Advanced Research Skills Prof.

Khadija Sekkal

What is Research?

Progress in any domain of knowledge, be it natural science, applied science or social

science does not happen without research. So, let us find out what is research according to
different scholars.

Etymologically speaking, the earliest recorded use of the term ‘research’, according to
Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (2011), was in 1577. The word is derived from the
Middle French ‘recherche’, which means ’to go about seeking’, the term itself being derived
from the Old French term ‘recerchier’, a compound word from re- + cerchier, or ’searcher’.

According to Grinnell (1993, as cited in Kumar, 2011), the term research is

composed of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary defines the

former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a
verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try or to
probe. Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic,
patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge undertaken
to establish facts or principles (p. 7).

Research is a process of creating new knowledge and finding solutions/answers to

problems. it is "a systematic process of discovery and advancement of human
knowledge"(Gratton and Jones, 2009, p. 4) that makes use of a planned, organized structure to
reach valid, reliable conclusions. Besides being systematic and using a structured inquiry,
Kerlinger and Lee (2000) asserts that research is also "controlled, empirical, and critical
investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed
relations among such phenomena" (p. 14). This implies that research is not an easy task;
however, it necessitates great care and thoroughness. In this context, Creswell (2015) states
that

[r]esearch is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to

increase our understanding of a topic or issue. It consists of three steps:
Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer
to the question (p. 3).

In fact, many scholars define the term ‘research’ differently, but they bring out the idea
that research involves several interrelated steps. It is a series of procedures that should be
followed in order to generate effective results. It is the scientific process of gathering,
analyzing, and interpreting data to solve problems, to expand or verify the existing knowledge,
to discover new facts, and to invent for the purpose of preserving and/or improving the quality
of human life.

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Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

Research Characteristics and Requirements

It is clear that research is a process for collecting, analyzing and interpreting

information to answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain
characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be:

Purposive: any good research must have a definite purpose and must be focused. A statement
of the purpose of the study guides in the achievement of the research objective.

Objective: results should be objective based on facts resulting from the active data and not
from subjectivity or emotional values.

Rigorous: you must be painstaking in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers
to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.

Systematic: this implies that the procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a
certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others.

Valid and verifiable: this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your
findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.

Empirical: this means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered
from information collected from real-life experiences or observations.

Critical: critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from any drawbacks.
The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

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Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

Sources of knowledge

There are three sources of knowledge:

1- Personal experience: this may be through the use of our senses, interacting with our peers,
family, customs and traditions and even experts in various fields.
2- Reasoning: it is the use of logic, and there are two main methods of reasoning: deductive
and inductive.
3- Scientific inquiry: this refers to collection, analysis, and interpretation of data.
These three categories are complementary and overlapping.

1- Personal Experience

a) Sensory Experience: the basic method of acquiring knowledge is through the five senses
of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching.
b) Authority: people in authority have a lot of influence on the people who follow them, and
they are assumed to have a better understanding of the world around them. People in authority
include religious leaders, political leaders, village elders, and opinion shapers.
c) Tenacity: this knowledge is based on superstition or habit. In tenacity, a person believes
that something is true even with availability of contradicting evidence.
d) Supernatural Sources: there are certain individuals who are assumed to possess
supernatural powers like medicine men, diviners......
e) Intuition (6th Sense):it is relying on our instincts to guide us.
f) Public Opinions: this source is based on the opinions of others. For instance, a majority
vote in a meeting is no guarantee that the majority have made the right decision, or a skin care
product that works on one person is not a guarantee that it will work on another person.
g) Expert Opinion: every discipline has experts; lawyers are in the legal field, doctors and
pharmacists in the medical field and teachers in the education field. These experts are
consulted based on what one wants to find out. What experts know is primarily based on what
they have learned from reading and reasoning, from listening to and observing others, and
from their own experience. No expert, however, has studied or experienced all there is to
know in a given field, and thus like everybody else, experts can be mistaken.
h) Culture: it represents shared norms, values, traditions, and customs of a group that
typically define and guide appropriate and inappropriate attitudes and behaviors. Much of
what we think we know is influenced by our cultures.

2- Reasoning

Reasoning is the ability to think logically, and this is one aspect that differentiates
human beings from animals. There are two main types of reasoning.

a) Deductive reasoning
b) Inductive reasoning

NOTE: Deduction and induction are the two approaches used in testing and building theories
respectively.

a) Deductive Reasoning: it was introduced by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC.).
Deductive reasoning can be described as thinking from general to specific. In other words, a
person starts with a general statement, follows formal steps of logic to a deduction of a valid
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particular conclusion. The final statement is normally the conclusion while the rest is called
premises because they offer supporting evidence. For instance, “all animals have four legs
(major premise), dogs are animals (minor premise); therefore, all dogs have four legs
(conclusion)”. Deductive reasoning is for theory testing.

b) Inductive Reasoning: it was challenged by Francis Bacon (1561-1626) who argued that
the preconceived premises resulted into biased conclusions. He held that a thinker should base
their conclusions on what they have gathered through observation but not being enslaved by
premises handed down as absolute truth. Francis thus proposed inductive reasoning which is
reasoning from particular to general. For instance, Socrates is mortal (specific). Alexander is
mortal (specific). Pluto is mortal (specific). All men are mortal (general). Inductive is used for
theory development.

Inductive vs. Deductive Method

In inductive research, the goal of a researcher is to infer theoretical concepts and

patterns from observed data. In deductive research, the goal of the researcher is to test
concepts and patterns known from theory using new empirical data.
Hence, inductive research is called theory-building research, and deductive
research is theory-testing research. Here that the goal of theory-testing is not just to test a
theory but possibly to refine, improve and extend it.
Using deductive reasoning, one starts with a given theory as the basis from which we
develop hypotheses and then confirm these with specific data acquired using survey,
observation, or experimentation (Is our theory valid or not?)
Using inductive reasoning, one starts with a specific observation as the basis for which
we develop a general pattern and tentative hypothesis as the foundation of a theory.

3- Scientific inquiry

Scientific inquiry or research is based on the inductive and/or deductive model.

Research is regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth, and it
combines both experience and reasoning. It differs from both in that it is systematic, scientific,
objective, and empirical basing its operations on inductive-deductive model.

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Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

Research Philosophy/ Paradigms

A research paradigm is a set of beliefs or philosophical assumptions that guide a

researcher when conducting a study (Creswell, 1998). It can also be referred to as a
worldview assumption. Paradigms emerged from opposing views about

•The nature of knowledge (epistemology)

• The nature of reality (ontology)
• The role of values (axiology)

Therefore, paradigms are grouped based on their philosophical frameworks defined by

the assumptions researchers make about the nature of knowledge, the nature of reality, and the
role of values.

Many paradigms have been proposed by researchers, but four main taxonomies,
Positivist, Interpretivist, and Critical paradigms, suggested by Candy (1989), and the
Pragmatic paradigm, suggested by several researchers including Tashakkori and Teddlie
(2003), are discussed below.

1- Positivism

Ontological assumption: the first assumption that positivists make is that there is one
objective reality that the researcher wishes to describe, and this reality is independent of the
observer. The reality is discovered through scientific research methods. This is done by
breaking complex phenomena (social problems) into small elements.
Epistemological assumption: positivists do not recognize the influence of the
investigator/researcher on the research. The researcher maintains a distance between him/her
and the researched.
Axiological assumption: positivists do not allow researchers to bring in their bias into
the research process.
The framework is mostly used by researchers who take a purely quantitative approach
to research. Some authors refer to this philosophy as scientific realism.

2- Interpretivism/naturalistic/constructivism/social contructivism

Ontological assumption: interpretivism argues that human beings construct their

worlds or social entities differently because realities are multiple. Therefore, the social world
cannot be studied in the same way as the physical phenomena.
Epistemological assumption: for this to happen, the researcher must lessen the distance
between them and the participants. They must interact to allow the researcher to see the world
through the eyes of the participant. This approach requires the use of data collection methods
that bring them closer such as in-depth interviews, observation, videos, and pictures.
Axiological assumption: the scientific inquiry in the framework is value laden
meaning that the research process is influenced by the researcher and by the context under
study. Each individual is allowed to describe the phenomena in accordance to their personal
experience.
The framework is normally associated with purely qualitative researchers.

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3- Critical paradigm/emancipatory/advocacy/transformative
Ontological assumption: advocates of this framework also assume multiple realities
like social constructivists. However, they go beyond this argument on multiple realities by
advancing that the research should hold moral values and should seek to improve the lives of
people who have been marginalized by the more powerful people in society.
Epistemological assumption: this means that research should seek for knowledge that
liberates a people.
Axiological assumption: there should be respect to cultural norms.
In this philosophy, research is not only meant for knowledge, but alsofor empowering
people to have a voice to change and improve their place in society.

4- Pragmatism

Pragmatism focuses on fitness for purpose i.e. what works. It does not matter if there
is a single reality (positivism) or multiple realities (social constructivism) as long as ‘we
discover answers that help us do things that we want to do’ (Lodico, et al., 2006, p. 9). It
advocates the use of mixed methods to fully understand human behavior. Most pragmatists
use Mixed Method Research where both qualitative and quantitative are mixed to answer
research questions.
In this framework, the researcher might use both inductive and deductive reasoning to
investigate multiple views of the research problem or questions.

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Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

Types of Research

Types of research have been described by different authors in different ways. According
to Kumar (2011), types of research can be looked at from three different perspectives.

1- applications of the findings of the research study;

2- objectives of the study;
3- mode of enquiry used in conducting the study.

Perspective 1: The application perspective of research types

1- Pure research
According to Bailey (1978),
Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are
intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical
application at the present time or in the future. Thus such work often involves
the testing of hypotheses containing very abstract and specialised concepts (p.
17).
Therefore, the knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the
existing body of knowledge of research methods.
2- Applied research
Most of the research in the social sciences is applied. In other words, the research
techniques, procedures and methods that form the body of research methodology are applied
to the collection of information about various aspects of a situation, issue, problem or
phenomenon so that the information gathered can be used in other ways – such as for policy
formulation, administration and the enhancement of understanding of a phenomenon.

