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HN 22D1 F
D61495
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

FOR

BEGINNERS.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

FOR

BEGINNERS .

BY

JOSEPH EDWARDS, M.A.

FORMERLY FELLOW OF SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

London :
MACMILLAN AND CO. , LTD.
NEW YORK : MACMILLAN & CO.
1896

[All rights reserved.]

KDG1495

HAP RD
UNIVERSITY
LI DY
DEC 14 1961

First Edition 1893. Reprinted 1896.

 PREFACE.

THE present small volume is intended to form a

sound introduction to a study of the Differential Cal-
culus suitable for the beginner. It does not therefore
aim at completeness, but rather at the omission of all
portions which are usually considered best left for a
later reading. At the same time it has been con-
structed to include those parts of the subject pre-
scribed in Schedule I. of the Regulations for the
Mathematical Tripos Examination for the reading of
students for Mathematical Honours in the University
of Cambridge.
Particular attention has been given to the examples
which are freely interspersed throughout the text. For

the most part they are of the simplest kind, requiring

but little analytical skill. Yet it is hoped they will
prove sufficient to give practice in the processes they
are intended to illustrate.
It is assumed that in commencing to work at the
Differential Calculus the student possesses a fair know-
vi PREFACE.

ledge of Algebra as far as the Exponential and Logarith-

mic Theorems ; of Trigonometry as far as Demoivre's
Theorem, and of the rudiments of Cartesian Geometry
as far as the equations of the several Conic Sections in
their simplest forms.
Being to some extent an abbreviation of my larger
Treatise my acknowledgments are due to the same
authorities as there mentioned. My thanks are also
due to several friends for useful suggestions with regard
to the desirable scope of the book.
Any suggestions for its improvement or for its
better adaptation to the requirements of junior
students, or lists of errata, will be gratefully received.

JOSEPH EDWARDS.

80, CAMBRIDGE GARDENS,

NORTH KENSINGTON, W.
December, 1892.
 CONTENTS .

CHAPTER I.

LIMITING VALUES. ELEMENTARY UNDETERMINED FORMS.

PAGE
Definitions 1-5
Four important Limits 6-7
Undetermined forms : method of procedure 8-11

CHAPTER II.

DIFFERENTIATION FROM THE DEFINITION,

Tangent to a Curve. Definition. Equation • 13-14

Differential Coefficient 14-17
A Rate-measurer 18-20

CHAPTER III.

FUNDAMENTAL PROPOSITIONS.

Constant. Sum. Product. Quotient 22-25

Function of a function • 27-29
vili CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.

STANDARD FORMS.
PAGE
Algebraic, Exponential, Logarithmic Forms 31-33
Direct and Inverse Trigonometric Functions 34-38
Table of Results 39-40
Logarithmic Differentiation 40-41
Partial Differentiation 44-47

CHAPTER V.

SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION.

Standard results and processes 52-54

Use of Partial Fractions and Demoivre's Theorem . 55-56
Leibnitz's Theorem 57-60
Note on Partial Fractions 61-63

CHAPTER VI.

EXPANSIONS.

Elementary Methods . 66-68

Taylor's Theorem 69-70
Maclaurin's Theorem 71-73
By the Formation of a Differential Equation . 73-77
Differentiation or Integration of a Known Series 77-79

CHAPTER VII.

INFINITESIMALS.

Orders of Smallness. Infinitesimals 83-86

Difference of Small Arc from Chord 87
 CONTENTS. ix

CHAPTER VIII.

TANGENTS AND NORMALS.

PAGE
Equations of Tangent and Normal . 90-96
Cartesian Subtangent, Subnormal , etc. 97-99
ds dx
Values of etc. 100-101
dx " ds "
Polar Co-ordinates, Subtangent, Subnormal, Angle between
Radius Vector and Tangent, etc. 102-105
Pedal Equation . • 106-107
Maximum number of Tangents or Normals from a given
point . 108-110

CHAPTER IX.
ASYMPTOTES.
Methods of finding Asymptotes of a Curve in Cartesians . 115–125
Polar Asymptotes 126-129

CHAPTER X.

CURVATURE.
Expressions for the Radius of Curvature . 132-150
Co-ordinates of Centre of Curvature 152-153
Contact 153-158

CHAPTER XI.

