam plastics.
photosynthesis. They have advantages of being cheap, non-flammable
(ii) Eye, throat and lung irritation which may result and non-toxic chemicals and are relatively stable.
into death. When released into the atmosphere, tends to last for
long time (up to 60 years). Its effect is many times
(iii) Internal damage to leaves which severely reduces
greater than that of carbondioxide.
photosynthesis. CFCS dissociate when exposed to ultraviolet light,
(iv) Green house effect by absorbing and radiating releasing highly reactive free chlorine atoms, by series
heat which raises the temperature at the earth‟s of chemical reactions the chlorine released reduce the
surface. ozone concentration.

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) 3. Methane.

Sources: It is produced by anaerobic bacteria living in the guts
(i) Motor vehicle exhausts of certain insects such as termites and in the stomachs
(ii) Combustion of fossil fuels. of the ruminants such as cattle, sheep, and camel.
(iii) Respiration by aerobic organisms. So, the human activity such as cattle ranching has
increased the release of methane.
(iv) volcanic activities
(v) and decomposition of organic matter 4. Ozone.
Ozone is a triatomic form of oxygen. It occurs
Carbon dioxide is used by plants for photosynthesis to naturally in the atmosphere where it is formed by the
ensure that it does not accumulate. However

54
action of solar energy (ultra-violet radiation) on radiations from the sun to pass through them to reach
oxygen gas. the surface of the earth.
Ozone forms a layer called ozone layer at high When that radiation strikes a surface, much of its
altitudes 20 – 50 Km above the earth surface. Ozone energy is converted into heat, and reflected as long
is a greenhouse gas but at high altitudes it absorbs wave radiations.
harmful ultra-violet radiations and prevents it reaching
the earth. Carbon dioxide, water vapour and the other gases
At low altitudes, its concentrations are low but form layer called heat blanket in the atmosphere that
boosted by the action of sunlight on nitrogen oxides. prevents escape of the heat or long wave radiations
Ozone forms part of the photochemical smog seen in reflected from the earth, but instead absorb or retain
large cities during bad weather. As a low altitude the long wave-radiation or reflect it back towards the
pollutant, ozone is harmful. It causes irritations of the surface of the earth. In this case these gases, including
eyes and respiratory tissues and it can damage plants. carbondioxide act like panes of glass in a greenhouse,
A higher concentration of ozone is toxic. letting light in but retaining some of the heat before it
Ozone depletion can occur. This is constant damage escapes into space, hence the term “greenhouse
and destruction of the ozone layer by the greenhouse effect”.
gases, especially the chlorofluorocarbons to the point The retention of heat by the greenhouse effect is a
that holes are created into it. This will allow harmful natural process, essential for the evolution of life on
ultra-violet radiations to directly reach the earth. earth. It maintains optimum average temperatures of
Ultra-violet radiation causes skin cancer to humans. the earth; otherwise, without it freezing temperatures
would exist in the earth. And many species of
THE ORIGINS OF GREENHOUSE GASES ARE; organisms would die until be driven into extinction.
1) Combustion of fossil fuels by motor engines and However, the greenhouse effect appears to be
increased by the emission of certain industrial gases
industries releases carbon dioxide and methane into
collectively called greenhouse gases, the most
the troposphere. important of which are carbondioxide,
2) Deforestation and clearing of grasslands reduces chlorofluorocarbons, methane and ozone.
the uptake of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis.
3) Ruminant fermentation produces methane, which is GLOBAL WARMING
released into troposphere. This is the observed average global temperature rise
of 0.8oC since 1900 as result of the enhanced natural
4) Use of aerosol propellants, which contain CFCs greenhouse effect.
that are 105 times worse than carbon dioxide as Increase in carbondioxide or greenhouse gases in the
greenhouse gases atmosphere absorbs and retains heat or reflects the
5) Cultivation of rice in swamps and paddy fields long wave-radiation back into the earth.
causes anaerobic fermentation, which produces This causes unnecessary rise or increase in the global
temperatures above the usual, a phenomenon called
methane.
global warming.

6) Use of inorganic fertilizers cause the release of Effects of the global warming
nitrous oxide.  It leads to melting of the ice caps in the polar
regions of the earth.
THE GREEN HOUSE EFFECT  Melting of the ice caps may result into increased
Solar energy reaches the Earth in form of short wave volume of water bodies, causing floods that
radiations. When these radiations strike a surface, displace a number of plants and animal
much of its energy is converted into heat or long wave communities living at the shores of the rivers, lakes
radiations. and oceans.
Carbon dioxide is present in the lower atmosphere
 The increased atmospheric temperatures increase
(troposphere) in very small amounts. Carbondioxide is
transparent to incoming short wave radiation from the evaporation of water from the surfaces of the water
sun. bodies causing rampant heavy convectional rain
So, carbon dioxide, water vapour and other gases fall seasons known as Elninoes.
present in the atmosphere allow the short-wave

55
 Elnino rain causes destruction of crops and leads to such as methane.  Heavy precipitation
famine, outbreak of water borne diseases like  Flooding
cholera, causing mass death of people.  Increased levels of  Increased
 It leads to extinction of species of organisms which greenhouse gases, prevalence of
such as carbon water-borne
cannot adapt to extremely high temperatures. This
dioxide, carbons diseases
causes changes in the Bio-diversity of plants and monoxide, methane  Floods destroy
animals. and buildings and
 High temperatures increase primary productivities. chlorofluorocarbons vegetation
Demand for essential nutrients increase, resulting enhances the  Sinking of low-
in competition among plant species for such planetary green lying islands
house effect by  Extinction of some
nutrients.
forming thicker species reducing
 Increased death of human population thermal blanket, biodiversity
causing increased  Emergence of
DIAGRAM SHOWING PROCESS OF GLOBAL earth surface drought-resistant
WARMING IN AN ECOSYSTEM. temperatures(global and water logging-
warming) by being resistant species.
transparent to in-  Change in climatic
coming shortwave global patterns
solar radiation but  Change in nature of
impermeable to re- seasons and diurnal
radiated long wave weather and
radiations from the climatic conditions
earth surface

Evidence of Global Warming

1) Polar ice melt
2) Reduction in volume of glazier in glaciated areas of
the world
3) Rising sea levels
4) Changing weather patterns and ocean current
5) Coral bleaching
Summary of planetary greenhouse effect/Global
warming
ACID RAIN FORMATION
Causes Effects
 Combustion of fossil  Increased earth Combustion of fossil fuels releases sulphur dioxide
fuels produces temperatures/global and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere.
carbon dioxide and warming Catalyzed by ammonia and unburnt hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide.  Melting of polar these oxides react with water in the clouds to form
glaciers and ice solutions of sulphuric acid and nitric acid, which
 Use of caps of mountains. make up acid rain.
chlorofluorocarbons  Raising of seas
(CFCs) as solvents, levels
aerosol propellants  Increased Effects
and refrigerator transpiration and  Hydrogen ions bound to soil particles are displaced
coolants. evaporation from into runoff water by the SO42- ions from sulphuric
vegetation, water acid, causing formation of soft exoskeletons, which
 Use of fossil fuels bodies and soil results into death of invertebrates
containing  Long periods of
hydrocarbons (HCs) drought

56
 Aluminum ions are displaced from soil by sulphate  The CFCs are used as aerosol sprays, in solvents
ions into water where it interferes with gill and in coolants such as refrigerators. Chlormethane
functioning in fish causing their death. from rotting vegetation and bush burning also
 Aluminum ions are displaced from soil by SO42- reacts with ozone in the ozone layer.
ions into water are toxic when absorbed by plants.
 When the fluorine and chlorine radicals react with
 The leaching action of acid rain removes calcium
ozone using energy from the ultra-violet radiations
and magnesium ions from soil causing poor
of sunlight, the ozone is broken down into
formation of middle lamella and chlorophyll in
molecular oxygen at a rate faster than that at which
leaves.
it is reformed.
 Contributes to humans respiratory diseases such as
bronchitis and asthma.  Bromine also gives off free radicals which react
 Can leach toxic metals such as lead and copper and breakdown ozone. Bromine is mainly obtained
from water pipes into drinking water. from methyl bromide used in fungicides.
 Damages statues and buildings.  Nitrogen monoxide from the reaction of dinitrogen
 Decreases atmospheric visibility, mostly because oxide with atomic oxygen using U.V radiations as
of sulphate particles. source of energy also reacts and destroys the ozone
 Promotes the growth of acid-loving mosses that layer.
can kill trees.
 Loss of fish population when the pH lowers below  The high flying aircrafts release icy particles in the
4.5 stratosphere leading to depletion of ozone layer.
These results in the escape of the short wavelength
Prevention radiations from the sun to the earth surface.
 Installation of SO2 extraction units (wet scrubbers)
in chimneys of industries. WATER POLLUTION
 Cleaning up of exhaust emissions by encouraging Water Pollution is defined as the release into the
water bodies or aquatic environment substances or
several pollutants to react with one another to give
energy in such quantities and for such a duration that
less harmful products in catalytic converters. they cause harm to the people using the water or to the
 Reduce coal use. aquatic organisms living in the aquatic environment.
 Increase use of renewable resources. Man has several uses of water in an ecosystem, some
 Tax emissions of sulphur dioxide, “polluter pays of these uses include,
principle” should be adopted everywhere.  For drinking.
 For bathing, washing clothes, utensils, cars etc.
How the stratosphere is destroyed  For removing sewage.
 A stratosphere is the upper layer of the  To irrigate crops.
atmosphere, lying between 15-40km above the  Used as a coolant in industries.
earth`s surface with the ozone layer. The ozone  Habitat and breeding sites for fish and other aquatic
layer is a layer of triatomic molecules of ozone organisms that provide source of food.
which absorbs the short wavelength radiations like  Used to generate electric hydro-power
ultra-violet rays, x-rays and gamma rays emitted  For recreational uses, sailing, fishing and diving.
from the sun and prevent them from reaching the
Common Causes of Water Pollution.
earth‟s surface in large amounts.
 These include the following,
 Ozone is destroyed by fluorine and chlorine  Discharge untreated sewage into the aquatic
radicals from the breakdown of ecosystem.
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) using ultraviolet  Eutrophication due to agricultural wastes from
radiations from the sun. factory farms and organic industrial wastes from
food and drink industry.