Perspective 2: The objective perspective of research types

1- Descriptive research

It attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or

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programme, or provides information about the living conditions of a community, or describes

attitudes towards an issue. The main purpose of descriptive research is to describe what is
prevalent with respect to the issue/problem under study.

For example: to describe the types of service provided by an organization, the

administrative structure of an organization, the living conditions of Aboriginal people in the
outback, the needs of a community, what it means to go through a divorce, how a child feels
living in a house with domestic violence, or the attitudes of employees towards management.

2- Correlational research

These studies examine whether there is a relationship between two or more aspects of
a situation or phenomenon. The main emphasis in a correlational study is to discover or
establish the existence of a relationship/association/interdependence between two or more
aspects of a situation.

Examples:
What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of a product?
What is the relationship between stressful living and the incidence of heart attack?
What is the relationship between fertility and mortality?
What is the relationship between technology and unemployment?
What is the effect of a health service on the control of a disease, or the home environment on
educational achievement?

3- Explanatory research

It attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two aspects of a
situation or phenomenon.

Examples:
Why stressful living results in heart attacks?
Why a decline in mortality is followed by a fertility decline?
How the home environment affects children’s level of academic achievement?

4- Exploratory research

It is when a study is undertaken with the objective either to explore an area where little
is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study. When a
study is carried out to determine its feasibility, it is also called a feasibility study or a pilot
study. It is usually carried out when a researcher wants to explore areas about which s/he has
little or no knowledge. A small-scale study is undertaken to decide if it is worth carrying out a
detailed investigation. On the basis of the assessment made during the exploratory study, a
full study may eventuate. Exploratory studies are also conducted to develop, refine and/or test
measurement tools and procedures.

Although, theoretically, a research study can be classified in one of the above

objectives–perspective categories, in practice, most studies are a combination of the first three;
that is, they contain elements of descriptive, correlational and explanatory research.

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Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

Perspective 3: The mode of enquiry perspective

1- Quantitative research

The quantitative research focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it

across groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon. This approach is
structured, which means that everything that forms the research process, namely objectives,
design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents, is predetermined. It is
more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon.

2- Qualitative research

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data, namely

texts, videos, or audios to understand concepts, opinions, attitudes or experiences. It is
unstructured as it allows flexibility in all these aspects of the process. It is predominantly used
to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon.

Examples:
If you want to research the different perspectives of an issue, the problems
experienced by people living in a community or the different views people hold towards an
issue; then, these are better explored using unstructured enquiries.
On the other hand, to find out how many people have a particular perspective, how
many people have a particular problem, or how many people hold a particular view, you need
to have a structured approach to enquiry.
It is strongly recommended that you do not ‘lock yourself’ into becoming either solely
a quantitative or solely a qualitative researcher.

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Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

Steps of the Research Process

There are several steps of the research process. These basic steps are elaborated further
in the subsequent sections.

Step One: Formulation of the Research Problem

Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in the research
process.

1- Research Problem

A research problem identifies your destination; it should tell you, your research
supervisor and your readers what you intend to research. In writing about the research
problem, authors state it as a single sentence or several sentences in a research report. To
locate the research problem in a study, ask yourself:

◆ What is the issue, problem, or controversy that I want to address?

◆ What controversy leads to a need for this study?
◆ What is the concern being addressed “behind” this study?

From a research standpoint, specifying a research problem in your study is important

because it sets the stage for the entire study. Without knowing the research problem, readers
do not know why the study is important and why they should read the study.

To better understand research problems, you might distinguish them from other parts
of the research process. The research problem needs to stand on its own and be recognized as
a distinct step because it represents the problem addressed in the study.

You can find ‘the research problem’ in the introduction to a study. It is included in a
passage called the ‘statement of the problem’ section. You can locate this passage in the
opening, introductory paragraphs of a research report.

2- Literature Review

Literature review is an integral part of entire research process. After passing through
this stage, a researcher is able to acquaint oneself with the available body of knowledge in the
area of interest. The main objectives of literature review are as follows.

1. It broadens the knowledge of researcher about the research problem.

2. It brings better clarity and focus to the research problem, and it also helps to improve
the authenticity of research
3. It helps to improve the research methodology.
4. It helps to contextualize the findings. It means how valueaddition has been done by the
researcher to the existing stock of knowledge.

The procedure for reviewing literature covers searching the existing literature,
reviewing it and developing a theoretical and conceptual framework.The main sources of
literature review are books and journals. Nowadays, researchers make extensive use of the

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internet sources for literature survey and review, and at the same time, the researcher should
be careful about the authenticity of the contents.

A solid literature review must:

• be organized around and related directly to the thesis or research question you are
developing
• synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known
• identify areas of controversy in the literature
• formulate questions that need further research

The literature review should include critical analysis. You cannot simply juxtapose the
literature you find; you have to evaluate and draw conclusions from it.

Try to take ownership of the literature review. Remember the purposes of the review
(providing background on the subject you are researching and identifying a gap in the existing
literature on this subject). Thus, throughout the review:

Identify the key themes relevant to your subject matter

Identify the most logical and effective order for your themes
Relate the sources back to the research question
Shed new light on the topic
Draw conclusions on the existing literature
Identify gaps in the literature

The best synthesis requires a "recursive process" whereby you read the source texts,
identify relevant parts, take notes, produce drafts, re-read the source texts, revise your text, re-
write... (Mateos and Sole, 2009).

3- Formulation of Aims and Objectives

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research
project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement, before
your research objectives.
Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the
specific ways you will address the overarching aim.

The wording of the aim and objectives should be very precise and specific.
• Use words such as purpose, intent, or (main) objective to signal attention to this statement.
• Use the language of research such as the purpose, the intent, or the objective of the study
is/ was/will be.................
Note that researchers often use the present or past tense in journal articles and
dissertations, and the future tense in proposals because researchers are presenting a plan for a
study not yet undertaken.
Examples:
1- The aim of this research is to investigate effective engagement strategies to increase
voter turnout in region X.
2- This project aims to better understand young people’s experiences in the gig economy.

The aim and objectives should start with words, such as ‘to determine’, ‘to find out’,

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‘to ascertain’, ‘to measure’, ‘to explore’, etc. The wording of objectives determines the type
of research (descriptive, correlational and experimental) and the type of research design you
need to adopt to achieve them. For example, in case of descriptive studies, the objective can
be stated as, ‘To describe the types of incentives provided by the organizations in Marrakech
to their employees in IT industry’. In correlational studies, it may state, ‘To ascertain the
impact of coaching classes on students’ performance’.

The objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate within
the main framework.
1. They should be listed numerically.
2. The wording should be clear, complete and specific.
3. Each objective should contain only one aspect of the study.
4. Use action-oriented words or verbs when writing objectives.

4- Formulation of Research Questions

Moving from topics to aims and objectives can be a useful way of formulating
research questions. They are prerequisite as they provide more guidance than do topics and
help determine what outcomes to be achieved. They also help point out what kind of
questions would need to be asked in order to achieve those outcomes.
For example:
Aim: The present study aims at finding out why certain individuals and groups adopt new
technologies before others.
Research Questions:
What are the patterns of consumption of new technologies amongst different groups of
adults in Morocco?
What reasons do different individuals provide for adopting or not adoting new
technologies in Morocco?

Characteristics of a good research question

Focuses on a single topic and problem

Your central research question should follow from your research problem to keep your work
focused. If you have multiple questions, they should all clearly relate to this central aim.
Answerable using primary or secondary data
You must be able to find an answer by collecting quantitative and/or qualitative data, or by
reading scholarly sources on the topic to develop an argument. If such data is impossible to
access, you will have to rethink your question and ask something more concrete.
Does not ask for a subjective value judgement
Avoid subjective words like good, bad, better and worse, as these do not give clear
criteria for answering the question. If your question is evaluating something, use terms with
more measurable definitions.
Depending on the scope of your research, you may identify just one question or
several. You may also have one primary research question and several secondary questions or
sub-questions that relate to the same problem.

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Types of research questions to avoid

1- Compound questions:
What are the aims of globalization and to what extent these aims were achieved?
It would be better to separate the two questions because each one has different
implications for the kind of data collection and analysis required to answer them. The first
question (what are the aims of globalization?) may require the collection and analysis of
foreign policy documents, interviewing policy-makers and decision- makers and other
relevant parties. The second question, concerning the achievement of the aims of
globalization, may require the analysis of secondary data on the global performance and
sustainability of a given economy in developed or developing countries.
2- False dichotomous questions
Comprehensive education: Force for equality or lowest common denominator?
This question may be a good topic for an essay, which aims to stimulate debate, but it
cannot serve as a well formulated research question because it assumes that comprehensive
education is either a “force for equality” or “lowest common denominator” and that there is
no middle opening/ground between the two alternatives.
These questions trigger ambiguity, which is good in an essay as it gives more space for
argumentation and discussion. But research questions need to be clear and precise,
minimizing possibilities for false presumptions or misinterpretations.
3- Closed yes/no questions
They are too simple to work as good research questions — they don’t provide enough
scope for investigation and discussion. Research questions should not be answerable with a
simple “yes” or “no” or by easily-found facts. They should, instead, require both research and
analysis on the part of the writer.

5- Concepts and Variables

Concepts can be defined, in simple terms, as classifying or categorizing events or

objects that have common characteristics. The basic principle of a concept is that it must be a
thought or belief, typically associated with something in the objective world.

A concept is something conceived in the mind; it is the building block of our thoughts
which we translate through speech or writing. It is formed from observation of certain
behaviours.