ENVELOPES.
Method of finding an Envelope 162-168

CHAPTER XII.
ASSOCIATED LOCI,
Pedal Curves 173-179
Inversion . 180-181
Polar Reciprocal 182
Involutes and Evolutes 183-187
X CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIII.

MAXIMA AND MINIMA.

PAGE
Elementary Algebraical and Geometrical Methods . 192-196
The General Problem 197-206

CHAPTER XIV.

UNDETERMINED FORMS.

Applications of the Differential Calculus to the several

forms 210-219

CHAPTER XV.

LIMITATIONS OF TAYLOR'S THEOREM.

Continuity . 222-224
Lagrange-formula for Remainder after n terms of Taylor's
Series . 225-230
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS .

CHAPTER I.

LIMITING VALUES. ELEMENTARY UNDETERMINED

FORMS.

1. Object of the Differential Calculus. When

an increasing or decreasing quantity is made the subject
of mathematical treatment, it often becomes necessary
to estimate its rate of growth. It is our principal object
to describe the method to be employed and to exhibit
applications of the processes described.

2. Explanation of Terms. The frequently re-

curring terms “Constant," " Variable," " Function," will
be understood from the following example :
Let the student imagine a triangle of which two sides x, y are
unknown but of which the angle ( A ) included between those sides is
known. The area (A) is expressed by
A= xy sin A.
The quantity A is a " constant " for by hypothesis it retains the same
value, though the sides x and y may change in length while the
triangle is under observation . The quantities x, y and ▲ are there-
fore called variables. A, whose value depends upon those of x and y,
is called the dependent variable ; x and y, whose values may be any
whatever, and may either or both take up any values which may be
assigned to them, are called independent variables.
The quantity A whose value thus depends upon those of x, y and
A is said to be a function of x, y and A.
E. D. C. 1
2 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

3. Definitions. We are thus led to the following

definitions :

(a) A CONSTANT is a quantity which, during any set

of mathematical operations, retains the same value.
(b) A VARIABLE is a quantity which, during any set of
mathematical operations, does not retain the same value
but is capable of assuming different values.
(c) An INDEPENDENT VARIABLE is one which may
take up any arbitrary value that may be assigned to it.
(d) A DEPENDENT VARIABLE is one which assumes
its value in consequence of some second variable or system
of variables taking up any set of arbitrary values that
may be assigned to them.
(e) When one quantity depends upon another or upon
a system of others in such a manner as to assume a
definite value when a system of definite values is given to
the others it is called a FUNCTION of those others.

4. Notation . The usual notation to express that

one variable y is a function of another x is

y =f(x) or y = F (x) or y = $ (x).

Occasionally the brackets are dispensed with when no
confusion can thereby arise. Thus fr may be sometimes
written for f(x). If u be an unknown function of
several variables x, y, z, we may express the fact by the
equation u =f(x, y, z).

5. It has become conventional to use the letters

a, b, c... a, ß, y... from the beginning of the alphabet
to denote constants and to retain later letters, such as
u, v, w, x, y, z and the Greek letters §, n, 【 for variables.

6. Limiting Values. The following illustrations

will explain the meaning of the term "" LIMITING
VALUE " :
 LIMITING VALUES. 3

(1 ) We say 6 , by which we mean that by taking enough sixes

we can make 666... differ by as little as we please from .
2x +3
(2) The limit of when x is indefinitely diminished is 3.
x+ 1
2x + 3 x
For the difference between and 3 is
x+ 1 x + 1 and by diminishing
r indefinitely this difference can be made less than any assignable
quantity however small.
3
2+
x
The expression can also be written , which shews that if x
1+
x
be increased indefinitely it can be made to continually approach and
to differ by less than any assignable quantity from 2, which is there-
fore its limit in that case.
It is useful to adopt the notation Ltx - a to denote
the words "the Limit when x = a of."
2x +3 2x + 3
Thus = 3 ; Ltx = x x+ 1 = 2.
x+ 1
(3) If an equilateral polygon be inscribed in any closed curve and
the sides of the polygon be decreased indefinitely, and at the same
time their number be increased indefinitely, the polygon continually
approximates to the form of the curve, and ultimately differs from it
in area by less than any assignable magnitude, and the curve is said to
be the limit of the polygon inscribed in it.

7. We thus arrive at the following general defini-

tion :

DEF. The LIMIT of a function for an assigned value

of the independent variable is that value from which the
function may be made to differ by less than any assign-
able quantity however small by making the independent
variable approach sufficiently near its assigned value.