57
 Eutrophication due to nitrate and phosphorus  Turbid water prevents penetration of the light y,
fertilizers that enter nutrient stopping photosynthesis by the aquatic plants.
 Oil spills mainly from accidental spillage and  Buildup of ammonia and hydrogen sulphide from
cleaning tanker storage tanks. anaerobic decomposition occurs. These chemicals
 Hot water from power stations resulting into the are toxic and result in death of many aquatic
thermal pollution. organisms and almost lifeless river.
 Heavy metals such as mercury, cadmium from
industrial effluent. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES IN A
 Persistent pesticides such as DDT. RIVER DUE TO DISCHARGE OF UNTREATED
 Radioactive materials from nuclear power stations. SEWAGE IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM.
Sewage contains mainly water and organic materials,
 Mining wastes such as china clay waste. other in-organic substances such as nitrogen
 Medical waste such as hypodermic needle, blooded compounds like urea and uric acids, ammonium ions,
bandages, etc. nitrate and phosphate ions may be present in low
concentrations.
BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) Organic matter acts as food source for saprophytic
Adding organic materials to water stimulates the aerobic bacteria.
growth of micro-organisms which feed on the organic The bacteria carry out decomposition of the organic
materials. As the density of the micro-organisms material, using oxygen dissolved in the water in a
increases, their demand for oxygen also rises. This process called putrefaction, causing a BOD.
demand is called the Biological Oxygen Demand Initially the decomposition activity utilizes little
(BOD). oxygen, but as the distance downstream increases, the
BOD is the minimum amount of dissolved oxygen decomposition processes increases, more O2 used
needed (i.e. demanded) by aerobic biological accounting for the decrease in oxygen concentration
organisms to break down organic material present in down stream. In this case, the aerobic bacteria
a given water sample at certain temperature over a successfully decompose the existing organic matter,
specific time period. urea into ammonium ions and there concentration
increase rapidly.
The ammonium ions are converted to nitrates. Thus
the concentration of the ammonium ions decreases
SEWAGE DISCHARGE AND ITS while those of the nitrates increase rapidly. Some
EFFECTS ON THE AQUATIC ammonium and nitrate ions are absorbed by the
ECOSYSTEM. aquatic plants, further reducing their concentrations.
The rapid decomposition by aerobic bacteria uses up
Sewage is liquid waste, from abattoirs, factories, dissolved oxygen, reducing the concentration of the
hospitals or domestic waste including human faeces,
urine and detergents. Sewage is carried through pipes dissolved oxygen to minimum levels, this creates a
called sewers. So, sewage is any waste materials from Biochemical oxygen Demand (BOD) that will cause
home and industries that pass down the sewers. the death of most aerobic species, including fish
leaving only anaerobic ones.
Effects of untreated sewage discharge on the When all organic matter has been broken down further
ecosystem downstream, little or no decomposition activities
 Increases biological Oxygen Demand (BOD). occur and less dissolved oxygen is used up and its
 Eutrophication of the water bodies. levels rises rapidly again. The increased
photosynthetic activities by the phytoplanktons,
 Sewage may contain potentially dangerous
turbulent, fast moving streams, new dissolved oxygen
pathogenic organisms such as those causing from the atmosphere may all increase the levels of
cholera and typhoid. So, may lead to outbreak of dissolved oxygen further downstream.
diseases.
 The organic matter in the sewage makes water to CHANGES IN THE FAUNA AND FLORA DUE
have unpleasant smell, turbid and therefore unsafe TO SEWAGE DISCHARGE/EFFLUENT
for domestic use like drinking, washing etc. The changes in the physical and chemical conditions
in the rivers are accompanied by changes in the flora

58
and fauna of the water body. When the level of
organic material is high, saprophytic bacteria survive
e.g. the sewage fungus which increases because they
feed on sewage.
Algal populations lower initially due to the sewage
reducing the amounts of light that penetrate the water
body. Further down stream, the algal levels rise above
normal because the bacteria break down sewage
releasing many minerals including nitrates. As the
minerals are used up, the algal levels return to normal.
The population levels of animal species vary
according to the level of oxygen in the water. Most
tolerant species of organisms to low oxygen levels are
the worms of the genus Tubifex whose haemoglobin
has a particularly high affinity for oxygen which it
obtains even at very low concentration.
These worms survive in regions close to the point of
sewage discharge. Tubifex population grows high in
this region due to lack of competition from other
species and absence of predators since they are unable
to survive in this region with low oxygen.
Further down stream, there exists other species such
as the larvae of the midge Chironomus which are also
able to tolerate low oxygen levels. They begin to
compete with Tubifex for small amount of available
oxygen and the population of the worm Tubifex
reduces. A continuing rise in oxygen further down
stream from the outfall results in the appearance of the
species like the water louse, Asellus. Its presence adds
on the intraspecific competition, causing reduction in
the populations of the Tubifex and the Chironomus.
Finally, as the sewage is completely decomposed,
oxygen levels in the water returns normal high and
clean water species like Chrimp, Gammarus appear
again.
The ecological equilibrium is restored again and the
population levels of the species of organisms return to
those found above the outfall. These changes in the
fauna and flora are illustrated in the graphs below.
Note: The above organisms act as indicator species.

59
GRAPHS SHOWING CHANGES IN THE PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF A RIVER DUE TO
SEWAGE DISCHARGE/EFFLUENT.

GRAPHS SHOWING CHANGES IN THE FAUNA AND FLORA DUE TO SEWAGE

DISCHARGE/EFFLUENT.

60
EUTROPHICATION
Is defined as the nutrient enrichment of the water bodies such as rivers, lakes with nitrates and phosphate
salts.
Eutrophication is a natural process during which the concentrations of nitrate and phosphate salts build up
in lakes and rivers.
The immediate effect of Eutrophication is the dramatic fast growth of algae called algal blooms. Algal
blooms produce toxins that cause mass death of fish species and also prevent light penetration to any
depth. The alga, phytoplanktons and other aquatic photosynthetic plants in deeper regions of the lake are
unable to photosynthesize and die.
Rapid decomposition of these dead organisms by aerobic saprophytic bacteria creates a considerable
biochemical oxygen debt/demand (BOD) resulting in deoxygenation of lower regions of the water, as a
consequence most aerobic organisms in this region die. A useful chemical indicator of Eutrophication is
Biochemical oxygen demand.

THE PROCESS OF EUTROPHICATION

Nitrates and phosphates are the major nutrients that limit primary productivity in aquatic ecosytems.

The addition of nitrates and phosphates, especially from fertilizers and non-soapy detergents favors growth of
competitive phytoplankton species e.g. algae, photosynthetic bacteria and blue-green algae.

61
This results in an algal bloom. Since it takes longer for the consumer organisms like the zooplankton and aquatic
carnivores to increase, the increased primary producers is not eaten/fed upon by the consumer organisms.
The excess primary production which is not eaten is instead entered into the decomposition pathway.
The breakdown of organic matter to simple inorganic nutrients is carried out by microorganisms which consumer
large amounts of oxygen and increase biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
The lowering of the water surface by algal bloom and increased use of oxygen by decomposers, reduce the level of
dissolved oxygen below that necessary for successful growth and reproduction of other aquatic species such as fish.
In extreme cases, the death of fish and other aquatic species and their subsequent decomposition can impose further
oxygen demand, making the situation worse.
Decomposition in such partially anaerobic conditions is partial, yielding reducing gases such as methane, hydrogen
sulphide and ammonia; these are toxic to aquatic organisms and have bad odour further worsening the situation.