Constructs are developed from concepts. They exist in the human brain, but they are
not directly observable. A construct is an abstract concept, such asintelligence, anxiety,
motivation, happiness.

Variables are created by developing constructs into a measurable form. A variable is a

measurable characteristic which assumes different values across objects. They are observable,
vary, and are measurable. They are many types of variables:

Independent variables (IV) are also known as the manipulated, experimental or treatment
variables. They become the cause of another variable. It is the variable manipulated by the
researcher in an experiment.

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Dependent variables (DV) are also called the outcome or response variables. The dependent
variable is the variable that changes as a result of changes made on the independent variable.
For example, in the study about impact of coaching on student performance, coaching is
independent variable and student performance is dependent variable.
In addition, there can be intervening variables, extraneous and confounding variables.
Intervening variables: these are also termed as mediator variables. They establish link
between IV and DV. These are variables through which one variable affects another variable.
These are helpful to understand the process. For example, tissue damage is an intervening
variable in smoking and lung cancer relationship.
Extraneous variables: in real-life situations, there can be many factors or variables that may
affect the outcome. These variables are termed as extraneous variables. They may directly
affect the dependent variable or may combine with the independent variable to produce an
affect. Therefore, extraneous variables must be controlled so that the experimenter can
determine whether the dependent variable changes in relation to variation in the independent
variable.
They actually compete with the independent variable in explaining the outcome.If an
extraneous variable is the real reason for an outcome instead of independent variables, then it
becomes a confounding variable because it has confused or confounded the relationship we
are interested in.
A confounding variable is a third variable that influences, or “confounds,” the
relationship between an independent and a dependent variable by suggesting the presence of a
spurious correlation. Due to the presence of confounding variables in research, we should
never assume that a correlation between two variables implies a causation. When an
extraneous variable has not been properly controlled and interferes with the dependent
variable (i.e. results) it is called a confounding variable.

6- Formulation of Hypotheses

Usually, researchers do not know the exact truth but have a hunch about the outcome,
and thus they make some prediction about the outcome. This hunch or prediction about the
outcome is called hypothesis. It can also be termed as an educated guess or assumption about
some phenomenon. This assumption is tested by collecting information that will enable us to
conclude if our hunch was right. Thus, defining hypothesis has the following features.

1. It is a tentative proposition.
2. It is empirically testable, whether it is right or wrong.
3. In most cases, formulating a hypothesis specifies the logical relationship between two
variables.
4. It must be generalizable.
5. It should be simple, clearly and precisely stated.
6. It is never formulated in the form of a question.

Main Functions of a Hypothesis

Formulating a hypothesis, though important, is not absolutely necessary for a research.

A perfectly valid research can be conducted even without formulating any hypothesis. In
general, formulation performs the following functions.

1. It brings focus, clarity and specificity in the research study.

2. It helps in making sample design.

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3. They make the study more objective.

4. They facilitate the formulation of a theory.

Null and Alternative Hypotheses

The null hypothesis states that there is no difference between groups or no relationship
between variables. For example,

⁕ There is no difference in the academic performance of high school students who participate
in extracurricular activities and those who do not participate in extracurricular activities.
⁕ There is no difference between the academic achievement of high school athletes and that of
non-athletes.
⁕ There is no relationship between smoking and tuberculosis.
⁕ The place of residence does not have any impact on the dropout ratio.

Data are collected to challenge the null hypothesis. If null hypothesis is rejected based
on the data analysis, the alternative hypothesis will be automatically accepted.

Directional vs. non-directional hypothesis

The alternative hypothesis (Ha) can be directional or non-directional.

⁕ Ha: Dropout rate is higher among students from rural areas (directional hypothesis).
⁕ Ha: There is a relation between the place of residence and dropout ratio (non-directional
hypothesis).

The directional hypothesis may state that boys or girls are more able. It tends to be
more specific about the outcome. However, the non-directional alternative would simply state
that there is a gender difference. We have no idea whether boys are more able or girls are
more able and only say that they are not the same.

A research hypothesis is a statement that can be proved or refuted based on the results
of the study. It is more commonly used in quantitative research; however, it can be substituted
by a thesis statement that can be seen in quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methods.

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Step II: Preparing Research Design and Study Design

Research design is a framework, or the set of methods and procedures used by a

researcher to carry out a study. It is the specific procedures involved in the research process:
data collection, data analysis, and report writing.

Research design involves the following:

1. Objectives of research study

2. Selection of method of data collection
3. Source of information—sample design
4. Tools for data collection
5. Data analysis—qualitative and quantitative

Research design achieves the following purposes:

1. It makes research efficient

2. Optimum utilization of resources—maximum information with minimal expenditure,
time and money
3. Flexibility
4. Minimization of bias
5. Reliability and objectivity

The study design is a part of the research design. It is the design of the study per se, whereas
the research design also includes other details related to the carrying out of the study.

1- Study designs associated with quantitative research

According to Kumar (2011), some of the commonly used study designs in

quantitative research can be classified by examining them from three different perspectives:

1- the number of contacts with the study population;

2- the reference period of the study;
3- the nature of the investigation.

1-Study designs based on the number of contacts

Based on the number of contacts with the study population, designs can be classified into
three groups:

a) Cross-sectional studies;
b) Before-and-after studies;
c) Longitudinal studies

a) The cross-sectional study design

Cross-sectional studies, also known as one-shot or status studies, are the most commonly
used design in the social sciences. This design is best suited to studies aimed at finding out the
prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or issue, by taking a cross-section of

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the population. They are useful in obtaining an overall ‘picture’ as it stands at the time of the
study. They are “designed to study some phenomenon by taking a cross-section of it at one
time” (Babbie, 1989, p. 89). Such studies are cross-sectional with regard to both the study
population and the time of investigation.

A cross-sectional study is extremely simple in design. You decide what you want to
find out about, identify the study population, select a sample (if you need to) and contact your
respondents to find out the required information. As these studies involve only one contact
with the study population, they are comparatively cheap to undertake and easy to analyse.
However, their biggest disadvantage is that they cannot measure change. To measure change
it is necessary to have at least two data collection points – that is, at least two cross-sectional
studies, at two points in time, on the same population.

b)The before-and-after study design

A before-and-after study is carried out by adopting the same process as a cross-
sectional study except that it comprises two cross-sectional data sets, the second being
undertaken after a certain period. Depending upon how it is set up, a before-and-after study
may be either an experiment or a non-experiment. It is one of the most commonly used
designs in evaluation studies.
The main advantage of the before-and-after design (also known as the pre-test/post-
test design) is that it can measure change in a situation, phenomenon, issue, problem or
attitude. It is the most appropriate design for measuring the impact or effectiveness of a
program. It is conducted to find out the change in the phenomenon or variable(s) between two
points in time. The change is measured by comparing the difference in the phenomenon or
variable(s) before and after the intervention. Hence, the main advantage of before-and-after
design is its ability to measure change in a phenomenon or to assess the impact of an
intervention.

c) The longitudinal study design

The before-and-after study design is appropriate for measuring the extent of change in
a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude, and so on, but is less helpful for studying the
pattern of change. To determine the pattern of change in relation to time, a longitudinal design
is used. In longitudinal studies the study population is visited a number of times at regular
intervals, usually over a long period, to collect the required information. These intervals are
not fixed, so their length may vary from study to study. Intervals might be as short as a week
or longer than a year. Irrespective of the size of the interval, the type of information gathered
each time is identical. Although the data collected is from the same study population, it may
or may not be from the same respondents. A longitudinal study can be seen as a series of
repetitive cross-sectional studies.

Longitudinal studies can suffer from the conditioning effect. This describes a situation
where, if the same respondents are contacted frequently, they begin to know what is expected
of them and may respond to questions without thought, or they may lose interest in the
enquiry, with the same result. The main advantage of a longitudinal study is that it allows the
researcher to measure the pattern of change and obtain factual information, requiring
collection on a regular or continuing basis, thus enhancing its accuracy.

2- Study designs based on the reference period

The reference period refers to the time-frame in which a study is exploring a

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phenomenon, situation, event or problem. Studies are categorised from this perspective as:
a) retrospective;
b) prospective;
c) retrospective–prospective.

a) The retrospective study design

Retrospective studies investigate a phenomenon, situation, problem or issue that has
happened in the past. They are usually conducted either on the basis of the data available for
that period or on the basis of respondents’ recall of the situation. For example, studies
conducted on the following topics are classified as retrospective studies:
• The living conditions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in Australia in the
early twentieth century.
• The utilization of land before the Second World Warin Western Australia.
• A historical analysis of migratory movements in Eastern Europe between 1915 and
1945.
b) The prospective study design
Prospective studies refer to the likely prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem,
attitude, or outcome in the future. Such studies attempt to establish the outcome of an event or
what is likely to happen. Experiments are usually classified as prospective studies as the
researcher must wait for an intervention to register its effect on the study population. The
following are classified as prospective studies:
• To determine the impact of maternal and child health services on the level of infant
mortality.
• To determine the impact of random breath testing on the prevention of road accidents.
• To find out the effect of parental involvement on the level of academic achievement of their
children.
• To measure the effects of a change in migration policy on the extent of immigration in
Australia.

c) The retrospective–prospective study design

Retrospective–prospective studies focus on past trends in a phenomenon and study it
into the future. Part of the data is collected retrospectively from the existing records before the
intervention is introduced and then the study population is followed to ascertain the impact of
the intervention.

A study is classified under this category when you measure the impact of an
intervention without having a control group. In fact, most before-and-after studies, if carried
out without having a control – where the baseline is constructed from the same population
before introducing the intervention – will be classified as retrospective–prospective studies.