8. Undetermined forms . When a function in-

volves the independent variable in such a manner that
for a certain assigned value of that variable its value
cannot be found by simply substituting that value of the
variable, the function is said to take an undetermined
form.
1-2
4 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

One of the commonest cases occurring is that of a

fraction whose numerator and denominator both vanish
for the value of the variable referred to.
Let the student imagine a triangle whose sides are
made of a material capable of shrinking indefinitely till
they are smaller than any conceivable quantity. To fix
the ideas suppose it to be originally a triangle whose
sides are 3, 4 and 5 inches long, and suppose that the
shrinkage is uniform. As the shrinkage proceeds the
sides retain the same mutual ratio and may at any
instant be written 3m, 4m, 5m and the angles remain
unaltered. It thus appears that though each of these
sides is ultimately immeasurably small, and to all prac-
tical purposes zero, they still retain the same mutual ratio
34 : 5 which they had before the shrinkage began.
These considerations should convince the student
that the ultimate ratio of two vanishing quantities is not
necessarily zero or unity.
- a²
9. Consider the fraction what is its value
Ꮳ-α
when x = a ? Both numerator and denominator vanish
when x is puta. But it would be incorrect to assume
that the fraction therefore takes the value unity. It is
equally incorrect to suppose the value to be zero for the
reason that its numerator is evanescent ; or that it is
infinite since its denominator is evanescent, . as the
beginner is often fallaciously led to believe. If we wish
to evaluate this expression we must never put x actually
equal to a. We may however put a = a + h where h is
anything other than zero.
x2 --- a²
Thus = 2a + h,
Ꮳ α
and it is now apparent that by making h indefinitely
small (so that the value of a is made to approach inde-
finitely closely to its assigned value a) we may make the
expression differ from 2a by less than any assignable
 EXAMPLES. 5

quantity. Therefore 2a is the limiting value of the

given fraction.

10. Two functions of the same independent variable

are said to be ultimately equal when as the independent
variable approaches indefinitely near its assigned value
the limit of their ratio is unity.
sin
Thus Lte=0 - 1 by trigonometry,
Ꮎ
and therefore when an angle is indefinitely diminished
its sine and its circular measure are ultimately equal.

EXAMPLES.

1. Find the limit when x = 0 of y

x2,
(a) when y = mx,
(b) when y = x²/a,
(c) when y = ax² +b.
ax+b
2. Find Lt (i) when x = 0, (ii) when x = ∞ .
bx +a'
x4 - a4 хоб- аб
3. Find Ltx—a Ltx-a Ltx =ax² -a²°
x- α x-α
b
ax +
X
4. Find the limit of
d' (i) when x = 0, (ii) when x = ∞ .
cx +
X
3x² - 4x + 1
5. Find Ltx= 1
x² - 4x + 3
6. The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supple-
mentary. What does this proposition become in the limit when
two angular points coincide ?
x³- 6x² + 11x - 6
7. Evaluate the fraction for the values
X-3 - 6x-2 + 11x-1-6
x= ∞ , 3, 2, 1 , §, 1 , 0, −∞ .
√x - 1 and Ltx=0 √1+x- 1
Evaluate Ltx = 13
8. /
30 ---1 X
6 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

11. Four Important Limits . The following

limits are important :
sin
(I) Lte-o = 1 ; Lte -ocos = 1 ,
0
xn 1
(II ) Lt = 1 x - 1 = n ,

(III) Ltz = = e, where e is the base of the

(1 + Ꮖ1)*-
Napierian logarithms,
ax - 1
(IV ) Lt= 0 = logea.
XC

12. (I) The limits (I) can be found in any standard

text-book on Plane Trigonometry.
xn - 1
13. (II) To prove Ltx = 1 = n. Letx = 1 + z. Then
XC 1
when a approaches unity z approaches zero. Hence we
can consider z to be less than 1 , and we may therefore
apply the Binomial to the expansion of (1 + z)" what-
ever n may be.
xn 1
Thus Lt = 1 = Ltz=0 (1 + z)" - 1
XC 1 Z
n ( n - 1)
nz + 22+.
1.2
= Ltz=0
2

= Lt₂=0 {n + n(n - 1) 2+
- 1) 2 +...} =
= Litz = { n + (11.2 = nn.