Eutrophication is caused by any one of the following,

 Discharge of treated and untreated sewage into lakes and rivers. Sewage contains high concentration of
phosphate and nitrate ions, resulting from decomposition of detergents and washing powders.
 Use of fertilizers on farm lands.
 In-organic fertilizers contain large quantities of nitrates. Nitrates and phosphates, nitrates are highly soluble and
are readily leached and quickly runs off into lakes and rivers.
 Leaching from the surrounding land but it is a slow process and sometimes offset by the removal of the salts as
water drains from lakes and rivers.

Effects of eutrophication on the ecosystem.

 Biochemical oxygen demand causes death of aerobic organisms.
 Algae produce toxins that cause fish to die.
 Species diversity decreases and the dominant biota change.
 Plant, algal and animal biomass increase.
 Turbidity of the water increases.
 Rate of sedimentation increases, shortening the life span of the lake.
 Anoxic conditions may develop.
 The water becomes unsafe for drinking due to unpleasant taste and odour.
 The water may be harmful to humans and other animals.
 Increased vegetation may impede water flow and navigation.
 Important species of fish may become instinct.
Lakes and rivers with low salt concentrations are termed as Oligotrophic lakes. While those with waters with high
concentration of the nitrate and phosphate salts are termed as Eutrophic lakes.

Differences between Oligotrophic and Eutrophic Lakes

OLIGOTROPHIC LAKE EUTROPHIC LAKE
 Deeper in depth.  Shallower in depth.
 Relatively higher oxygen concentration in lower  Relatively lower oxygen concentration in lower regions.
regions.  Low species diversity with high productivity.
 High species diversity with low productivity.  (Blue-green bacteria dominant.
 Green algae dominant.  Algal blooms very frequent due to high salt content.
 Algal bloom are absent or rare due to low salt content  Concentration of nitrate and phosphate salts are high.
of the water.  Animal production is high.
 Concentration of nitrate and phosphate salts are low.
 Animal production is low.

62
PHYSICAL INDICATORS OF EUTROPHIED WATER BODY.
 Turbidity increases due to increase in the amount of suspended solids. The water darkens.
 Over growth of algae on water surface referred to as algal bloom.
 Low concentration of dissolved oxygen due to increased microbial activity.
 Reduced gross productivity of the water.
 Shallowing of water.
 Death of aquatic organisms, this reduces the biodiversity.

In a Lake Ecosystem, the problem of Eutrophic oxygen depletion may be worsened by seasonal water
thermal stratification. This is where water forms layers with different temperatures. This occurs for two
reasons,
(i) The sun heats the surface water; it becomes warm and less dense so it remains in the top layer of the
lake called the epilimnion.
(ii) Rivers and streams are shallower compared to lakes and seas and when sun heats their waters, the
river and the stream waters become warm through out their depth. And when the warm waters from
the rivers and streams are fed into lakes, the warm waters mix only with the surface waters of the
lake, and since the waters entering the lakes are light and less dense, they remain on top while raising
the temperatures of the waters at the surface forming a layer of warm water at the surface of the lake
called epilimnion. The deeper layers remain cool called hypolimnion.

The thermal stratification of mid-latitude lake in summer is in such a way that, a warm oxygen rich
circulating layer of water called epilimnion at the top is separated from cold oxygen poor layer called
hypolimnion waters at the bottom by a broad zone of rapid temperature change layer called the
thermocline existing in the middle.

DIAGRAM SHOWING THERMAL STRATIFICATION IN SUMMER.

Thermal stratification affects supply of oxygen to the deep waters. Oxygen supplies in the lake waters
come from three main sources and these are,
a) Photosynthesis which requires light and is therefore most rapid in the surface waters.
b) Atmospheric air that mixes with the surface waters and oxygen diffuses and dissolve in the water.
c) Dissolved oxygen in stream and river waters draining into the lake.

The above sources of oxygen enrich mainly surface waters. Oxygen in deeper water depends on effective
diffusion from upper layer and extreme turbulence linked with storm events. This occurs quite well in

63
winter season. In summer thermal stratification occurs, preventing dissolved oxygen reaching the deeper
layers (hypolimnion). The deeper layers will depend on the oxygen that had dissolved in the previous
season.
In a healthy lake ecosystem, most primary producers are eaten, few die and form food for detritivores and
decomposers. However increased phytoplankton production may occur at the surface layer of the water
due to warmth and increased nutrient status of this epilimnion or due to Eutrophication, excess primary
producers not eaten by herbivores will fall into the hypolimnion, when they die there decomposition will
create an additional oxygen demand and when oxygen supply is sufficient like in seasons where oxygen
from the surface diffuse to the deeper layers, no major problem will arise but if there is no sufficient
oxygen diffusing from top to the deeper layers like in summer, sudden fish kill occurs in late summer
when biochemical oxygen demand is maximum (oxygen supply approach exhaustion).

THERMAL POLLUTION OF WATER

It arises from the use of water as a coolant in industrial processes like in electricity generation plants.
Excess heat is discharged into a nearby waterway causing thermal pollution. Warm water has less
dissolved oxygen than cool water.
 Thermal pollution can therefore have the following effects on the aquatic ecosystem
 Kill fish by depriving them of oxygen since increase in water temperatures lowers the amount of
oxygen that will dissolve in water.
 It may also cause indirect death of fish and other aquatic animals by encouraging the increased growth
of parasites.
 Increased warmth raises the metabolic rate of organisms in the water and therefore increases their
oxygen demands.
 Some animals may migrate away from regions of the water with high temperatures to where water
temperatures are cool.
 When temperature differences are large in the waters, it may prevent migratory fishes like salmon from
returning to spawning sites or from moving down stream.
 It increases growth rate of some shellfish and allows some warm water organisms to be cultured in
temperate regions.
 In rivers or lakes polluted with sewage or other organic effluents, addition of warm water may improve
the conditions. The coolant water may become more oxygenated during use and promote increased
microbial activity within the polluted water.

OIL POLLUTION OF WATER.

The main sources of fresh water or marine oil pollution are,
1. Damage to oil tankers due to accidents.
2. Seepage from offshore installations.
3. Illegal washing at lakes, rivers or seas of storage tanks of oil tankers.

The effects of oil pollution are,

1. The oil coats the feathers of sea birds preventing them from flying, their insulatory ability are reduced
causing their death by hypothermia.
2. Oil coats seaweed, preventing photosynthesis.
3. Oil covers the gills of shellfish interfering with feeding and respiration.

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METHODS FOR TREATING AND PREVENTING OIL POLLUTION.
 Burning heavy oil residues.
 Collection of oil and pumping back into special collection ships.
 Spraying onto oil slicks naturally occurring bacteria such as Pseudomonas that can digest oil.
 Routine check ups of supertankers to avoid such hazardous accidents in ecologically sensitive areas.
 Introduction of double tanker hulls and new ballast systems.
 Use of floating booms to prevent slicks from reaching sensitive lines.

TERRESTRIAL POLLUTION
This is the pollution of the land. It is divided into two,
(i) The dumping of wastes and deposits.
(ii)The use of pesticides.

The dumping of wastes and deposits

Waste materials are dumped into pits or heaps. This may result into,
• Large volumes of solid waste materials accumulating on land from many commercial activities.
• Spoil heaps consists of waste material from various mining activities like gravel digging.
• Slag heaps is wastes from ore-digging and metal refining activities especially mining of coal.
• Domestic waste or rubbish. This contains a high proportion of ash, organic matter, solid non-
combustible materials, combustible materials like papers, plastic materials. Domestic rubbish is damped
in old quarries, pits and on low lying land.

Effects of terrestrial pollution on ecosystem

(i) Heaps of domestic wastes can cause air pollution as unpleasant odour/smell is produced.
(ii) Leads to destruction of habitats for living organisms.
(iii) Some domestic wastes include accumulation of sewage that may end up in water bodies causing
Eutrophication. Some toxic chemicals from the heaps and pits of the waste materials may run off
into the water bodies after rain, causing death of aquatic organisms or causing Eutrophication.
(iv) Decay of rubbish in absence of air produces methane which is a green house gas. This will lead to
global warming.
(v) Toxic substances in the slag heaps may cause death of some organisms.
(vi) They prevent growth of vegetation, this increases the incidences of soil erosion, and removal of
vegetation also lowers primary productivity.
(vii) Leads to development of new species of plants tolerant to heavy metals and growing on mine heaps.
(viii) Combustible material in the domestic rubbish may cause uncontrolled fire outbreak.
(ix) When properly covered in soil, can form organic manure for agricultural practices, increasing plant
growth and overall yields.
(x) May lead to out break of diseases.

Methods to control dumping of wastes/domestic wastes

(i) Digging deep and large pits to burry the waste materials.
(ii) Recycling of the materials in domestic wastes.
(iii) Use of organic waste to generate power. For example Biogas production.
(iv) The use of organic waste to produce fertilizers.
(v) Burning rubbish or treating with chemicals to reduce bulk.
Radioactive pollution

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There are two main forms of radiation.
(i) Electromagnetic waves.
(ii) Sub-atomic particles.
Electromagnetic waves of short wave lengths have high energy content, they include X-rays and gama
rays, both rays are harmful and hazardous.
Sub-atomic particles include α-particles and ß-particles which are naturally radioactive. There are other
man made sources of radiations. These include testing of nuclear weapons and wastes from the nuclear
power industry.