3- Study designs based on the nature of the investigation

On the basis of the nature of the investigation, study designs in quantitative research
can be classified as:
a) experimental;
b) quasi- or semi-experimental;
c) non-experimental

a) Experimental study design

Experimental research, also called true experimental research, is the type of research

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that uses a scientific approach towards manipulating one or more control variables of the
research subject(s) and measuring the effect of this manipulation on the subject. It is known
for the fact that it allows the manipulation of control variables. Experimental research is
usually undertaken when the goal of the research is to trace cause-and-effect relationships
between defined variables. However, the type of experimental research chosen has a
significant influence on the results of the experiment.

b) Quasi-experimental research
The Quasi type of experimental research is similar to true experimental research, but
uses carefully selected rather than randomized subjects. Like a true experiment, a quasi-
experimental design aims to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between an independent
and dependent variable. However, unlike a true experiment, a quasi-experiment does not rely
on random assignment. Instead, subjects are assigned to groups based on non-random criteria.

c) Non-experimental research
Non-experimental research is the type of research that does not involve the
manipulation of control or independent variable. In non-experimental research, researchers
measure variables as they naturally occur without any further manipulation. Non-experimental
research is the type of research that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable. Instead,
the researcher observes the context in which the phenomenon occurs and analyzes it to obtain
information. Correlational research is a type of non-experimental study design.

Other designs associated with quantitative research

Causal-comparative research design: this design is also known by ex-post facto

research. It is used in social sciences and business organizations. It is conducted in context of
a phenomenon after it has occurred or at the time of its occurrence. It basically deals with
non-manipulated variables. It explores effects caused by a membership in a group (what
differences in student behavior caused by gender), studies causes of group membership, or
studies the consequences of an intervention.

Trend studies: they examine a specific characteristic of a population over time. They
map change over a period. They focus on the same population over time by selecting different
samples from the same population.

Cohort studies: they are based upon the existence of a common characteristic, such as
year of birth, graduation or marriage, within a subgroup of a population. Suppose you want to
study the fertility behavior of women who were married in 1930, it could be carried out either
as cross-sectional or longitudinal designs. If you adopt a cross-sectional design you gather the
required information in one go, but if you choose the longitudinal design you collect the
required information at different points in time over the study period.

Panel studies: they are similar to trend and cohort studies except that in addition to
being longitudinal, they are also prospective in nature and the information is always collected
from the same respondents.

Survey designs, according to Creswell (2015), as illustrated in the table below, are
also related to quantitative research. They are procedures in quantitative research in which a
survey or questionnaire is administered to a small group of people (called the sample) to
identify trends in attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a large group of people

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(called the population).Seeking to describe trends in a large population of individuals, a

survey is a good procedure to use.

2- Study designs associated with qualitative research

Creswell (2015) discusses three main research study designs associated,as

illustrated above, with qualitative research, namely grounded theory research, ethnographic
research and narrative research.

1- Grounded Theory
Grounded theory design was developed by two sociologists, Barney Glaser and
Anslem Strauss. Instead of studying a single group, you might examine a number of
individuals who have all experienced an action, interaction, or process. Grounded theory
designs are systematic, qualitative procedures that researchers use to generate a general
explanation (grounded in the views of participants, called a grounded theory) that explains a
process, action, or interaction among people. The procedures for developing this theory
include primarily collecting interview data, developing and relating categories (or themes) of
information, and composing a figure or visual model that portrays the general explanation. In
this way, the explanation is “grounded” in the data from participants. From this explanation,
you construct predictive statements about the experiences of individuals.

2- Ethnography
You may be interested in studying one group of individuals, in examining them in the
setting where they live and work, and in developing a portrait of how they interact. An
ethnographic study is well suited for this purpose. Ethnographic designs are qualitative
procedures for describing, analyzing, and interpreting a cultural group’s shared patterns of
behavior, beliefs, and language that develop over time. In ethnography, the researcher
provides a detailed picture of the culture-sharing group, drawing on various sources of
information. The ethnographer also describes the group within its setting, explores themes or
issues that develop over time as the group interacts, and details a portrait of the group.

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3- Narrative research

You may not be interested in describing and interpreting group behavior or ideas, or in
developing an explanation grounded in the experiences of many individuals. Instead, you
wish to tell the stories of one or two individuals. Narrative research designs are qualitative
procedures in which researchers describe the lives of individuals, collect and tell stories about
these individuals’ lives, and write narratives about their experiences. In education, these
stories often relate to school classroom experiences or activities in schools.

Other study designs associated with qualitative research are:

Phenomenology: it is a form of qualitative research in which the researcher attempts to
understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon. For example,
interviewing the wives of 10 prisoners of war and asking them to describe their experiences.
Case study: it is mostly used to study an organization or an entity. This research method has
evolved over the years as one of the most valuable qualitative research methods. This type of
research is used in the areas of management, education sector, philosophical and
psychological. This method involves a deep digging into the developments and collects data.
Content analysis: it is also known as text analysis. This method is a bit different from
other qualitative research methods. It is used to analyze the social life by decoding words,
texts, etc., through any available form of documentation. The researcher studies and
understands the context in which the documents are furnished with the information and then
tries to draw meaningful inferences from it. In modern times, researchers follow activities on
a social media platform and try to understand the pattern of thoughts.

3- Study designs associated with mixed-method approach

The core argument for a mixed method design is that the combination of both forms of
data provides a better understanding of a research problem than either quantitative (i.e.,
quantifiable data) or qualitative (i.e., text or images) data by itself. Mixed method designs are
procedures for collecting, analyzing, and mixing both quantitative and qualitative data in a
single study or in a multiphase series of studies. In this process, you need to decide on the
emphasis you will give to each form of data (priority), which form of data you will collect
first (concurrent or sequential), how you will “mix” the data (integrating or connecting), and
whether you will use theory to guide the study (e.g., advocacy or social science theory).

Action Research
The term ‘action research’ was coined during 1940s by Kurt Lewin, a German-
American social psychologist. There are two dimensions attached to the term ‘Action
Research’, where one is action, which is doing something and second is research, which is
analyzing. Action research also means ‘learning by doing’. Action research refers to a wide
variety of evaluative, investigative and analytical research methods designed to diagnose
problems or weaknesses, and help researchers to develop practical solutions to address them
quickly and efficiently. It may also be applied to programs or educational techniques that are
not necessarily experiencing any problems, but that researchers simply want to learn more
about the techniques and improve their knowledge. Action research designs often utilize both
quantitative and qualitative data.

Apart from action research, the following studies can make use of both quantitative
and qualitative approaches (mixed-method approach): experimental research, Quasi-

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experimental research, narrative research, causal comparative research, case study,

phenomenology, and ethnography.

To recapitulate:

Research study designs suited to the Positivist Paradigm

Experimental research
Quasi-experimental research
Correlational research
Causal comparative research
Trend studies
Cohort studies
Panel studies
Survey research
Research study designs suited to the Interpretivist Paradigm
Narrative research
Case study
Grounded theory
Phenomenology
Ethnography
Research study designs suited for use in the Pragmatic Paradigm
Action Research
Narrative research
Case study
Phenomenology
Ethnography
Experimental research
Quasi-experimental research
Causal comparative research

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Step 3: Developing Data Collection Instruments

(Research Instruments)

Data is defined as the information recorded to represent facts. The quality and validity
of the output are solely dependent on the tools used for data collection. The data can be
classified as primary and secondary, objective and subjective, and qualitative and quantitative.

1- Types of data

Primary Data and Secondary Data

Primary data is collected for the purpose of current research project, whereas
secondary data is collected for some other research purpose. It is collected fresh by the
researcher and is based on surveys, observations and experimentation. It is expensive and
difficult to acquire. It is reliable as it has been obtained directly with a specific problem in
view.

Secondary data is collected from external sources, such as TV, radio, the Internet,
magazines, books and newspapers. These data might have been collected for different
purposes. It is an inexpensive and a quick method to obtain information. Sometimes, it is the
only way when the original source is inaccessible. It should be ascertained (i) whether the
data is relevant to your study and (ii) it is credible.

Objective Data and Subjective Data

Objective data are independent of any single person’s opinion, whereas subjective data
can be an individual’s opinion or it can be dependent upon the researcher.

Qualitative Data and Quantitative Data

Qualitative data is the description of things made without assigning numeric values.
For example, facts generated from unstructured interview. It needs the researcher’s
interpretation.

Quantitative data entail measurements in which the numbers are used directly to
represent properties of things. It is ready for statistical analysis. A larger sample is required in
quantitative data and with proper sampling design, the ability to generalize is also high.

2- Data Collection Techniques

Every fieldwork involves data collection through different techniques. The latter allow
the researcher to collect information about the people and the community under investigation.
But one of the problems facing the researcher is “to determine the most appropriate methods
for collecting data” (Ferraro, 2002, p. 91). There are some researchers who make use of many
different techniques to gather primary data. Observation, surveys, interviews, and
questionnaires are widely known methods of research.