= e.
14. ( III) To prove Lt₂-∞ (1 + 1) * ·

Let
y = (1 +1)*.

then
loge y = x loge ( 1 + 1 ) .
 FOUR IMPORTANT LIMITS. 7

Now x is about to become infinitely large, and there-

1
fore may be throughout regarded as less than unity,
X
and we may expand by the Logarithmic Theorem .
(1 1 1
Thus loge y = x --- +
(C 2.x2 3x3 ....
1 1
=1-
= +
2x 3x²
1
= 1 --- × [a convergent series].
Ꮖ

Thus when x becomes infinitely large

Lt logey = 1,
and Lt y = e,
x
i.e. Lit₂ = = ( 1 + 1) = e.
c.
x
x
CoR. Ltx = ( 1+ = Ltx 1+ = ea.
C =∞
a

ах - 1
15. ( IV) To prove Ltx= 0 =
= logea.
X

Assume the expansion for a*, viz.

XC²
a* = 1 + xlog.a + 2! (log.a)² + ...,

which is shewn in Algebra to be a convergent series.

ax - 1 (log, a)²
Hence = +.
OC ·logea + x 2!

= log, a + x × [a convergent series].

And the limit of the right-hand side, when x is in-
definitely diminished, is clearly log.a.
8 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

16. Method of procedure . The rule for evaluating

0
a function which takes the undetermined form when
0
the independent variable x ultimately coincides with its
assigned value a is as follows :-
Put x = a + h and expand both numerator and deno-
minator of the fraction. It will now become apparent
that the reason why both numerator and denominator
ultimately vanish is that some power of h is a common
factor of each. This should now be divided out. Finally
let h diminish indefinitely so that a becomes ultimately
a, and the true limiting value of the function will be
clear.
In the particular case in which a is to become zero
the expansion of numerator and denominator in powers
of a should be at once proceeded with without any pre-
liminary substitution for x.
In the case in which x is to become infinite, put
1
x=-,
y
so that when a becomes ∞ , y becomes 0.
Several other undetermined forms occur, viz. 0 x ∞ ,
∞
∞ ∞ - ∞ , 0º, ∞ º, 1 ° , but they may be made to depend
0
upon the form by special artifices.
0
The method thus indicated will be best understood
by examining the mode of solution of the following
examples :-
x7-2x5 + 1
Ex. 1. Find Lt.-11
x³ - 3x² +2 °
This is of the form if we put x= 1. Therefore we put x = 1 + h
and expand. We thus obtain
x7 -2x5 + 1 (1 + h)7 −- 2 (1 + h)5 + 1
Ltx = 1x³ - 3x² +2 = Ltn= 0
(1 + h)3-3 (1 + h) ² + 2 .
 UNDETERMINED FORMS.

(1 + 7h + 21h² + ... ) www− 2 ( 1 + 5h + 10h² + ... ) + 1

=Lt =0
(1 + 3h + 3h² + ... ) - − 3 (1 + 2h + h²) +2
--·3h + h² + ...
= Ltr==00 = 3h + ...
- 3 + h + ...
= Ltn= 0 =3 + ...
3
= 1.

It will be seen from this example that in the process of expansion

it is only necessary in general to retain a few of the lowest powers ofh.
ax- bx
Ex. 2. Find Lt. -0 •
x
Here numerator and denominator both vanish if x be put equal to 0.
We therefore expand a* and be by the exponential theorem. Hence
at - bx
Lt = o
x
- 1+
+ xlogeb + 21 (log,b)²+
{ 1 + xlog.a + 2 (log,a) ² +
...}
= Ltz = 0 X

= Ltr =0 {log.a - log.b + 21 (log.a |2 – log.b] 2) +

a
= log, a - log.bloge
1
x x2
Ex. 3. Find L ...(any).
tan x 1 sin z
Since
x cos x x
tan x
we have = 1.
x
/
'tan x 17
x2
Hence the form assumed by is an undetermined form 1°
x
when we put x = 0.
Expand sin x and cos x in powers of x. This gives
1 x3 1
x2 x + x2
3!
L ...(tan )2. = Lt = 0 x3
x
10 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

= Lt₂ -01 + + higher powers of z

(1+ 등
1
x2
=Lt,=0 (1+
{1+ 2(1

x21
= Lt₂=0 (
(1+ 3 ) ,
where is a series in ascending powers of x whose first term (and
therefore whose limit when x = 0) is unity. Hence
3
'tan x x2
Lt.-0 = Lt,=0 { ( 1 + 221) 3 = et, by Art. 14.
x

Ex. 4. Find Lte =121-2.