Effects of radioactive pollution

(i) Causes gene mutation due to breakage of hydrogen bonds in the DNA molecule.. Mutations in the
gonads may lead to production of defective gametes and hence resulting into deformed offspring.
(ii) Early somatic effects of radiations that include damage to the gut, damage blood cells, bone tissues,
skin burns, loss of hair and infertility. All these effects are collectively referred as radiation sickness.
While delayed effects include an increased risk of cancer and possible hereditary defects.
(iii) Radioactive materials can also become persistent and accumulate along the food chains, this also
affects animals at higher trophic levels especially birds, the normal embryonic development is
impaired
(iv) Causes genetic diseases like leukamia.

Noise pollution
• Extreme noise causes hearing damage.
• Loud noises can cause anger, discomfort; the loud noise is irritating and stressful
• Loud and sudden noise causes adrenalin to be secreted into blood, causing rise in blood pressure.

INDICATOR SPECIES
Is a species of organisms that needs a particular environmental condition or set of conditions in order to
survive.
Presence, absence or population sizes of such species of organisms provide information about the state of
the environment.
Indicator species are used in a wide range of ecological investigations which include:

 Present and past Edaphic (soil) conditions.

 Present and past climatic conditions.
 Biological monitoring of water and air quality. This involves detection of level of fresh water
pollution, BOD of water, Eutrophication and pollution due to sulphur dioxide.
 Detection of concentration of Carbonmonoxide in mines.

Examples of applications of indicator species or biological monitoring of water, air and soil quality
using indicator species.
(i) Many rivers show that there are characteristic communities of organisms associated with different
levels of organic pollution in rivers, lakes and seas.
 Clean water organisms include stonefly nymphs (larvae), chrimp, Gammarus, may fly larvae and
caddisfly larvae. They indicate unpolluted, well oxygenated water.

 As pollution increases and oxygen content falls, those organisms tolerant to this conditions
appear, these include worms of the genus Tubifex, Chironomus, Asellus, rat tailed maggots. These

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 organisms are indicator species of high levels of organic pollution and low dissolved oxygen
content of the water called Biochemical oxygen Demand (BOD).

(ii) Lichens are commonly used to indicate levels of air pollution by sulphur dioxide. Most lichens are
very sensitive to levels atmospheric sulphur dioxide.
Air pollution levels by sulphur dioxide are indicated by Biotic Index based on;
1. Lichen species diversity
2. Extent of area covered by the lichens
3. And lichens growth forms

 On heavily polluted surfaces with sulphur dioxide, species of lichens are absent but only algae are
present.
 Many species of lichen are only present on surfaces less polluted or not polluted at all by sulphur
dioxide. Species of lichen such as Leconora cornizoides, L. dispora and moss species Ceretodon
purpureus and Funaria hygrometrica are most tolerant to high levels of sulphur dioxide pollution.
While Lichen species like Permelia scivatilis and P. fulginosa inhabit areas with low levels of
sulphur dioxide such as areas far distance away from industrial cities or towns.

(iii) Indicator species can also be used to asses levels of in-organic pollutants. For example chemicals
contained within individual indicator species may be analyzed to assess levels of in-organic
pollutants such as pesticide organochloride.

(iv) Some years ago, coal miners used a canary in a cage to detect levels of air polluted by Carbon
monoxide and the canaries used as indicator species to determine whether the conditions in the mine
were suitable for health of the miners. Canaries are very sensitive to small amounts of
Carbonmonoxide and Carbonmonoxide poisoning. So, a canary falling off its perch was taken as an
alarm signal to accumulating levels of Carbonmonoxide and the miners quickly get out of the mines.

(v) Eutrophication can be monitored biologically. Changes in phytoplankton species present may help to
indicate Eutrophication for example Blue-green bacterial blooms are common in eutrophied water.
Eutrophied water also shows high abundance and low species diversity of phytoplankton.

Advantages of biological monitoring over physiochemical monitoring.

 Abundance of organisms depend on the sum of all factors affecting environmental quality,
physicochemical factors are usually measured individually.
 The abundance of organisms reflects the effect of continuous exposure to all environmental factors,
physicochemical measurements are usually taken at intervals and are often spot checks.
 A brief and damaging pollution incident would continue to affect the abundance of organisms for some
time even after the event, physicochemical measurements could miss this when they are not continuous.

Disadvantages
 Biological indicators do not reliably identify the precise cause of a pollution incidence,
physicochemical measurements can identify the precise cause allowing specific actions to be taken.
 The abundance of the indicator species may vary naturally, so absence of an organism may not reflect a
particular environmental conditions, carefully conducted physicochemical measurements do not suffer
from this problem.

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NOTE:
In most situations, environmental quality is monitored both biologically and physicochemically.
Biotic indices are used for routine, continuous monitoring of the environment and when they indicate a
problem, physicochemical tests are conducted to identify the precise cause.

NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION OF THE NATURAL RESOURCES.

Natural resources are useful materials to man provided naturally by the environment. Examples of
natural resources include, Forests, Water bodies, fishes, oil, minerals, mountains, soil, sun, air, wild life,
coal, natural gas.

TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES.

These are,
- Renewable natural resources.
- Non-renewable natural resources.
- Non-exhaustible resources.

RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES.

These are resources when used or destroyed may be replaced if proper conservation measures are applied.
So, they are replaceable and can be used continuously. Examples of such resources include forests, soil,
water, fishes, wild life etc.

NON-RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES.

These are resources when once used or destroyed can not be replaced. So, they are irreplaceable
resources. Examples of natural resources include coal, oil, natural gas and minerals.

NON-EXHAUSTIBLE RESOURCES.
These are not exhaustible in life. They are always available in abundance. These include, water, air (wind)
and sun.

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES.

Conservation is defined as the action taken to avoid species decline, extinction and any permanent
detrimental change to the environment. It is about maintenance of the biosphere. Conservation aims to
maintain the quality of natural environments and their biological resources.

REASONS FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES/WILD LIFE.

(i) Ethical reasons.
It is morally wrong to destroy ecosystem or to allow species to become extinct. So, it is right to conserve
the diversity of life and the environment so as to pass it onto the future generations the way they were
inherited.

(ii) Aesthetic Reasons.

Conserving the wild life for the pleasure it provides. This is to encourage eco-tourism, this is the tourism
based on visiting natural environments, promoting art, design, literature and recreation.

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(iii) Utilitarian Reasons.
This is where Biological resources are conserved for their usefulness or economic values. Wild life
supplies human community with food, medicines and many industrial products.
Medicines obtained from wild plants include quinine and codeine, those obtained from animals include
snake venom used as anticoagulants and anaesthetics.
They can also contribute for our needs in agriculture, forestry and fisheries. We make use of pollinating
insects and use of predators in pest control.

Soil management and conservation is to achieve the following,

- To maintain or improve soil structure.
- To reduce soil erosion.
- To maintain or improve soil fertility.
- To control pests and diseases.

(iv) Ecological/scientific Reasons.

For the well being of humans that depend on maintenance of a fully functional Biosphere. For instance
maintaining stable biochemical cycles which can only be disrupted by extinction of some species, such
disruption can affect negatively human lives. For example loss of vegetation cover can cause soil erosion,
siltation of rivers and coasts and may even result in changes in rainfall and climate patterns.

SOIL USE AND CONSERVATION METHODS.

SOIL USE.
 Used in agriculture for growing of plants and rearing of animals.
 Habitat for soil micro-organisms for example earthworms, bacteria, etc.
 For settlement.
 For mining for example sand, clay and other minerals.
 Source of nutrients for plants for example minerals like calcium, nitrogen, magnesium, iron, iodine etc.

SOIL MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES AND CONSERVATION METHODS.

(i) Crop rotation.

Farming methods where different crop plants are grown in a field in regular rotation. This method
prevent, build up of pests and parasites to any crop species, minimizes the risk of depleting the soil of
nutrients and water, where legumes are used in the rotation, nitrogen fixing bacteria in their root nodules
add to soil erosion.

(ii) Tillage.
Is the mechanical turning of the soil by ploughing. It suppresses the growth of weeds and promotes a
good drainage and soil structure.

(iii) Liming.
This is the addition of agricultural lime to the soil. Lime is a mixture of calcium hydroxide (slaked lime),
calcium oxide (Quick lime) and Calcium carbonate (limestone). Liming increases soil pH, neutralizing
acidic soils and promoting clumping of soil particles, thus improving soil structure.

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Note: Liming adds carbondioxide into the atmosphere and may cause global warming.

(iv) Addition of organic matter.

This involves addition of substances such as manures, straw and sewage sludge. This promotes humus
formation, improving soil structure, and promoting plant growth. Organic fertilizers are also usually more
difficult to handle, use and apply onto the soil, they take longer time to have an effect and their
compositions are variable and therefore not easy to determine the right amounts or dose, this makes them
unreliable.