Observation
Observation is undoubtedly necessary to any fieldwork. It is defined as “a major
means by which people develop their knowledge of the world they live in” (Harvey and
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McDonald, 1993, p. 148). As a research method, it entails watching, recording and even
joining the people under study in their activities.
Types of Observations
1. Direct vs. indirect: in direct observation, the researcher is the observer, recording what he
or she is watching. Indirect observation involves analyzing textual material generated from
recordings of verbal behavior in natural settings or from narratives.
2. Structured vs. Unstructured: structured observation is based on proper and detailed
planning. Researchers work according to the plan they have made. Yet, unstructured
observation is done in a holistic way without the use of any predetermined guide.
3. Participant vs. non-participant: in participant observation, the researcher gets along with
people; they become part of the group or situation being studied. However, researchers, in
non-participant observation, observe the people under investigation without taking part in the
situation. It involves observing and recording the behaviour of individuals from distance.
4. Covert vs. overt: the subjects observed in covert observation (also called disguised
observation) are not aware of being observed. In overt observation, subjects are aware of
being observed. This is rarely used by social scientitsts because of Hawthorne effect (some
subjects might not be natural if they know that they are observed).
Limitations
Initially, there are many behavioral aspects that may not be observable directly. For
example, a marketer as a researcher cannot measure the feelings, beliefs and attitudes that
motivate buying behavior, and infrequent behavior cannot be observed. Secondly, the
observation method is quite expensive.
Surveys
Sometimes, observation method is supplemented with survey method. This approach
is most suited for gathering descriptive information, and this research may be direct or
indirect. It is of two types and they are structured and unstructured surveys.
1. Structured surveys: They use formal lists of questions to be asked from all respondents in
the same manner.
2. Unstructured surveys: They give the interviewer the flexibility to probe respondents and
direct the interview according to their answers.
Advantages
1. Quick and low cost in comparison to observation method.
2. Survey method can be administered to collect many different types of information.
Limitations
1. Privacy issues
2. Reluctance on the part of respondents
3. Biases.
Interviews
Interviewing is a technique on which researchers depend to obtain information about
people’s attitudes, opinion, behavior, beliefs, motives and feelings. It involves oral
questioning of respondents and establishes rapport with them, especially if the interview is
personal. Interviews, which can be face-to-face, by telephone or e-mail, take a number of
forms: structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
1- Structured Interview
This kind of interview is similar to a questionnaire since it asks all the interviewees
exactly the same set of questions. It gives closed questions which may control the freedom of
the interviewee who sometimes has forced-choice answers. This method is mainly used by the
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researcher who has enough knowledge of the people or culture under study.

A structured interview is easier to prepare, manage, analyze and compare. It also

focuses attention on a given issue and provides more reliable data than the unstructured
interview. It is also designed to avoid biases.

2- Unstructured interview
The unstructured interview, also labeled in-depth or non-directive, takes the form of a
spontaneous conversation. It avoids a specific leading set of questions asked in the highly
structured interview and involves less control. It is less formal and has no strict guidelines. It
also provides a general understanding of and new interesting information about a topic,
especially if the researcher has little knowledge of it.

It leads to the interviewer’s bias. It gives the opportunity for the interviewer to
intervene, which may consciously or unconsciously affect the interviewee’s ideas.

3- Semi-structured interview
Between these two extremes, the structured and the unstructured, lies the semi-
structured interview. It is a guided conversation with prepared but open set of questions. The
questions of a semi-structured interview should stick to the logical order of questions to make
the discussion flow. It is relatively informal and used to offer the interviewer the opportunity
to explore a predetermined topic.

Personal Interviewing
It is very flexible and can be used to collect large amounts of information. Trained
interviewers can hold the respondent’s attention and are available to clarify difficult
questions.They can guide interviews, explore issues and probe as the situation requires.
Personal interviews can be used in any type of questions and can be conducted fairly quickly.
This takes two forms, namely intercept interviewing (for individuals) and focus group
interviewing (for groups).
Intercept interviews
We used Intercept Interviews as a means to collect in-the-moment feedback when we
want to learn about someone's in context experience. An intercept survey is a research method
used to gather on-site feedback from an audience. Intercept surveys are often used at events,
restaurants, conferences, and in shopping malls to collect patron perception information.
During an intercept survey, the interviewer may approach a patron to ask about their
experience at the event, facility or restaurant. Results from the intercept surveys allow the
client organization to obtain feedback from their target audience while the information is still
fresh in their minds.
Focus group interviewing
It is usually conducted by inviting 6–10 people to gather for a few hours with a trained
moderator to talk about a product, service or organization. The meeting is held in a pleasant
place and refreshments are served to create a relaxed environment. The moderator needs
objectivity, knowledge of the subject and some understanding of group and individual
behavior. The moderator starts with a broad question before moving to more specific issues,
encouraging open and easy discussion to bring out the true feelings and thoughts. At the same
time, the interviewer focuses on the discussion and hence, the name focus group interviewing.
Comments are recorded through note taking or videotaped and studied later (content analysis).

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E-mail interview
E-mail interviewing refers to conducting interviews via e-mail, asynchronously, which
allows the respondent to answer questions at their own pace and over a relatively long period
of time (in comparison to traditional interviewing methods).
Telephonic Interviewing
Telephone interview is a data collection method when the interviewer communicates
with the respondent on the telephone.

Questionnaires - Concept and types

A questionnaire consists of a set of questions presented to a respondent for answers.
The questionnaire is used during structured surveys or interviews. The respondents read the
questions, interpret what is expected, and then write down the answers themselves.

The questionnaire depends upon research objectives. For each objective or research
question, researchers list all the associated questions that they want to answer through study.
Then, the information required to answer them is listed and finally, the questions are listed

There questionnaires should be developed and tested carefully before being

administered on a large scale. There are three basic types of questionnaires, such as closed-
ended, open-ended and a combination of both.
1. Closed-ended questionnaire: Closed-ended questionnaires generally include
multiple choice questions or scale questions. This type of questionnaire can be administered
to a large number of respondents or sample size. As there is a set format, the data generated
from questionnaire can be easily fed into a computer system for the purpose of analysis.
The closed question could be dichotomous including two-way questions or likert-type
scale. Two-way questions, offer the respondent to select one of the two alternatives such as
yes/no, good/bad and for/against. Likert-type scale investigates how strongly the respondent
agrees with a statement rating the answers in terms of a scale. It is meant to assess the
respondent’s attitude toward a statement having to choose one of the suggested answers such
as strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree or strongly disagree.
2. Open-ended questionnaire: Open-ended questionnaires offer the flexibility to
respondents to answer in their own words. It may leave a blank section to write an answer.
Closed-ended questionnaires might be used to find out how many people use metro
rail service in Casablanca, but open-ended questionnaires might be used to find out what
people think about the quality of service.
3. Combined questionnaire: In this method, it is possible to find out how many
people use a service, and what they think of the service in the same form. The combined
questionnaire may begin with a series of closed-ended questions, with boxes to tick or scales
to rank and then finish with a section of open-ended questions or a more detailed response.

Actually, there are two methodological approaches which make use of the mentioned
techniques, the qualitative and the quantitative. The qualitative approach relies on three basic
techniques, participant observation, semi-structured and unstructured interviews and open-
ended questionnaires. Yet, the quantitative approach depends mainly on structured interviews,
close-question questionnaires and non-participant observation. To have a more profound
knowledge of the social group being studied, some researchers combine both quantitative and
qualitative approaches. This is known as mixed-method research.

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It is necessary to differentiate between mixed-method approach and triangulation.

Triangulation is defined as a process of combining data from different sources to study a
particular social phenomenon. In 1978, Norman Denzin introduced tiangulation and identified
its four basic types:

(1) data triangulation: the use of multiple data sources in a single study;
(2) investigator triangulation: the use of multiple investigators/researchers to study a
particular phenomenon;
(3) theory triangulation: the use of multiple perspectives to interpret the results of a study;
(4) methodological triangulation: the use of multiple methods to conduct a study.

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Step Four: Selecting Samples

If the population under study is small or manageable; then, the data should be
collected on each item or entity under study. This is known as the census. But this is rarely the
situation in a survey research. Sampling is required if the universe of population under study
is too large.

A sample may be defined as a representative subset or cross section of the population

in miniature. It should represent the entire field. In research, the population does not mean
only human population all the times, and it can be factories, schools, etc. Population is
denoted by N and sample as n.

Designing the sample calls for three decisions:

1. Sample itself: Who will be surveyed? It further depends upon what type of information is
required.
2. Sample size: How many people should ideally be surveyed? Large samples are likely to
give more reliable results than small samples. However, it has to be a trade-off between cost
and accuracy.
3. Sampling: How should the sample be chosen? Sampling can be done by adopting either
probability or non-probability method. The sample size for any research study depends upon
four Ps:
1. Purpose: The required precision of study.
2. Population: The size and nature of population under study
3. Procedure: The time, budget and resources available.
4. Publishing: The importance of the studies.
Note: The more heterogeneous or diverse the population is, the bigger the sample sizeshould
be.
Types of Sampling Techniques

1. Probability or random samples: Each person in the population has equal,

independent and known chances of being selected. In case, there are 100 elements in a
population, every element has 1/100 chance of being selected in a sampling exercise. Here,
independence means that selection of one element is neither being affected by the selection of
other elements nor it will affect the other elements.

1-1 Simple random sample

Simple random sample requires an accurate list of the whole population. It is
commonly used when the sampling frame is small since it necessitates numbering each
sample unit. It involves “selection at random” (Blaxter, et al., 2001,p. 163) from the list by
using random numbers. Simple random sample can be achieved by using computers,
electronic calculators or the traditional method of drawing slips of papers from a container.
This sampling procedure is considered as ideal since it assures that each sampling unit has an
equal chance of being selected. It is similar to systematic random sample
1-2 Systematic random sample
Like simple random sample, systematic random sample also gives equal probability of
selection. It is known by an nth name selection technique since it selects every nth element
from a sampling frame. This method has an advantage over simple random sample if the
sampling frame is large. It is proved to be simpler and easier to conduct as well as “less time-
consuming” and “less random method” (Haralambos and Holborn, 1991, p. 723).

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1-3 Cluster random sample

Cluster random sample is, as Harvey and McDonald (1993: 118) claims, concerned
with the division of the population of concern into groups or clusters. A number of clusters
are selected randomly to represent the population. It necessitates the inclusion of all
individual units of the selected clusters in the sample. Each cluster should be heterogeneous in
that it has to represent the whole population. Instead of having a sample scattered over a large
area, this method simplifies the fieldwork since it makes the sample more localized.
1-4 Multi-stage random sample
Multi-stage random sampling is the selection of a sample from another sample
(Haralambos and Holborn, 1991, p. 725) as indicated by its title. It goes through many stages
until small areas have been chosen. Two stages are essential in this method; the first is
concerned with the selection of clusters and the second with the choice of the population units
in the selected clusters. Unlike cluster sampling, multi-stage sampling involves random
selection of sample units from each cluster rather than including all the units of clusters. It is
similar to cluster sampling since it is used to interview people in a small area rather than to
interview them in a lot of scattered locations.
1-5 Stratified random sample
Stratified random sample is concerned “with sampling within groups of the
population” (Blaxter, et al., 2001, p. 163). It is used to look at distinct subgroups of the
population such as to understand the differences between males and females. It divides the
sampling frame into groups according to the variables the researcher needs, for instance,
gender, social class or age. Then, the sample is selected at random from each of these groups
by respecting the same proportions of the sample in each group.