This expression is of the undetermined form 1° .
Put 1 - x= y,
and therefore, if x = 1, y= 0;
1
therefore Limit required = Lty - o (1 - y) = e¹ (Art. 14).
1
Ex. 5. Lt = x (az - 1).
This is of the undetermined form ∞ x 0.
1
Put x= -
y
therefore, if x = ∞ , y = 0,
av --1
and Limit required = Lty =0 = log.a (Art. 15).
y

17. The following Algebraical and Trigonometrical series are

added, as they are wanted for immediate use. They should be learnt
thoroughly.
n (n - 1) n(n - 1 ) (n - 2) 23+
(1 + x)* = 1 + nữ + 1..2 x² + 1.2.3
n (n + 1) x² + n (n + 1) (n + 2) x³ +
(1 - x )-n = 1 + nữ t 1.2 1.2.3
x² (log.a)² + x³ (log.a)3+
a*= 1 + xlog.a + 2! 3!
x2 x³
ex= 1 + x +2 + +
21 3!
 EXAMPLES. 11

x2 -
= x-
loge (1 + x) = 3
+

3 x4
loge (1 - x) = -x
1l 1 +x

비보
og.
1 -x = x + + +

tan-1x= x- 예
에
3

cos x = 1
2! 4!

sin x = x-
3! 5!

cosh x [ which = *-
+2 -* ] 41
x5
sinh æ | which = |= x + +
[ which = * - *] = 5!

EXAMPLES.

Find the values of the following limits :

a² - 1 -1 xm- 1
1. Lt = 0j_ -1 . 2. Ltrai 5 3. Lt₂- 12-1
-1

(1 + x)= −1 x +x³ - x2-5x +4

Lteng
4. La = 0(1 +2) — 1 5. Lt - i
X x³ - x2 - x + 1
x5-2x³ - 4x² + 9x - 4
6. Ltx = 1 · 7. Liz-—6*
Lt = o
x42x3 + 2x – 1 XC .
ex+ ex - 2 x cos x - − log. ( 1 + x)
8. Ltz = o x2 9. Lte = 0 x2
xex - log. ( 1 + x) x - sin x cos x
10. Lt = 0 11. Ltzo
x2 x3
sin-1x - x cosh x -X COS x
12. Ltx =0x3 cos x 13. Lt = o-
x sin x
sin-1 x sin-1 c – sinh
14. Ltz = 0tan - 1 • 15. Ltx = 0
x05
12 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

xcos³x - log. (1 + x) - -1 x2
− sin−¹ '2
16. Ltx = 0

1 1 +x
2 sin x+ loge 3x
2 1 -X ex sin x--x - x2
17. Ltx = 0 18. Ltx-02 +xlog. ( 1 - x) '
24 1
2³e -sin x² tan x
19. Ltx = 0 20. Ltx = 0
1
'tan 23
21. Lte = 0 22. Ltr-áo. (min x) !.
Llame( 20Ꮖ12)5.

sin
Lta= o (sin x) 4
23. Litamo 24. Lta = 0
XC
1
25. Lto (covers x) ē . 26. Ltx (cosec x)tan²x
 CHAPTER II.

DIFFERENTIATION FROM THE DEFINITION.

18. Tangent ofa Curve ; Definition ; Direction.

Let AB be an arc of a curve traced in the plane of the
paper, OX a fixed straight line in the same plane. Let

Y
B

Р
A R

T M N X

P, Q, be two points on the curve ; PM, QN, perpen-

diculars on OX, and PR the perpendicular from P on
QN. Join P, Q, and let QP be produced to cut OX
at T.
When Q , travelling along the curve, approaches in-
definitely near to P, the limiting position of chord QP is
called the TANGENT at P. QR and PR both ultimately
vanish, but the limit of their ratio is in general finite ;
RQ
for Lt = Lt tan RPQ = Lt tan XTP = tangent of the
PR
angle which the tangent at P to the curve makes with
OX.
14 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

If y = 4(x) be the equation of the curve and a,

x + h the abscissae of the points P, Q respectively ;
then MP = (x), NQ = 4 (x + h), RQ = 4 (x + h) − $(x)
and PR = h.
RQ (x)
Thus Lt = Lth=0 + (x + h) -
PR h

Hence, to draw the tangent at any point (x, y) on the

curve y = (x), we must draw a line through that point,
making with the axis of x an angle whose tangent is
Lth=0 $ (x + h) − $ (x) .
h
and if this limit be called m, the equation of the tangent
at P (x, y) will be
Y - y = m (X - x),
X, Y being the current co-ordinates of any point on the
tangent ; for the line represented by this equation goes
through the point (x, y), and makes with the axis of a
an angle whose tangent is m.