(v) Addition of in-organic fertilizer/Artificial fertilizers.

It involves addition of granules, pellets or liquid containing one or more inorganic nutrients such as
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. They have the following advantages,
- Their actions are quick.
- Easy to use and apply.
- Are reliable, effective and efficient.
- Promote fast plant growth when used appropriately.

Inorganic fertilizers also have disadvantages that include,

- Heavy use may destroy soil structure, texture and increase soil acidity or pH.
- They can run off into rivers and lakes or leaching into aquatic environment may cause
Eutrophication and algal blooms. This causes death of aquatic plants and their decay leads to
oxygen deficiency in water.
- Heavy use destroys beneficial soil micro-organisms.
- They may also damage plants, burning or scorching them.
(i) Practicing terracing, contour ploughing and mulching as good agricultural practices to
prevent soil erosion.
(ii) Building dams across streams to reduce the speed of flowing water, preventing soil erosion.
(iii) Establishment of permanent grass lands and wood lands where growth of other useful crops
are not possible.

WATER USE AND CONSERVATION.

Water bodies include lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, wells, seas and oceans.

USES OF WATER BODIES.

- Habitat for fish and other aquatic plants (phytoplanktons) and aquatic animals (Zooplanktons).
- Sources of water for domestic and industrial use.
- For recreation purposes for example swimming, sports and fishing.
- Minning for example minning salt, soda ash and fish.
- Climatic control like in convectional rainfall formation.

WATER CNSERVATION METHODS.

- Restoration of streams and rivers.
- Dumping of untreated sewage and industrial wastes into rivers, lakes be avoided to prevent water
pollution.

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 - Mulching and replacement of the vegetative blanket to retain soil moisture.
- Construction of dams which act as water stores or reservoirs.
- Correct ploughing and cultivation methods.

WILD LIFE USE AND CONSERVATION METHODS.

Wild life refers to wild animals and plants.

USES OF WILD ANIMALS (FAUNA)

- For tourist attractions.
- Provides hides and skins.
- Means of transport for example horses, elephants, camels, donkey etc.
- Source of food, they provide meat.
- Source of income for example from game cropping and hunting.
- Some are pollinators like the bees, improving crop yields.
- Provide carbondioxide to green plants.

CONSERVATION METHODS.
 Legislation. Institute laws against encroachment and poaching and the laws must be state enforced.
 Practicing game cropping. It is the scientific killing of game animals to keep the population at the
carrying capacity level.
 Prevent deforestation.
 Restoration of natural habitats.
 Increasing state national parks to protect many wild life from extinction.

USES OF WILD PLANTS (FAUNA).

 Source of medicine for example quinine is got from specific wild plant materials.
 Provides food inform of many fruits and roots of some plants. Nectar and pollen can be collected by
insects and used for manufacture of honey.
 Habitat for many insects.
 Photosynthesis by these plants removes excess carbondioxide from the atmosphere, minimizing global
warming.
 Biological control agents. Some plant species control population of mosquitoes and tsetseflies

CONSERVATION METHODS.
- Prevent over grazing.
- Prevent land, water and air pollution.
- Prevent deforestation.
- Institute legislation that will regulate collection of wild plants and their products such as flowers.
- Use of botanical gardens and seed banks to keep plants that are endangered.
- Controlled fire out breaks.

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FOREST USE AND CONSERVATION METHODS.
USES OF FOREST.
 Nutrient recycling.
 Provision of fuel for example fire wood for domestic and industrial uses.
 Catch large amounts of rainfall, are useful for rain formation.
 Habitat for many animals and plants.
 Increase soil fertility by adding organic matter into the soil.
 Act as wind brakers.
 Prevent soil erosion by reducing speed of low of water and wind.
 Tropical forests provide humans with anti-cancer and anti-malarial drugs.
 Trees in the forest are photosynthetic utilizing the excess carbondioxide in the atmosphere, so prevents
occurrence of global warming.
 Prevents sound pollution by absorption of loud and bad sounds.
 Used for recreation purposes.
Mis-use of forests can occur due to,
- Un-controlled felling of trees.
- Encroachment for agricultural purposes and settlement.
- Charcoal burning.
- Un-controlled fire.

CONSERVATION METHODS.
- Re-afforestation, this is planting of trees where they have been before.
- Afforestation, is the planting of trees where they have never been before.
- Selective felling (cutting) of trees.
- By imposing regulations which discourage forest encroachment.

FISHERIES, USES AND CONSERVATION.

Fish are renewable resource. These are resources which with proper management can be used again and
again because they are constantly replaced.
Fish are found in rivers, lakes, seas and oceans. Fish are not evenly distributed in lakes, seas etc. Fish feed
on phytoplanktons and therefore fish are most abundant where phytoplankton productivity is highest.
Most oceans have a low concentration of nutrients at the surface, so phytoplanktons and fish population
are low at the surface. There are two zones in the oceans where nutrient concentration and fish population
is high,
(i) Where wind and currents cause water close to the sea bed to rise. The upwelling carries nutrients
into waters high up where there is sufficient light to support photosynthesis. This region is known as
up welling zone.
(ii) Shallow sea above continental shelves. In this area the concentration of nutrients are high, the water
is shallow, the bottom sediments are disturbed by heavy storms to permit nutrients rise up, this zone
is also fed by rivers carrying nutrient rich sediment that comes from natural erosion and human
activities.

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USES OF FISH.
- Source of protein food to humans and other animals.
- Provide carbondioxide to phytoplanktons.
- Source of medicine for example cod-liver oil, hypochromis species of fish for treatment of
measles in children.
- Used for sports and recreation purposes.
Fish are renewable resource and therefore be replaced. However, over fishing can cause depletion of the
species of fish.

EFFCTS OF OVER FISHING ON ECOSYSTEM.

 Reduces the population size of adult fish and limits their distribution.
 The population structure of fish is changed, the population size of younger and smaller fish become
greater than those of adults.
 It disrupts food webs by causing increase in plankton population following removal of fish as their
predators.
 Population of other animals that feed on planktons may increase.
 The population of fish predators may fall drastically.
 It may result in extinction of fish.

CONSERVATION METHODS OF FISH.

(i) Fish must not be caught faster than the fish stocks can replenish themselves, a phenomenon referred to
as sustainable yield.
The largest amount of a naturally renewable resource that can be regularly harvested without causing a
decline in stock of that resource is called maximum sustainable yield. The maximum sustainable yield is
maintained when,
• The growth rate of the resource is at its highest and when the harvest is at the correct level to keep the
population at its optimal size.

(ii) Regulations must be made to prevent over fishing or to allow over fished stocks t recover. So, the
following measures must be considered,

• Quota system of fishing.

This is where the amount of fish that each country is allowed to catch be specified.

• Minimum mesh sizes.

Ideally mesh size should be large enough to allow small, fast-growing, immature fish to pass through.
These fish can then reach maturity, spawn and help replenish fish stocks.

• Closed seasons.
This is the season of the year where fishing is not allowed, usually during the breeding season of a
particular fish species.
• Exclusion zones.
Designated areas in which fishing is banned completely.

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(iii) Practicing fish farming. The deliberate cultivation of fish and shell fish so as to meet the high
demands for fish.

(iv) To prevent discharge of untreated sewage and toxic industrial wastes into the rivers, lakes, seas to
avoid occurrence of Eutrophication and algal blooms.

ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN ORGANISMS.

Individuals do not live in isolation in a community, they continually interact with each other or form close
associations. These associations are divided into two categories,

(i) Intraspecific associations/interactions.

This is an association or relationship that may occur between organisms or individuals of the same
species. Most individuals of the same species have nothing or little to do with each during their lives.
However certain animals live in groups or colonies showing social organization. The two groups to have
developed this to high degree are insects and mammals. And social organizations are important in the
following ways,
- Ensures protection and care for the young ones.
- Group protection against predators.
- Promotes breeding among individual species.
- Search for food to feed the individual species.
- Improve communication among individuals.
-
(ii) Interspecific associations/interactions.
This is an association (relationship) that may occur between organisms or individuals of different species.
The close association between different species of organisms in which the body of one organism
generally provides the habitat for another is nowadays referred to as symbiosis. Organisms that do not
have to adopt a certain mode of life are described as facultative. Where as those compelled to follow a
particular mode of life are described as obligate.

INTERSPECIFIC ASSOCIATION /INTERACTIONS.

These include,
(i) Commensalism.
In this association one organism, the commensal gains while the host neither loses nor gains.

(ii) Mutualism.
In association both partners or organisms of different species benefit from the relationship.

(iii) Predation.
In this interspecific interaction in which one organism the predator kills another called the prey in order to
obtain food.
(iv) Competition.
This is an interspecific interaction where organisms of two or more different species try to obtain the
same limited resources. The relationship is harmful to both species.

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(v) Allelopathy.
This is an interspecific interaction in which one organism produces a chemical substance which has a
harmful effect on another organism of different species.