2- Non-Random Sampling or non-probability samplingis the

sampling in which every item of the population has not a chance of being included. It does not
make use of a sampling frame and is proved to be biased. There are five common non-
probability sampling; convenience, volunteer, snowball, quota, and judgment or purposive
samples.
2-1 Convenience sample
Convenience sample aims at choosing the individuals who are easiest to reach. It is
described by Harvey and McDonald (1993) as “the crudest form of sampling” (p. 148). It
samples the individual units that are the most convenient.
It usually takes place at a shopping mall where the researcher selects the shoppers as
they walk by. Chosen without any random mechanism, some of the shoppers may fill out a
survey, others may ignore the researcher. Despite its easy availability and accessibility, this
method does not represent the entire population. However, it can still be maintained as a good
source of data, especially in exploratory researches.
2-2 Volunteer sample
Volunteer sample is a sample which is “self-selected” (Blaxter, et al., 2001, p. 163).
Instead of a sampling frame, it uses volunteers to survey. It is mainly used in TV and radio
stations to measure public opinions. It uses announcements to ask people to give their
opinions on a topic. This method can be more useful if a high proportion of the population
voluntarily participates. However, it is usually considered as biased (Harvey and McDonald,
1993, p. 120) as it is unlikely to have a sample that represents the population of concern
accurately.

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2-3 Snowball sample

Snowball sample involves personal contacts to build up a sample of the group to be
studied. It builds up a sample through respondents. It is used for the population which is very
small and difficult for the researcher to have access to. It is “a very specialized type of
sampling and is usually used when other methods are not practical” (Haralambos and Holborn,
1991,p. 725). Because it is not selected from a sampling frame, the snowball sample is subject
to many biases. For instance, people who have more friends are more likely to be recruited in
the sample.
2-4 Quota sample
Quota sample is similar to stratified random sample. They only differ in the selection
of the sample. While the latter depends on the random method, quota sample depends on the
non-random one. The selection of the sample is made by the researcher to study different sub-
groups as well as to compare between them, for instance, to study and compare twenty young
males and twenty young females. In quota sampling, researchers may stop people on the
street or knock on their doors to interview them. This method, which is widely used by social
scientists, is quick and inexpensive.
2-5 Judgment or purposive sample
In judgment or purposive sampling, the researcher uses his or her judgment to select
population members who are likely to provide accurate information. This can be used for
historical research or descriptive research.

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Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

Step 5: Collecting data

There are many alternatives available to collect relevant data. The researcher should
select one of these methods of collecting data taking into account the nature of investigation,
scope and objective of inquiry, financial cost, availability of time and the desired accuracy.

Primary data can be collected through different procedures (see Data Collection
Techniques, pages 23-26)

Step 6: Processing and Analyzing Data

Once data is collected, data processing takes place. The researcher takes raw data and
converts it into a more readable format, such as tables, graphs, or chart pies either manually or
through an automated tool.

1- Results

The aim of the results section is to describe what you observed, without commentary
or discussion. It is no longer necessary to describe the methods; this has already been done in
the methodology section, so just give the result. The reader will remember what methods were
used if they read the methodology section attentively.

It is also unnecessary to comment or interpret, so phrases such as ‘‘surprisingly..’’ or

‘‘interestingly’’. . are generally deemed to be out of place in the results section. You must
describe a result for every method that was outlined in the methodology section, and to make
the paper easier to follow and read, it is good practice to present the results in the same order
as the methods. Similarly, use of subtitles (again, the same ones as used in the methods
section), can help to break down the results into easy-to-follow sections. The results should be
presented using the past (imperfect) tense.

A major question for many researchers when writing the results section is whether to
describe the results in the text, or use a table or figure. While there are no strict rules for this,
in general, results that can easily be described in one or two lines can be written in the text.

The results should be presented in a clear, concise manner and avoid the temptation to
present in more than one format (e.g. in both tables and graphs). It is often helpful to precede
each sub-section of results with a summary paragraph, but avoid duplication. Tables and
figures should be as simple as possible and the use of very complicated graphics or obscure
color combinations avoided. The table or figure should not repeat information covered in the
main text, it should augment it. Every table and figure should have a title that is a concise
explanation of what is being presented. If abbreviations are used, it is important that they are
explained fully.

2- Discussion

Discussion is where you interpret and explain the significance of your results, and how
they fit into the wider picture of what has already been observed and reported on the same
topic. Putting your results in perspective with other reports is an important part of the
discussion. How do your results compare to other reports in the literature? If your findings are

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Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

different, do you have any plausible explanations? What are the possible discrepancies in
circumstances, populations or approaches that may explain why you observed what you
observed? Any particularly surprising or interesting findings should be discussed and potential
explanations put forward. Can your findings be extrapolated to other contexts or populations,
and if not, why not?

This section also includes the hypothesis testing. As discussed earlier, the qualitative
studies may not have any formal hypothesis. In quantitative studies, we have to see whether
the facts support the hypothesis or they happen to be contrary. This is the usual question that
should be answered while testing hypothesis.

Note that if a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value
of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no
hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is
known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may trigger off new questions which in
turn may lead to further researches.

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Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

Step Seven: Writing a research paper

Writing a paper is the last and for many, the most difficult step of the research process.
The paper informs what you have done, what you have discovered and what conclusions you
have drawn from your findings. The paper should be written in an academic style. The
language should be formal and not journalistic; that is why, selecting a good topic is of
paramount importance.

Research Topics

Sometimes, you are assigned a topic to write about; other times, you are asked to
choose among several topics or to choose a topic by yourself. When you can choose your
own topic, keep the following points in mind:

Choose a topic that interests you. Generally, if you choose a topic that is interesting to
you, then your reader will find it interesting too. Your real interest in a subject pushes you to
research, inquire, or investigate about it with a full motivation, enthusiasm and energy.

Choose a topic on which you can find material. Make sure you select a subject that you
can develop with sufficient details. In choosing a topic, visit your library to check the
availability of reading materials on your chosen topic.

Choose a topic that is relevant. It should be pertinent to your major.

Choose a topic that is congruent with your personal resources. Before sticking fully to
your final choice, assess your research abilities in terms of financial standing, health
condition, mental capacity, time allotment, and length of the paper.

Topics to Avoid

Controversial Topics. These are topics that depend greatly on the researcher’s opinion and
judgement; accordingly, it tends to be biased. Facts cannot support topics like abortion,
death penalty, freedom of religion, same-sex marriage.

Too Narrow Subjects. These subjects are so limited or specific. After searching multiple
resources you find only little or no information at all. e.g., comma as a punctuation mark.

Too Broad Subjects. Topics, such as global warming, pollution, immigration,

anthropology, education, or poverty prevent you from giving a concentrated or an in-depth
analysis of the subject matter of your paper as they provide too much information. You will
need to narrow the focus of your investigation at some point early in the writing process.
This way, you don't attempt to do too much in one paper.

Narrowing Research Topics

Narrow your research topic by asking 4 main questions:

Time: What time period would you like to focus on? You can focus on the historical era or
on developmental stage.
Location: What location would you like to focus on?

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Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

Category: What category would you like to focus on? Category refers to a group of people,
species......
Issue: What perspective, issue, aspect, point of view do you wish to capture?
Examples:
Global warming: the effect of rain shortage on agriculture over the past five years in
Morocco.
Literature: the representation of women in Moroccan comic books in the 1960s.
Education: Sais Faculty English department students’ difficulties in learning grammar.

Research Report Format

Traditional written papers tend to be produced in the following format.
• Title page
• Dedication
• Acknowledgements
• Abstract
• Table of contents (on a separate page)
• Introduction
• Literature review (Theoretical background)
• Methodology
• Results and analysis
• Discussion and interpretation
• Conclusion
• References
• Appendices

Generally, the introduction and the literature review section should account for
approximately one third of the paper and the remaining sections (methodology, results,
discussion, and conclusion) two thirds of the paper.

Title Page

The name of the university

The name of the faculty
The logo
The department.
The title of the paper
The supervisor’s title and full name
The student’s name and exam number
The academic year

The title of the paper

A Research Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Licence in English studies

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Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

Supervised by: the name and title of the supervisor

Submitted by: the name and the exam number

Academic Year
2022-2023

The title of the paper

The title of the paper needs to be eye-catching and intriguing for the reader while
highlighting the subject matter. The title should be specific and short, but comprehensive and
sufficiently descriptive. Any “waste” of words such as “A study of…” or “Investigations of …”
or “Observations on …” etc. should be omitted. It is essential that the title does not contain
any abbreviations and if the paper is focused on a particular disease or region, this identifier
should be within the title.

Dedication

Dedication should be short and to the point

I dedicate this work to.............
This work is dedicated to .........................
To my parents
Thanks for your constant interest and love

Acknowledgements

You should first thank those who helped you academically or professionally, such as
your supervisor and other academics.

Then you can include personal thanks to friends, family members, or anyone else who
supported you during the research process.

Abstract
Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? ...
Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? ...
Methodology:
Results
Implications

The abstract should begin with a brief but precise statement of the problem or issue,
followed by a description of the research method and design, the major findings, and the
conclusions reached.

