Course : GEOP3000 Earthquakes and Society

Instructor : M. Younis Khan

 Earth’s Structure

Table: The average densities <σ > in kg/m

(Adapted from Keary and Vine (1990).

Figure: Cross-section of a segment of the Earth showing major first-order

internal subdivisions in composition and mechanical or rheological properties.
Plate boundaries and the concept of stress and strain at the regional to local
scale

Earth’s lithosphere is made up of a series of plates that

float on the mantle. Scientists think the convection of
the mantle causes these plates to move,
triggering earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain-building
events, or trench formation. These plates creep along
at a rate of approximately five to 10 centimeters (two to
four inches) per year.
Types of plate boundaries
These plates move in primarily three main ways. They
slide past one another along transform (strike-slip)
boundaries, they push against each other at
convergent boundaries, or pull away in opposite
directions at divergent boundaries. Each one of these
interactions creates different types of landforms. For
example, the steady pressure of the Indian Plate and
the Eurasian Plate built the Himalaya mountains and
the Plateau of Tibet. The divergent boundary between
the African Plate and the Arabian Plate formed the Red
Sea.
Tectonic plates and movement
 Stress vs Strain Relationships
 Stress is a force applied per unit area. Force applied to change
the size or shape of a material.
 Strain is the associated deformation (Unitless).

 Elastic deformation is a reversible (non-permanent) change in volume of

shape. When the stress is removed, the solid returns to its original shape and
size. Sir Robert Hooke (1635-1703) demonstrated that a plot of stress vs strain for
material behaving in an elastic fashion is a straight line, as shown in the figure to
the right. There exists, however, a limiting stress, known as the elastic limit (point
Z), beyond which a solid suffers permanent deformation and does not return to its
original shape.
 Ductile deformation is an irreversible change in size and/or shape in solids that
have been stressed beyond the elastic limit. If the stress is removed at point X', the
material will partially return to its original shape -- a permanent strain, equal to XY,
has been introduced into the material.
 Fracture occurs in a solid when the limits of both elastic and ductile deformation
are exceeded. A material is said to be brittle when it deforms by fracture
(breaking). Different materials have different stress-strain relationships. Elastic
materials such as rubber are dominated by the elastic portion of the
curve. Materials such as wood have some elastic properties and virtually no region
of ductile character. Common rocks exhibit elastic and ductile behavior before
ultimately breaking by brittle fracture.
 Faults and Factures
Fractures are simply cracks in the crust where there is no movement. Faults are classified according to
the direction of relative movement along the fault.
Feet
lie
strikes
Normal
Catpel
 What is an Earthquake? Main, fore- and aftershock?

 An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by

the rapid release of energy which often happens when
two blocks of rocks move past each other.
 The released energy radiates in all directions causing
destructions at the surface.
 Present is the Key to the Past. Faults suggest that an
earthquake happened.
2mainparameter
magnitude
time
 Seismology and seismogram
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seismography

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 Seismic wave types
 Body waves: Traveling through the interior of the earth, body
waves arrive before the surface waves emitted by an earthquake.
These waves are of a higher frequency than surface waves but lower Printer
amplitudes.
body waves
 P wave or primary wave. the fastest kind of seismic wave. the
same spring
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first to 'arrive' at a seismic station. The P wave can move
through solid rock and fluids. It pushes and pulls the rock it
moves through just like sound waves push and pull the air.
particles move in the same direction that the wave is moving in