(v) Parasitism.
This is an association or relationship between two organisms of different species in which one organism,
the parasite lives temporarily or permanently in or on the other called the host, deriving benefit from it
and causing harm to it. In this case the parasite gains but the host loses. Parasitism can be broadly studied
such a study is referred to as parasitology.
NOTE: The major interspecific associations include Mutualism, commensalisms and parasitism.

PARASITISM.
The association between parasites and hosts can be divided into spatial and temporal relationships.
Spatial relationship refers to the part of the body of the host that is exploited by the parasite. Parasites
which live on the outer surface of a host are termed as ectoparasites for example ticks, fleas and leeches.
These parasites do not always live a fully parasitic existence.
The parasites that live within or inside the host are the endoparasites. For examples are plasmodium,
tapeworm Taenia and liver fluke Fasciola. Endoparasites can live in, or just beneath, the skin, others in
the gut, others in the tissue fluid between the cells called intercellular parasites, others penetrate
individual cells and are termed as

intracellular parasites, for example malarial parasite plasmodium.

Most parasites are endoparasites because the inside of the body provide an environment which is rich in
nutrients and not subjected to extremes of environmental conditions.

Temporal relationship refers to the time the parasite spends in or on its host. Parasites that never live their
hosts and live parasitically at all times is termed as obligate parasites. For example tapeworms,
phytophthora.

Parasites or organisms that live as parasites at one time but do not live parasitic life at another time, others
may live saprotrophically at later time, such are referred to as facultative parasites. Facultative parasites
may kill their hosts and then live saprotrophically. For example fungi Candida and Pythium. Other
facultative parasites are ectoparasites that attach themselves to the host when they are feeding such as
mosquitoes and Tsetse flies.
The main benefits gained by the parasite are shelter and food. But parasites can also harm the host. They
feed on and damage the tissues of the host causing death or serious injuries, they may secrete toxic
substances that may harm the hosts, they may simply feed on host‟s digested food as this cause least
harm.
Plants are parasitized mainly by fungi and bacteria, plants are poor hosts for invertebrates because,
- They remain in one position and so it is more difficult for the parasite to reach a new host.
- Their cellulose cell walls are difficult for animals to digest.
- They have few internal cavities suitable for parasites.
The most successful invertebrate parasites of plants are nematodes. In animals the habitats most used are,
- The body surfaces and its infoldings such as the buccal cavity, lungs, external gills and nostrils.

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 - The alimentary canal and its associated organs such as the liver and bile duct.
- Internal tissues such as blood and muscle.

TRANSMISSION OF PARASITES.
Parasites can enter into a new host by the following ways and these include,
(i) Parasites can lodge into tissues which are then eaten by the hosts. For example Taenia.
(ii) They can penetrate the skin or body surface of a new host after leaving an intermediate host
for example Schistosoma.
(iii)

(iv) Parasites can be injected by an intermediate host for example transmission of plasmodium by
the mosquitoes.
And when parasites are not on or in their hosts they can exist as, dormant stages, free living stages or in
intermediate hosts.
Endoparasites can also escape from their hosts through any one of the following ways,
- Escape through the air from the lungs.
- Passed in the faeces from the intestines for example the ascaris.
- Passed in urine from blood to the wall of a bladder for example schistosoma.
- Parasites can be sucked from the blood of an intermediate organisms for example plasmodium.
- Discharge larvae of the parasite through skin of the host.
- Disintegration of the host tissues after death releasing the parasites.
-
MAIN FEATURES OF THE PARASITES.
(i) Possession of attachment devices such as hooks and suckers.
(ii) Reduced or no digestive systems.
(iii) Have intermediate hosts or vectors.
(iv) Production of many eggs.
(v) Existence of dormant or resistant stages.
(vi) Protective devices covering the body surfaces.

ADAPTATIONS OF PARASITES TO LIVE IN IT,S ENVIRONMENT FOR ITS MODE OF

LIFE.
STRUCTURAL (MORPHOLOGICAL) ADAPTATIONS.
(i) Possession of devices for attachment especially ectoparasites to permit the parasite cling on or in the
host for example suckers and hooks. They are also responsible for attachment of scolex of the tapeworms.
(ii) Degeneration of certain unnecessary organ systems for example digestive system is reduced or absent,
absence of well developed locomotory system. This reduces the energy requirements of the parasite.
(iii) Change in body shape for example laterally compressed body to enable them move freely like fleas
moving freely within the forest of the hair. Dorso-laterally compressed body to enable them squeeze in
narrow cracks to get access to the host like in bed bugs. Flattened body of the tapeworm increases surface
area for absorption of digested soluble foods of digestion.
(iv) Possession of penetrative devices for entering into the host and its cells for example the miracidium
larva of the liver fluke possesses glands that enable the bore into the snail.

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(v) Gut parasites have protective devices which prevent the body being harmed by the host‟s digestive
processes. In the same way, the bacterial capsule gives protection against the host‟s phagocytes making
them more difficult to ingest.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS OF PARASITES.

(i) Secretion of protective devices to prevent distraction by the host defence mechanisms for example
replacement of surface epithelium by a resistant cuticle. This contains substances which are not
hydrolysed by pepsin and trypsin for example round worms (Ascaris lumbricoides), Schistomes absorb
glycolipids from the host tissue and thus prevent immunological attack.
(ii) Secretion of enzymes that can digest body tissues of the host to permit easy penetration. For example
a number of parasitic fungi secrete cellulase at the tips the hyphae enabling penetration into the host‟s
cells. Parasitic bacteria produce enzymes called aggressins which dissolve connective tissue and enable
them penetrate the host tissues and digestive enzymes secreted by the glands of miracidia of Schistosoma
species.
(iii) High affinity of haemoglobin in the parasite for oxygen where oxygen partial pressures are generally
low.
(iv) Development of dormant or resistant phases to overcome in favourable periods away from the host
for example eggs which are produced in the resistant cuticles to withstand adverse environments for
example in ascaris lumbricoides.
(v) Secretion of large quantities of mucus and production of inhibitor substances which locally inactivate
the host‟s digestive enzymes.
(vi) Production of chemicals which protect them against the host‟s defence mechanisms for example the
blood fluke Schistosoma synthesizes substances which switch off the host‟s immune system, the parasite
coats itself with molecules which the host recognizes as “self”.

OTHER ADAPTATIONS.
These are seemingly behavioral adaptations which are aimed at increasing chances of infections of the
prospective hosts these include,
(i) Production of large numbers of eggs for example Taenia solium. In addition to many eggs they have
more efficient means of fertilization by becoming haemophrodites and undergoing self fertilization.
(ii) Use of a vector or intermediate host either as a means of entering the primary host or surviving when
primary host is not available i.e the malarial parasite can not enter man unless injected by mosquitoes.
(iii) Localisation in areas where they can easily be extracted by the host for example parasites of the
genital system for example Candida albicanes.
(iv) Close association between the female and male sexes for example Schistosoma mansoni and
haematobium. This removes the need to look for the mate.
(v) Assumption of the body colour of the host for example bed bugs, fleas, lice and ticks. This gives them
protective camouflage.
(vi) Some parasitic bacteria allow themselves to be ingested by the host‟s phagocytes which convey them
to other parts of the body without killing them.
(vii) Some parasites are so closely linked with the host that their tissues are actually connected for
example certain plant parasites plug into other plants and tap off nutrients from the host‟s vascular tissues.
For example dodder (Cuscuta)

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EFFECTS OF PARASITES ON HOSTS.
(i) Causes diseases to the host for example plasmodium parasites cause malaria to the host.
(ii) Deprives the host of its food/nutrients for example Tapeworm, taenia.
(iii) Cause damage to the cells for example giggers, parasitic Phytophthora infestans causing damping off
in seedlings.
(iv) Suck blood from their hosts causing anemia.
(v) Transmit diseases for example Trypanosoma cause of sleeping.
(vi) May cause intestinal obstructions (Blockage of intestines) for example the Ascaris lumbricoides
(Round worms).
(vii) Produce toxins which may interfere with normal functioning of body. For example
Trypanosomes, flagellated protests.
(viii) The tiny larvae of Filarial worms (Wuchereria bancrofti) a nematode transmitted by mosquitoes,
invade lymphatics where they mature into adult into adult worms. These increase in size and numbers
to block the lymph vessels, this causes excessive growth of the tissues in the infected areas resulting
into enormous enlargement of the body extremeties particularly legs, breasts, scrotum, this is a
condition known as elephantiasis.
(ix) A parasitic crustacean that attacks the shore crab carcinus. When the crab moults following
infection, it changes its sexual features, the males develops into females, while the females change
towards juvenile type lacking gonads, this condition is referred to as Parasitic castration. In this
case parasites seem to interfere with the host‟s hormonal balance.

ADVANTAGES OF PARASITIC MODE OF LIFE.

(i) There is constant food supply for parasites.
(ii) No need to store food.
(iii) Relatively constant environment, so are protected from climatic extremes especially endoparasites.
(iv) Parasites are protected from predation.
(v) Degeneration of many systems in parasites and simplified form means less energy required to
maintain themselves and allow rapid development.