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Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

Table of contents

The table of contents should include all the sections and sub-sections of the research paper.
Dedication
Acknowledgements
Abstract
Table of contents
Introduction.....................................................................................................1
Section 1: Review of the Literature....................................................................
Section 2: Methodology.....................................................................................
Section 3: Data analysis and Discussion .........................................................
Conclusion..........................................................................................................
References.........................................................................................................
Appendices.........................................................................................................
Introduction
• Motivation (Why this work is important), (specify your research problem and provide
the theoretical background).
• Rationale for the research: Justify why you have chosen the research topic.
• Research hypothesis or Thesis Statement
• Objectives (Goals of this paper)
• Research questions
• Organizational overview of paper = Research blueprint

Review of the Literature

This section includes all the background research information that has been obtained
from the literature review. You must indicate from where all the information was obtained.
Thus, it is mandatory to keep a complete record of everything the researcher has read.
Otherwise, there are chances that the researcher could be accused of plagiarism, which is akin
to intellectual theft(see pages 13-14).

Methodology

This section includes all practical details followed for the research. It includes the
methods used for data collection, sampling procedures, tools used for data collection and
analysis of data.

The next section of your methodology chapter should present your research design to
the reader. In this section, you need to detail and justify all the key design choices in a logical,
intuitive fashion. This is the heart of your methodology chapter, so you need to get specific.
Research philosophy/paradigms (see pages 5-6)
Research type (see pages 7-9)
Research study (16-22)
Sampling strategy (28-30)
Data-collection methods (23-26)
Data analysis methods/techniques (31)

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What exactly you discuss here will depend largely on the type of study you are
conducting (i.e., qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods).
For qualitative studies, common analysis methods include content analysis, thematic
analysis, and discourse analysis. For quantitative studies, you will almost always make use
of descriptive statistics.
Conclusion
The conclusion provides a brief overview of your paper and addresses whether or not
it answers your research questions. The conclusion also includes the implications of your
research. They suggest how the findings may be important for policy, practice, and
subsequent research. It is often in the form of a call for action or suggestions for future
research. Also, being aware of the shortcomings of your research paper is highly ethical. As
known, all studies have limitations; however, showing that you are conscious of weaknesses
of your study means that you have a deep understanding of the topic under study. Your
conclusion should be short and concise. While there is no rule on length, conclusions are
typically two or three paragraphs long.

References

The list of references contains only the details of those works cited in the text. Ensure
that you enter all the references. You can make use of a computer-based reference manager.
This minimizes the errors although does not completely avoid them. Mendeley Reference
Manager stands as one of the best free reference managers.

It is note-worthy to mention that bibliography is different from references (APA) or

works cited (MLA). It refers to the list of references cited in your work in addition to
background readings not cited. For students, they are required to include only the references
that are cited in their research papers. If they include references not cited in their work, they
are ‘padding a bibliography’, which is a form of plagiarism.

Appendices

This is specifically required in case of questionnaires or interview schedules

constructed for conducting the research; it may be useful to include them in the research paper
as an appendix. It is a useful way of including relevant material so that the examiner can gain
a deeper understanding of your work by reading it.

All in all, a good academic paper is clear and concise. Therefore, think about sentence
structure, grammatical errors and formatting. Check that you have correctly used transition
words and phrases to show the connections between your ideas. Look for typos, cut
unnecessary words and check for consistency in aspects such as heading
formatting and spellings. Finally, you need to make sure your paper is correctly formatted
according to the rules of the citation style you are using, APA or MLA (see pages 40-44)

Hence, before submitting your research paper, it should be revised and edited, revision
involves major changes in terms of content, structure, and organization. You add, cut, delete,
move, and/or change information for the purpose of improving the content of the research
paper. Yet, editing is concerned with fixing problems related to grammar, punctuation, and
sentence structure.

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Some ethical issues relating to the researcher

Some of the key terms used in the context of ethical issues concerning researchers are as
follows:

1. Fabricating behavior: Creation of spurious data by researcher, their recording and

drawing inferences.

2. Falsification: It manipulates the research material, equipment and processes or changes or

omits data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research
records.

3. Plagiarism: It is the act of appropriating somebody else’s ideas, thoughts, pictures, theories,
words or stories as your own. If a researcher plagiarizes the work of others, the integrity,
ethics and trustworthiness of the sum total of his or her research becomes questionable.
Plagiarism is both an illegal and punishable act and is considered to be on the same level as
stealing from the author who originally created it. It can take the following forms.
(a)Intra-corpal: A case of plagiarism where one student has copied from another in the
same submission is known as intra-corpal plagiarism.
(b)Extra-corpal: It is an instance of plagiarism where a student has copied the material
from an external source (Example: Books, journal article, world wide web, etc.).
(c)Auto-plagiarism: It is citing one’s own work without acknowledgement.

4. Multiple authorship: There can be many improprieties in authorship. Improper

assignment of credit, such as excluding other authors, inclusion of other as authors who have
not made a definite contribution towards the work published or submission of multi-authored
publication without the knowledge of all the authors.

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Some important punctuation marks used in in-text citations

( . . . ), the ellipsis mark indicates that you left some material out of a direct quote. It
consists of three spaced periods with a space before and after each one ( . . . ).

Example: Creswell (2015) defines research as "a process of steps used to collect and
analyze information ( . . . ). It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer
the question, and present an answer to the question" (p. 3).

[ ], square brackets are used when writers include words which are not part of the
original quotation to clarify the meaning. It is also used to alter words, letters to adjust a
quotation for grammatical reasons.

For example, the judge’s decision was that “the two teams [the Lions and the Tigers] both
violated the rules.”

Original statement: “I like carrying out research in social science. I often make use of mixed-
method approach.”
Quote with square brackets: She said that “[she] like[s] carrying out research in social
science” and that “[she] often make[s] use of mixed-method approach.”

et al. is an abbreviation that is used to shorten APA in-text citations with three or
more authors. For example, (Taylor et al., 2018)

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Reference Marking

The MLA (Modern Language Association) and APA (American psychological

Association) documentation styles use in-text citations instead of footnotes and endnotes. At
the end of your essay, report, or research paper, cite only the works you have read and actually
quoted. Provide all the necessary bibliographical information and follow closely the steps
indicated below concerning the arrangement of entries, making sure your punctuation is
accurate. Your entries must be arranged alphabetically.
MLA style is more commonly used in cultural studies, and other humanities
disciplines, while APA style is more commonly used in social sciences, such as linguistics,
sociology, economics, and business research papers. ‘References’ are the terms used when
using APA, while with MLA, it is called ‘Works cited’.

- In-text references
Also called parenthetical citations, in-text references can be done in three ways. The
two books referred to below are Understanding Second Language Acquisition by Ellis, and
Ibsen’s novel A Doll’s House of which Nora is the main character.

1- You introduce the author before the quotation. The quote will support the previous
sentence that occurs before it.

APA i- According to Ellis (1985), “second language acquisition is………..” (p. 357).
ii- Nora admits that she is “ QUOTE” (Ibsen, 1994, p. 78)

MLA i- According to Ellis, “second language acquisition is………….” (357).

ii- Nora admits that she is “QUOTE” (Ibsen 78).

2- Here you begin with a statement that you will support by means of a quote preceded
by a colon.

APA i- Many definitions were provided to highlight that concept: “second language
acquisition is …………” (Ellis, 1985, p. 357).
ii- Nora thinks that her life should no more go on in the same way:
“QUOTE” (Ibsen, 1994, p. 78).

MLA i- Many definitions were provided to highlight that concept: “second language
acquisition is” (Ellis 357).
ii- Nora thinks that her life should no more go on in the same way:
“QUOTE” (Ibsen 78).

3- In the third way of integrating quotations, a part of the quote is used within your
sentence.

APA i- It is clear that “second language acquisition is………” (Ellis, 1985, p.357).
ii- Nora think that her life is “QUOTE” (Ibsen, 1994, p.78).

MLA i- It is clear that “second language acquisition is………” (Ellis 357).

ii- Nora think that her life is “QUOTE” (Ibsen 78).

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Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

Bibliography in APA format:

Books
-The basic entry for a book:
Johnson, O. (1912). Stover at Yale. New York: Frederick A. Stokes.
-Book with two or three authors :
 Two authors
Hanson, H. & Bigghel, C. C. (1997). Red sails in the sun room. Dubuque, IA: Stewart
Deconstruction.
 Three authors
Meyers, L., Hildebrand, R., & Hildebrand, M. Jr. (1970). Reflections on Luther's Small
Catechism. Omaha, NE: Mt. Olive.
-Book with four or more authors :
Bobbe, N., Karel, T., Hea, D., & Dahl, S. (1986). Twelve tone music and the rural saxophone quartet
in mid-western immigrant Czech communities. Tulsa, OK: Prairie Sooner.
-Book credited to an editor rather than an author :
Craig, B. F. & Gross, M. F. (Eds.). (1991). Where the porridge bird builds its nest: Humour of the 60s
counterculture. London: Baffin.
-Corporate author :
Duhl Computers. (2002). Troubleshooting the MBVC operating system and its peripheral devices.
Boston: Grinderpress.
-Government publication (book or pamphlet) :
U. S. Census Bureau. (2002). Statistical abstract of the United States: 2002 (122nd ed.). Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U. S. Department of the Treasury, Internal Revenue Service. (2002). Your federal income tax for
individuals(IRS Publication No. 17). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
-Two part title:
Furth, L. (1987). Going home: My journey to grandfather's Poland. Bridgeport, CT: Stramm Books.
-Reference book :
Kuhn, T. (2001). An atlas of New Dakota (Rev. ed.). Chicago: Hiram-Scottsdale House.
-Edited reference book:
Wiggins, W. A. (Ed.). (1997). A dictionary of organic chemistry. (4th ed.) Sidney: Nova
AustraliaPress.
-Article/Chapter/Entry from a reference book:
Jameson, J. (1997). Ethanol. In W. A. Wiggins (Ed.). A dictionary of organic chemistry. (4th ed., pp.
232-239) Sidney: Nova Australia Press.
-Poem/Essay/Short story in an anthology/collection:
 Poem
MacGowan, S. (1987). Belfast bombsite. In S. L. Fingers (Ed.). An Irish Punk Poetry
Anthology (pp. 117-118). Donegal: Culchie Press.
 Translation (of short story)
Eichendorff, J. (1994). Concerning the life of a good-for-nothing. In M. Jones (Ed.), R. Furst
(Trans.). Short Fiction of the German Romantic Century (pp. 23-118). New York: Blue
Flower Press. (Original work published 1826).
-Chapter in an edited book
Riving, I. W. (1996). The mythology of Old Low Norse among the inhabitants of northern Minnesota.
In T.L. Keynes & C. T. Cummings (Eds.), Saga: Threads of the Scandinavian heritage of
the Upper Midwest (pp. 57-89). Eau Claire: Fjord-Faerling.
-Book from a series
Gustavson, W. J. & Clocke, C. (2001). Bromine in everyday life. (The halogens unmasked: Vol. 3).
Boston: Distillation Press.
Journals: Articles in Periodical Literature