19. DEF.-DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT.

Let p(x) denote any function of x, and p (x + h ) the
-
$ (x + h) − $ (x) is
same function of x + h; then Ltr = 0 h
called the FIRST DERIVED FUNCTION or DIFFERENTIAL
COEFFICIENT of (x) with respect to x.
The operation of finding this limit is called differ-
entiating (x).

20. Geometrical meaning . The geometrical

meaning of the above limit is indicated in the last article,
where it is shewn to be the tangent of the angle ↓ which
the tangent at any definite point (x, y) on the curve
y = (x) makes with the axis of x.

21. We can now find the differential coefficient of

any proposed function by investigating the value of the
 GEOMETRICAL MEANING. 15

above limit ; but it will be seen later on that, by means

of certain rules to be established in Chap. III . and a
knowledge of the differential coefficients of certain
standard forms to be investigated in Chap. IV. , we can
always avoid the labour of an ab initio evaluation.
Ex. 1. Find from the definition the differential coefficient of
where a is constant ; and the equation of the tangent to the curve
ay = x³.
Here + (x) = =² ,
(x + h)²
$ (x + h) = a "
-
Ltn_ 。 Þ (x+ h) − p (x) (x + h)² - x²
therefore
h ha
2xh + h² (2x + h)
= Lt -o = Lt = 0
ha a
2x
=
a
The geometrical interpretation of this result is that, if a tangent
be drawn to the parabola ay =x² at the point (x, y) , it will be inclined
2x
to the axis of x at the angle tan-¹ a
The equation of the tangent is therefore
2x
Y-y=- · (X − x).
a
Ex. 2. Find from the definition the differential coefficient of
log, sin " where a is a constant.

Here ø (x) = log, sin²,

α
and x+h
login a log, sin a
Lt -0 (x + h) − (x) = Lt =0
h h
h h
..s1log - ce -
, sin
a a+ cos ain a
= Ltr =0
8/0a

sin
h x-
= Lt. -olog. ( 1 + 2 cot a – higher powers of h
:)
16 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

h h
by substituting for sin a and cos а- their expansions in powers of

h x
cot - higher powers of h
a a
= Lth==0 h
[by expanding the logarithm]
1 x
=-cot -·
α a
x
Hence the tangent at any point on the curve a - log, sin a is inclined
x
to the axis of x at an angle whose tangent is cot ; that is at an angle
π X
and the equation of the tangent at the point x, y is
2 a

Y - y =cot (X - x) .

EXAMPLES.

Find the equation of the tangent at the point (x, y) on each

of the following curves :
1. y = x³. 2. y = x+. 3. y= √x.
4. y= x² + x³. 5. y = sin x. 6. y = ex.
7. y = log, x. 8. y = tan x. 9. x² + y² = c².
10. x²/a² + y²/b² = 1 .

22. Notation . It is convenient to use the notation

Sx for the same quantity which we have denoted by h,
viz. a small but finite increase in the value of x. We
may similarly denote by dy the consequent change in the
value of y. Thus if (x, y), (x + dx, y + dy) be contiguous
points upon a given curve y = p (x) , we have
y + dy = $ (x + dx),
and -
dy = $ (x + dx) — $ (x).
Thus the differential coefficient
-
Lt&x=0 $ (x + dx) − $ (x)
δι
 NOTATION. 17

may be written

Ltax= 0 бу
Sx'

which more directly indicates the geometrical meaning

LtpR =0 RQ
PR

pointed out in Art. 18.