LIFE CYCLES AND ADAPTATIONS OF SOME ENDOPARASITES.

(a) TAPE WORM (TAENIA).
CHARACTERISTICS.
- Body is dorso-ventrally flattened.
- Body is segmented.
- Reproduce asexually.
- It is hermaphrodite.
EXTERNAL FEATURES OF TAPEWORM.

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ADAPTATIONS OF TAPEWORM.
(i) Carries out anaerobic respiration hence can tolerate areas of low oxygen tension.
(ii) Has tiny head (scolex) bearing four suckers and two rows of hooks on the rostellum for firm
attachment on the host.
(iii) Undergoes a period of dormancy in its life cycle as cysticercus to overcome adverse environmental
conditions.
(iv) Body dorso-ventrally flattened and thin to increase surface area for absorption of food from the host
and to be easily accommodated within the host.
(v) It is hermophriditic for fast and easy multiplication as it does not require a sex partners because it
carries out self fertilization.
(vi) Produces large number of eggs to spread fast since it has a short life span.
(vii) Makes use of intermediate host in its life cycle to serve as vectors to primary host.
(viii) Body covered with resistant cuticle for protection against the digestive enzymes of the host.
(ix) Has ability to regenerate itself to ensure continued survival.
(x) Usually not more than one parasite on a host to avoid intraspecific competition and avoid
over harming the host to an extend of killing it.

LIFE CYCLE OF A TAPEWORM.

There are two stages in the life cycle of the tapeworm.
Larval stage develops in tissues of the pigs and the adult worm develops in the intestines of human
beings.
Adult Taenia lays eggs which are ingested in faeces by the pigs or cattle. The eggs hatch into larvae
(Oncosphere) which is carried in blood circulation to lodge into the tissues. The larvae develop into cyst.
When poorly cooked meat or pork is eaten by humans, the cyst reaches the intestines and develops into
adult tapeworm which when mature begins to lay eggs.

EFFECT OF THE PARASITE ON THE HOST.

Causes epileptic seizure due to toxic effects of the larvae (oncosphere) lodging in the brain and the heart.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES.
(i) Eat well cooked pork or beef.
(ii) Mass education or sensitization of the public.
(iii) Proper disposal of wastes.
(iv) Drinking safe water.
(v) Regular dewarming.
(vi) Treatment of victims.
(vii) Preventing children from playing with dirt/soil.
Note: T. saginata does not have hooks, only uses suckers and does not affect the brain.

HOOK WORMS (ROUND WORMS).

There are two common species of hook worms.
(i) Ancylostoma duodenalis.
(ii) Necater Americans.
(iii) Ascaris lumbricoides.

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 ADAPTATION OF THE HOOKWORMS.
(i) Produce large number of eggs to increase chances of survival.
(ii) Respire anaerobically due to lack of oxygen in the gut of humans.
(iii) Resistant to digestion by body enzymes.
(iv) Presence of cuticle covering the body surface to avoid enzymatic action onto them.
(v) Have sharp teeth/mouth parts for cutting tissues and sucking blood from the host.
(vi) Feeds on already digested food from the host.
(vii) It shows degeneration of organs, reducing high energy demands.
(viii) Have strong teeth for grasping the walls of the small intestine.
(ix) They occur in large numbers to increase chances for survival.

LIFE CYCLE.
The eggs are passed in faeces onto the soil. The eggs hatch into larvae and then undergo series of
developmental stages. The larvae attach on the skin and penetrate through the skin into blood stream. It is
carried into the lungs and then through trachea to reach the buccal cavity. In the buccal cavity the larvae
which is mixed with mucus is swallowed to reach the intestines where it develops into an adult
hookworm.

EFFECT OF THE PARASITE ON THE HOST.

(i) When the worms enter the skin, they cause itching or water sores and inflammation on the feet.
(ii) Burrowing in the lungs may cause infections in the lungs, which may result into pneumonia.
(iii) Causes nausea (feeling like vomitting).
(iv) Causes abdominal discomfort.
(v) Causes iarrhoea.
In children, it causes,
- Swollen abdomen.
- Irregular heart beat (palsipitation)
- Loss of weight.

PREVENTION.
- Proper disposal of wastes.
- Drinking clean and safe water.
- Regular dewarming.
- Mass public Education and sensitization.
- Preventing children to play with dirty soil.

PLASMODIUM (MALARIAL PARASITE).

TRANSMISSION OF THE DISEASE.
Malaria is an infection/disease caused by the plasmodium parasite. It is the most important killer disease
in tropical regions.
Malaria is transmitted by a vector (a disease transmitting organism). The vector of the malaria is the
female anopheles mosquitoes. The female anopheles mosquitoes breed in stagnant waters, or waters
which collect on leaves, ponds, broken tins and pots, etc.

THE LIFE CYCLE OF THE MALARIAL PARASITE (PLASMODIUM)

Pre- erythrocytic cycle. Is an asexual cycle that occurs in the human liver. Following a bite by an
infected mosquito, the plasmodium parasites inform of slender sporozoites are introduced into blood
stream of human. The sporozoites circulate in blood circulation; the sporozoites invade the liver cells and
reproduces rapidly by schizogony to form the numerous merozoites. The enlarged liver bursts, releasing

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the merozoites in the blood. Some merozoites invades and enters into red blood cells while others
reinvades the liver cells.
Erythrocytic cycle. Is an asexual cycle that occurs in the human blood stream. The merozoites invade the
red blood cells. The red blood cells have receptors which attract them. In the red blood cells they feed on
haemoglobin they grow and develop to form trophozoites which appear ringed, the trophozoites further
grows and develops to form schizonts, the numerous schizonts cause the red blood cells to burst and
release more merozoites, some merozoites invade more red blood cells while others are transformed into
sexual forms (gametocytes) they are male gametes (spermatozoa and female gametes (egg cells). The
release of more merozoites occurs at regular 48 or 72 hours intervals and is accompanied by attacks of
high fever. The gametocytes will not develop further unless sucked up into stomach of mosquitoes of the
genus Anopheles when they bite an infected person.

Sexual cycle occurs in mosquito (vector).

In the stomach of the mosquito, eggs and motile sperms are liberated and fertilization takes place to form
a motile zygote (cyst). The zygotes spherical at first, acquires a vermiform shape which enables them to
penetrate into the stomach wall of the mosquito and form on the outer surface wart like cysts. Some
migrate upto the thoracic part of the mosquito. Within each cyst rapid asexual multiplication takes place
forming thousands of slender sporozoites. The cysts rupture releasing several slender sporozoites that
migrate to the mosquito‟s salivary glands. When such infected female anopheles mosquito bites an
individual, they inject into the human bloodstream the sporozoites which then circulate in the bloodstream
to invade the liver, thus completing the cycle.
Under heavy infections large numbers of red blood cells are destroyed. The major consequences of
malaria is anaemia, a lot of byproducts are also released for example proteins, hormones and these leads
to fever or chills felt by the individual.

LIFE CYCLE OF PLASMODIUM.

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ADAPTATIONS OF THE PLASMODIUM (MALARIAL PARASITE) TO PARASITIC MODE OF
LIFE.
(i) Has a short life cycle for rapid population increase.
(ii) Have both sexual and asexual reproductive stages in its life cycles, asexual reproduction
ensures rapid increase in numbers.
(iii) Encysted zygotes survival in harsh environmental conditions.
(iv) Infects liver and red blood cells to obtain nutrients to increase their chances of survival.
(v) Exist in different generations to increase their chances for survival.
(vi) Tiny and slender to feed on small amounts of food and can survive in large numbers within a
cell.
(vii) Vermiform shape of zygote to bore into the walls of the stomach.
(viii) Motile male gametes increasing the chances of fertilizing the eggs.
(ix) Motile zygotes that enable the offsprings to move to sites where they can obtain nutrients and
survive.

SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS OF THE MALARIA.

- Head ache.
- Pain in the joints.
- Shivering.
- Vomitting.
- Loss of apetite.
- High temperatures.
- Feeling cold.
- Dizzyness.
- Stomach ache.
- General body weakness.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES.
- Use of anti-malarial drugs.
- Sleeping under treated mosquito nets.
- Closing doors and windows before dusk.
- Clearing the bush.
- Spraying the nearby vegetation by DDT.
- Draining stagnant waters.
Despite the preventive measures, malaria is still the most hazardous disease in Africa. This is of because
the following reasons,
- Lack of money in many rural areas to buy the effective anti-malarial drugs.
- Wide use of ineffective and expired drugs.
- Drug abuse and mis-use of the anti-malarial drugs. Some patients do not take treatment of malaria
according to the doctor‟s prescription.
- Many people do not sleep under treated mosquito nets.
- Tropical climate favour breeding cycles of the plasmodium parasites.
- Lack of knowledge about the causes, infection and preventive measures.
- Lack proper hygiene and sanitation.