41
Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

-The basic entry for an article found in a journal:

Coltrane, K. (1998). If the river was whiskey: The use of metaphor in the lyrics of rural American
blues singers.The American Musicologist, 17, 237-253.
-Journal articles with multiple authors (parallels books with multiple authors, for example ...):
Wiggard, C. T. & Frump, I. B. (1992). Clinical trials of methadone in a Chicago halfway house. New
Dakota Pharmacology Review, 19, 221-257.
 Continuous page numbering
Johnson, W. B. T. (1997). Bear necessities: Basic business survival strategies in bad times. New
Dakota Studies in Economics and Business Management, 47, 778-794.
 Page numbering by issue
Johnson, W. B. T. (1994). Business cycles in third world economies. Greininger Business Review,
13(5), 17-33.
-Popular magazines:
Twiggel, E. J. (1991, March 26). Operation Desert Storm abates. New York Mercury Weekly, 177, 14-
15.
-Article from a newspaper:
Lavelle, M. C. (1991, April 16). Lake Fred floods: IRS involvement suspected. Pomona Gazette,
B2, B7-B8.
-Unsigned article from a newspaper:
Bomber plant to close in April. (1948, February 29). The Takoma Herald, A3.
-Book review:
Lechner, D. L. (Fall, 1980). [Review of the book Crimean Gothic: Analysis and etymology of the
corpus. (Studia linguistica et philologica, 6.)]. Michigan Germanic Studies, 6, 265-270.
Electronic Materials: subscription databases and online publications
-Article from a subscription database:
Halsey, J. Q. (1997). The DNA of glass. Phenomicon Physical Science Review, 22(3), 19-31.
Retrieved May 30, 2002, from DzwonKwest DigiPlus database.
-Article published (and available) only online:
Laufer, B. & Hill, M. (2000). What lexical information do L2 learners select in a CALL dictionary and
how does it affect word retention? Language Learning & Technology, 3(2), 58-76. Retrieved
October 22, 2001, from http://llt.msu.edu/vol3num2/laufer-hill/index.html
-Internet Website:
Banks, M.D. (Ed.). (2003, May 6). The Conn Company Archives. Retrieved July 21, 2003, from The
University of South Dakota, National Music Museum: America's Shrine to Music Web site:
http://www.usd.edu/smm/connarch.html
-Book available online:
London, J. (1998, January). The iron heel. Retrieved July 29, 2003, from Project Gutenberg Web site:
ftp://sailor.gutenberg.org/pub/gutenberg/etext98/irnhl10.txt. (Original work published 1907).

Works Cited in MLA format

Books:
-The basic entry for a book:
Johnson, Owen. Stover at Yale. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1912.
-Book with two or three authors:
 Two authors
Hanson, Hjalmar and C. Clive Bigghel. Red Sails in the Sun Room. Dubuque, IA: Stewart
Deconstruction, 1997.
 Three authors
Meyers, L., Hildebrand, R., & Hildebrand, M. Jr. (1970). Reflections on Luther's Small Catechism.
Omaha, NE: Mt. Olive.
-Book with four or more authors:

42
Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

Bobbe, Nicholas, et al. Twelve Tone Music and the Rural Saxophone Quartet in Mid-Western
immigrant Czech Communities. Tulsa, OK: Prairie Sooner, 1986.
-Book credited to an editor rather than an author:
Craig, Becky Forrest and Michelle Forrest Gross, ed. Where the Porridge Bird Builds Its Nest:
Humour of the 60s Counterculture. London: Baffin, 1991.
-Corporate author:
Duhl Computers. Troubleshooting the MBVC Operating System and its Peripheral Devices. Boston:
Grinderpress, 2002.
-Government publication (book or pamphlet) :
U.S. Census Bureau. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2002. 122nd ed. Washington: GPO,
2002.
U. S. Department of the Treasury, Internal Revenue Service. Your Federal Income Tax for
Individuals. IRS Pub. 17. Washington: GPO, 2002.
-Two-part title :
Furth, Lois. Going Home: My Journey to Grandfather's Poland. Bridgeport, CT: Stamm, 1987.
-Reference book :
Kuhn, Theodore. An Atlas of New Dakota. Rev. ed. Chicago: Hiram-Scottsdale, 2001.
-Edited reference book:
Wiggins, William A, ed. A Dictionary of Organic Chemistry. 4th ed. Sidney: Nova Australia, 1997.
-Article/Chapter/Entry from a reference book:
Jameson, Jeffrey. "Ethanol." A Dictionary of Organic Chemistry. Ed. Willian A. Wiggins. 4th ed.
Sidney: Nova Australia, 1997.
-Poem/Essay/Short story in an anthology/collection:
 Poem
MacGowan, Seamus. "Belfast Bombsite." An Irish Punk Poetry Anthology. Ed. Stephen L. Fingers.
Donegal: Culchie, 1987: 117-88.
 Translation (of short story)
Eichendorff, Joseph. "Concerning the Life of a Good-for-nothing." 1826. Trans. Richard Furst. Short
Fiction of the German Romantic Century. Ed. Maximillian Jones. New York: Blue Flower, 1994:
23-118.
-Chapter in an edited book:
Riving, Ivan Wallenz. "The Mythology of Old Low Norse Among the Inhabitants of Northern
Minnesota." Saga: Threads of the Scandinavian Heritage of the Upper Midwest. Ed. Thomas L.
Keynes and Charles Taylor Cummings. Eau Claire: Fjord-Faerling, 1996. 57-89.
-Book from a series:
Gustavson, Wayne J. and Carl Clocke. Bromine in Everyday Life. The Halogens Unmasked 3. Boston:
Distillation, 2001.
Journals: Articles in Periodical Literature
-The basic entry for an article found in a journal:
Coltrane, Karl. "If the River was Whiskey: The Use of Metaphor in the Lyrics of Rural American
Blues Singers."The American Musicologist 17 (1998): 237-53.
-Journal articles with multiple authors (parallels books with multiple authors, for example ...):
Wiggard, Carol T. and Ignatius B. Frump. "Clinical Trials of Methadone in a Chicago Halfway
House." New Dakota Pharmacology Review 19 (1992): 221-57.
 Continuous page numbering
Johnson, Walter Bigghes Treyne. "Bear Necessities: Basic Business Survival Strategies in Bad
Times." New Dakota Studies in Economics and Business Management 47 (1997): 778-94.
 Page numbering by issue
Johnson, Walter Bigghes Treyne. "Business Cycles in Third World Economies." Greininger Business
Review 13.5 (1994): 17-33.
-Popular magazines:
Twiggel, Elmira J. "Operation Desert Storm Abates." New York Mercury Weekly 26 Mar. 1991: 14-
15.

43
Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

-Article from a newspaper:

Lavelle, Maurice Christian. "Lake Fred Floods: IRS Involvement Suspected." Pomona Gazette 16 Apr.
1991: B2+.
-Unsigned article from a newspaper:
"Bomber Plant to Close in April." Takoma Herald 29 Feb. 1948: A3.
-Book review:
Lechner, David L. Rev. of Crimean Gothic: Analysis and Etymology of the Corpus (Studia Linguistica
et Philologica, 6), by MacDonald Stearns. Michigan Germanic Studies 6: (Fall, 1980): 265-70.
Electronic Materials: subscription databases and online publications
-Article from a subscription database:
Halsey, Jennifer Q. "The DNA of Glass." Phenomicon Physical Science Review 22.3 (1997): 19-
31.DzwonKwest DigiPlus. New Dakota State U Lib., Amberg. 30 May 2002
<http://www.dkdigiplus.com/kwestdesk>.
-Article published (and available) only online:
Laufer, Batia and Monica Hill."What Lexical Information Do L2 Learners Select in a CALL
Dictionary and How Does It Affect Word Retention?" Language Learning & Technology 3.2
(2000): 58-76. 22 Oct. 2001 <http://llt.msu.edu/vol3num2/laufer-hill/index.html>.
-Internet Website:
The Conn Company Archives. Ed. Margaret Downie Banks. 6 May 2003. National Music Museum:
America's Shrine to Music, The University of South Dakota. 21 July 2003.
<http://www.usd.edu/smm/connarch.html>.
-Book available online:
London, Jack. The Iron Heel. [New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1907]. Jan. 1998. Project Gutenberg. 29
July 2003. <ftp://sailor.gutenberg.org/pub/gutenberg/etext98/ irnhl10.txt>.

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Advanced Research Skills Prof. Khadija Sekkal

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7(2), 115-124.
Candy. P.C. (1989). Constructivism and the study ofself-direction in adult learning. Studies in the
education of adults, 21(2), 95-116. https://doi.org/10.1080/02660830.1989.11730524
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Press LTD.
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Shuttleworth, M. (Oct 3, 2008). Definition of Research. Retrieved Nov 22, 2022 from
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research, Sage, California.

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