The result of the operation expressed by
(x + h) - (x)
Lth=0
h

or by Ltax=0 бу
Sx'
d dy
is denoted by dxy or ·
dx

The student must guard against the fallacious notion

that dx and dy are separate small quantities, as dx and
d
dy are. He must remember that is a symbol of
dx
operation which when applied to any function (x)
means that we are
(1) to increase x to x + h,
(2) to subtract the original value ofthe function,
(3) to divide the remainder by h,
(4) to evaluate the limit when h ultimately vanishes.
Other notations expressing the same thing are
do (x) do
" ☀′ (x), p', $, $x, Y' , ÿ, Yı.
dx dx

EXAMPLES.

Find dy in the following cases :

dx
1. y = 2x. 2. y = 2 + x. 3. y= 2 +3x.
E. D. C. 2
18 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

1
4. y = 2 + 3x². 5. y= 6. X + a.
y ==
X

7. y= 1+a. 8. y = ax. 9. y = √x² + a².

10. y = e√x 11. y =esin x

12. y = log, sec x.
sin x
13. y= x sin x. 14. y=- 15. y = x .
XC

23. Aspect of the Differential Coefficient as a

Rate-Measurer. When a particle is in motion in a
given manner the space described is a function of the
time of describing it. We may consider the time as an
independent variable, and the space described in that
time as the dependent variable.
The rate of change of position of the particle is
called its velocity.
If uniform the velocity is measured by the space
described in one second ; if variable, the velocity at any
instant is measured by the space which would be
described in one second if, for that second, the velocity
remained unchanged.
Suppose a space s to have been described in time t
with varying velocity, and an additional space ds to be
described in the additional time St. Let v, and v₂ be
the greatest and least values of the velocity during
the interval St ; then the spaces which would have been
described with uniform velocities v₁ , v₂, in time St are
v₁st and v,st, and are respectively greater and less than
the actual space ds.
Hence V₁ , Ss " and
v, are in descending order of mag-
st
nitude.
If then St be diminished indefinitely, we have in the
limit v₁₂= = the velocity at the instant considered,
ds ds
which is therefore represented by Lt ' i.e. by
δε dt
 A RATE-MEASURER. 19

24. It appears therefore that we may give another in-

ds
terpretation to a differential coefficient, viz . that at means

the rate of increase of s in point of time. Similarly

dx dy
dt ' at mean the rates of change of x and y respectively
in point of time, and measure the velocities, resolved
parallel to the axes, of a moving particle whose co-
ordinates at the instant under consideration are x, y.
If x and y be given functions of t, and therefore the
path of the particle defined, and if Sx, Sy, St, be simul-
taneous infinitesimal increments of x, y, t, then
Sy
бу dy
dy = Lt Sy = Lt δε = dt
dx δα Sx dx
St dt
and therefore represents the ratio of the rate of change
of y to that of x. The rate of change of x is arbitrary,
and if we choose it to be unit velocity, then
dy dy =
dx=dt absolute rate of change of y.

25. Meaning of Sign of Differential Coefficient.

If x be increasing with t, the x-velocity is positive,
whilst, if x be decreasing while t increases, that velocity
is negative. Similarly for y.
dy

Moreover, since dy=

_dt dy
dx dx' dx is positive when x and y
dt
increase or decrease together, but negative when one in-
creases as the other decreases.
This is obvious also from the geometrical inter-
dy
pretation of For, if x and y are increasing together,
dx
2-2
20 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

dy
dx is the tangent of an acute angle and therefore positive,
dy
while if, as x increases y decreases, dx represents the

tangent ofan obtuse angle and is negative.

26. The above article frequently affords important

information with regard to the sign of a given expression.
For if, for instance, p(x) be a continuous function which
is positive when xa and when x = b, and if p′ (x) be
of one sign for all values of x lying between a and b so
that it is known that (x) is always increasing or
always decreasing from the one value (a) to the other
(b), it will follow that (x) must be positive for all
intermediate values of x.
Ex. Let (x) =(x - 1) ex + 1.
(x + h − 1) ex+h -
– (x − 1)ex
Here (0) = 0 and 4' (x) = Ltp=0 h
(x + h - 1) (1 + h + ...) - (x - 1) ex
= Ltp= 0 h
hx +higher powers of h
= Lth=0 h xe

So that o' (x) is positive for all positive values of x. Therefo re as t

increases from 0 to ∞ , (x) is always increasing. Hence since its
initial value is zero the expression is positive for all positive values
of x.
EXAMPLES.
1. Differentiate the following expressions, and shew that
they are each positive for all positive values of x :
(i) (x - 2) ex + x + 2,
x2
(ii) (x − 3) e* + * + 2x + 3,
(iii) x - log. (1 + x).
x
2. In the curve y = ce , if y be the angle which the tangent
at any point makes with the axis of x, prove y = c tan ↓.
X
3. In the curve y = c cosh C' prove y=csec .
 EXAMPLES. 21

4. In the curve 3b2y = x³ - 3x² find the points at which the

tangent is parallel to the axis of x.
[N.B. -This requires that tan ↓ = 0.]