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THE LIFE CYCLE OF LIVER FLUKE (Fasciola hepatica)
The adult flukes live in the bile passages of sheep where it reproduces sexually producing numerous
encapsulated zygotes. These zygotes give rise to ciliated miracidium larva which swim through water
onto the ground. The miracidium then penetrates the fleshy foot of the snail (Limaea truncatula) where it
forms sporocysts. Inside the sporocyst special cells divide to form rediae larvae which burrow into the
liver of the snail feeding on the tissues. Inside each redia, special propagatory cells divide to give rise to
either more redia or numerous cercariae larvae. The cercariae leave the snail and encyst on blades of
grass. When sheep graze, it consumes it. The encysted cercariae

bursts open to release a small immature fluke which migrates from the sheep,s gut into the liver. In the
liver it feeds and grows to maturity thus completing the cycle.

THE HUMAN BLOOD FLUKE (SCHISTOSOMA).

Three species of blood fluke are endoparasites of man, Schistosoma mansoni which is prevalent in South
America, S. haemotobium which occurs in Africa, S. japonicum occurs in the Far East Asia.
THE LIFE CYCLE OF BLOOD FLUKE (SCHISTOSOMA).
Blood fluke is a close relative of the liver fluke, it lives in the blood vessels associated with the intestine
and urinary systems. In the urinary or intestinal blood vessels, the flukes reproduce sexually since the
male and female flukes live always in pairs. Large number of eggs is laid and released into the intestine or
bladder by rupture of the blood vessels. These eggs are passed in faeces or urine. If the eggs get in contact
with water, the eggs release ciliated miracidia which bores into the tissues of a certain fresh water snail,
the intermediate host. Within the snail the miracidia form sporocysts which reproduce internally to form
numerous cercariae similar to those produced by the liver fluke. Cercaria production may continue for
several weeks with very many produced by a single sporocyst per day. The cercariae leave snail and swim
through the water and when they find humans as the second host, they penetrate through the skin by use
of special glands or they can be consumed in drinking water. Once in circulation the cercariae develop
into adult flukes.

ADAPTATIONS OF SCHISTOSOMA.
(i) Most developed resistance to anti-parasitic medicine.
(ii) They live in blood vessels associated with the intestines and urinary system where they
reproduce sexually.
(iii) Large number of eggs is released into the intestine or bladder by ruptures of the blood vessels
for rapid multiplication.
(iv) They have miracidia that can penetrate into snails as vectors to ensure survival and continuity
in their life cycle.
(v) Formation of sporocysts which form numerous cercariae which have a high reproductive rate.
(vi) Cercariae have glands for piercing the skin.
(vii) They have ventral structures and mouth, the mouth has feeding devices.
(viii) Are always found in pairs of male and females to effect sexual reproduction cycle and ensure
a high reproductive rate.
Blood flukes cause Schistosomiasis known as Bilharzia. The symptoms of the infection include,
- Skin rush.
- Bronchial cough.

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 - Sickness.
- Anaemia.
- Abdominal pain and Diarrhoea.
- Weakness and emaciation.
- And if the condition is not treated, death of the victim occurs.

CAUSE/SPREAD OF THE DISEASE.

- Caused by people drinking or bathing with contaminated water with cercariae/ drinking unsafe
water/ Use of contaminated for irrigation purposes.
- Swimming, washing or playing in river waters contaminated with cercariae.
- Urinating or defaecating into streams, rivers or lakes.
- Use of human faeces as fertilizers.

CONTROL MEASURES.
- Administering certain drugs for treatment of Bilharzia at an early stage of infection.
- Spraying vegetation near water bodies like rivers, lakes with molluscicides, chemicals that kill
snails.
- Practicing biological control methods by introducing ducks that feed on snails/ Snails can be
trapped by placing canvas sheet across the river.
- Human faeces fertilizers must first be thoroughly dried before use.
- Farm laborers working in the rice fields must wear protective clothing or gears to prevent getting
into contact with the cercariae in waters in the swamps.
- Drinking water should be chlorinated to kill the cercariae.
- Proper hygiene such as proper disposition of faeces into pit latrines.
- Swimming or bathing in dirty river waters or in lakes should be avoided.
- Education and sensitization of the masses about causes, dangers and control of bilharzia be
encouraged.

TICKS (ECTOPARASITE).
A tick is an ectoparasite of mainly mammals.
ADAPTATIONS OF TICKS TO PARASITIC MODE OF LIFE /NUTRITION.
(i) Hypostome has several rows of curved hook like teeth which enable tick to hold firmly onto
the host/Strong hooked jaws for attachment on host.
(ii) Tough exoskeleton prevents physical injury.
(iii) Mouth parts are modified into strong piercing organs or hypostomes for piercing the host‟s
skin.
(iv) Extensible abdomen can accommodate large quantity of blood.
(v) They are very sensitive to the presence of hosts.
(vi) Can survive for several days without feeding.
(vii) Have hard or tough article which is resistant to mechanical injury and dehydration.
(viii) They produce large number of eggs.
(ix) Have a dull colour for camouflage.
(x) Able to climb and perch on vegetation.

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EFFECTS OF THE PARASITE TO ITS HOST.
(i) Physical discomfort and irritation.
(ii) Transmits disease to host such as east coast fever.
(iii) Causes blood loss from host.
(iv) Damage host skin by biting.
(v) Open wounds which become sites of secondary infection.

PHYTOPHTHORA INFESTANS (PARASITIC FUNGI).

Is a facultative parasitic fungus causing a potato blight disease.

STRUCTURE OF PHYTOPHTHORA INFESTANS.

The fungus consists of an intercellular network called mycelium. A mycelium of branched, aseptate
slender filaments known as hyphae which grow and spreads through the intercellular spaces of the leaves
of the plant, giving off short side branches (haustoria) into the cells.
Haustoria form the intracellular part of the parasite. They penetrate the cellulose walls and mesophyll
cells of the host‟s cells by secreting cellulase at their tips. Once inside the cell they develop finger like
haustoria which secrete digestive enzymes. These digest carbohydrates to form soluble products. The
soluble products are absorbed and sent back to the rest of the mycelium.
Sporangiophores branch and grow out of the stomata to give rise to sporangia. Sporangia produce
spores/zoospores which can be splashed onto other plants causing infections to take place.

PARASITIC FUNGI (PHYTOPHTHORA INFESTANS).

ADAPTATIONS OF THE PHYTOPHTHORA INFESTANS (POTATO BLIGHT).

(i) Secretion of digestive enzymes that digests the host cells/carbohydrates to release nutrients
for the parasitic fungi.
(ii) It has a flexible, slender and long hyphae to penetrate and reach most of the host cells.
(iii) They secrete cellulose enzyme at their tips to soften cellulose for their penetration into the
host cell.
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(iv) They produce small and light spores which can be easily dispersed by wind from one host to another.
(v) Development of the haustoria with large surface areas for absorption of soluble products of digestion
(nutrients) and specialized penetrating structure.
(vi) Sporangia produce spores for fast growth and rapid multiplication of the parasite so as colonize host
rapidly.
(vii) Zoospores/encysted spores withstand adverse environmental conditions like very cold conditions.
(viii)

EFFECTS OF THE ORGANISMS ON THEIR HOSTS.

(i) Conges stomata and intercellular air spaces, this prevents entry of essential gases like carbondioxide
for photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. Rate of transpiration is lowered which interferes with
transport of water and mineral salts within the plant.
(ii) Digest cells causing death of host tissues, producing brown spots that spread further. Heavy infections
cause blackened, smelly mass and brown tissues.

CONTROL METHODS OF THE PHYTOPHTHORA INFESTANS.

(i) Infected tubers must not be planted and all tubers should be lifted out of the field.
(ii) New plant materials must not be planted in soil known to have carried the disease previously or
practice crop rotation.
(iii) Diseased parts of the infected plant should be destroyed by burning or spraying with corrosive
solution of sulphuric acid. And spraying should be timely.
(iv) Growing plants must be sprayed with fungicides like Bordeaux to destroy the disease or tubers. The
tubers can also be sterilized externally by immersion in a dilute mercury (ii) chloride.
(v) Breeding for resistance to the potato blight should be conducted.

WITCH WEED (Striga asiatica).

Is a parasite of cereals and grasses.

ADAPTATIONS FOR THE PARASITIC MODE OF LIFE.

(i) Produce large numbers of tiny seeds for rapid multiplication.
(ii) Seeds can remain dormant in the soil for a long time to survive adverse environmental conditions.
(iii) Germination occurs in the variety of the host stimulated by exudates from the host, increasing chances
for survival of the parasite.
(iv) Seedlings quickly get attached to the host plants, increasing its chances of survival.
(v) A vascular connection is established between Striga seedlings and the host plants to enable the
parasitic plant to obtain water and nutrients.
(vi) They are green and photosynthetic.

EFFECTS ON THE HOST.

(i) Causes host plant to show symptoms of nutrient deficiency or starvation.
(ii) Causes water stress and stunted growth.
(iii) They compete with the host plant for light.
(iv) They lead to poor crop yield.

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