 S wave or secondary wave. the second wave you feel in an

earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only
move through solid rock, not through any liquid medium. It is
secod.veIt
this property of S waves that led seismologists to conclude that
the Earth's outer core is a liquid. S waves move rock particles mn
up and down SV, or side-to-side VH--perpendicular to the
direction that the wave is traveling in
 29/Sep/24
Seismic wave types Link
 Surface waves: Travelling only through the crust, surface
waves are of a lower frequency than body waves and are easily
distinguished on a seismogram as a result. Though they arrive after
body waves, it is surface waves that are almost entirely responsible
for the damage and destruction associated with earthquakes. This
damage and the strength of the surface waves are reduced in deeper
earthquakes.
 LOVE WAVES. The first kind of surface wave. It's the fastest
surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side. Confined
to the surface of the crust, Love waves produce entirely
horizontal motion.
 Rayleigh wave. A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just
like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, it
moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same
direction that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from
an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be much
larger than the other waves.
 Earthquake records
 A seismogram is a record written by a seismograph in response to ground motions produced by an earthquake,
explosion, or other ground-motion sources.
 A seismograph is an instrument for measuring earthquake (seismic) waves. They are held in a very solid position,
either on the bedrock or on a concrete base. The seismometer itself consists of a frame and a mass that can move
relative to it.
 An example of earthquake record is shown below from the station (seismograph). Link
Parameters related to Earthquake records
Basic parameters related to Earthquake
Basic parameters related to Earthquake records
 What determines seismic velocities

 Stress & Strain

 Stress = force/area
– So both force and area of contact are important
– Stress: Pascals = Kg⋅m-1⋅s-2
– Types: tension, compression, shear

 Strain = Δl/l
– Measures change in size/shape (i.e. deformation)
– Dimensionless (i.e. it is a percent).
– Types: extension/dilatation, contraction, shear Elastic
modulus

 Most scientists agree that stress causes strain

 Elastic means : you can deform it, and it springs back to its
original when you let go

 Modulus (elastic): It expresses the ratio of a particular type

of stress to the resultant strain.

Imagine stretching a block of rubber,

like the picture here.

 If you measure the stress F/W2 (i.e. the pressure is force per
unit of cross-sectional area) and strain ΔL/L (the stretch as a
proportion) along the direction of stretch ('longitudinally’)

 then the stress/strain ratio gives you Young's modulus, E

•Shear modulus, a measure of shear elasticity. Bulk modulus, a measure of volumetric elasticity.

w
Seismic Velocity and its relationship with elastic moduli
Why do earthquakes Occur?

Ring of fire
 Why earthquakes Occur?
Ring of fire
 Plate tectonic the main driving force causing
earthquakes. link
 Most earthquakes occur along plate
boundaries, however, there are significant
number of intraplate earthquakes.
 Areas with frequent number of earthquake are
known as active seismic zones.
 Volcanic activity are also associated with
earthquakes.
 Meteorite impact can cause earthquake
depending on the size of the impact.
 Explosions- Beirut (Lebanon) explosion in 2020
caused an earthquake of magnitude 4. link
Notice that in all these
 Drilling and pumping activities into the activities the energy is
subsurface. Changing pore-pressure might released suddenly
case collapse and faults, producing variable
magnitude earthquakes.
 Classification of earthquake

 Earthquake happens in the earth crust

and the upper part of the mantle.
 Deeper earthquakes usually have lower
destructive power than shallower
earthquakes regardless of their
magnitude. (attenuation of waves and
geometrical spreading). link
 Seismic station
 Nowadays seismic station are self-operational. They
send data continuously to the observation offices
(Earthquake monitoring center at SQU). The data are
recorded digitally (No paper).
 They are broadband system which can record a wide
spectrum of frequencies.
 Oman seismic monitoring network

 Expanding every year and works jointly with other networks

(e.g. UAE)
 We will have a visit to their offices (SQU) – Virtual visit. I record
you watch!

Link

Why there are few stations in the central part of

Oman? Aseismic zone and low-density population.
 Seismic map of Oman
1. Events are color-coded based on their magnitudes.
2. Compare between location of plate boundaries and the distribution of earthquakes surrounding Oman (Deif et al., 2012).
 Seismic map of Oman
 Oman is considered aseismic zone.
 Most of the active seismic zones are located along
the plate boundaries.
 Major earthquakes affecting Oman are originated in
the subduction zone between Arabian plate and
the Euro-Asian Plate. Zagros belt and Makran trench
 Risk of high horizontal acceleration maps (Hazard
map). The higher the m/s2 the higher the hazard.
These maps are generated using advanced
seismological techniques.

Hazard Map
Earthquake impacts on society are always negative?
Positive impacts of Earthquake on society?
Positive impacts of Earthquake on society?