5. Find at what points of the ellipse x²/a² +y2/b2 = 1 the

tangent cuts off equal intercepts from the axes.
[N.B. This requires that tan = ± 1.]

6. Prove that if a particle move so that the space described

is proportional to the square of the time of description, the
velocity will be proportional to the time, and the rate of increase
of the velocity will be constant.

7. Shew that if a particle moves so that the space described

is given by sa sin μt, where μ is a constant, the rate of increase
of the velocity is proportional to the distance of the particle
measured along its path from a fixed position.
8. Shew that the function
x sin x + cos x + cos² x
continually diminishes as x increases from 0 to π/2.

9. If y= 2x -tan-1x - log. (x + √√1 + x²),

shew that y continually increases as x changes from zero to
positive infinity.

10. A triangle has two of its angular points at (a, 0), (0, b),
and the third (x, y) is moveable along the line y = x. Shew that
if A be its area dA
2
dx = a + b,
and interpret this result geometrically.
11. If A be the area of a circle of radius x, shew that the
dA
circumference is Interpret this geometrically.
dx

12. O is a given point and NP a given straight line upon

which ON is the perpendicular. The radius OP rotates about
O with the constant angular velocity w. Shew that NP
increases at the rate
w . ON sec² NOP.
 CHAPTER III.

FUNDAMENTAL PROPOSITIONS.

27. It will often be convenient in proving standard

results to denote by a small letter the function of x
considered, and by the corresponding capital the same
function of x + h, e.g. if u = p (x), then U = 4 (x + h),
or if u = a*, then U = a +h.
Accordingly we shall have
du U- u
= Lth=0
dx h
dv V -V
= Ltn-o
dx h 2
etc.
We now proceed to the consideration of several im-
portant propositions.

28. PROP. I. The Differential Coefficient of any

Constant is zero . This proposition will be obvious
when we refer to the definition of a constant quantity.
A constant is essentially a quantity of which there is
no variation, so that if y = c, dy = absolute zero what-
ever may be the value of dx. Hence бу =:0 and
δα
dy
= 0 when the limit is taken.
dx
Or geometrically: y = c is the equation of a straight line parallel
to the x-axis. At each point of its length it is its own tangent and
makes an angle whose tangent is zero with the x-axis.
 FUNDAMENTAL PROPOSITIONS. 23

29. PROP.II. Product of Constant and Function .

The differential coefficient of a product of a constant and
a function of x is equal to the product of the constant
and the differential coefficient of the function, or, stated
algebraically,
d du
dx (cu) = c
dx
d cU - cu U- u
For (cu) = Ltr =0 = cLth =0
dx h h
du
=c
dx

30. PROP. III. Differential Coefficient of a Sum.

The differential coefficient of the sum of a set offunctions
of x isthe sum of the differential coefficients ofthe several
functions.
Let u, v, w, ..., be the functions of x; and y their
sum.
Let U, V, W, ..., Y be what these expressions
severally become when x is changed to x + h.
Then y = u + v + w + ...
Y = U + V + W + ...,
and therefore
− v) + (W-
Y− y = (U - u) + ( V - − w) + ... ;
dividing by h,
U- u V - v W-พ
x=y = h + + +
h h h
and taking the limit
dy du dv dw
= + + + ....
dx dx dx dx
If some of the connecting signs had been - instead
of a corresponding result would immediately follow,
e.g. if
y = u + v ― w + ...
24 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

dy du dv dw
then = + + ....
dx dx dx dx

31. PROP. IV. The Differential Coefficient of

the product of two functions is
(First Function) x (Diff. Coeff. ofSecond)
+ (Second Function) × (Diff. Coeff. of First),
or, stated algebraically,
d (uv) dv du
=u +v ·
dx dx dx

With the same notation as before, let

y = uv, and therefore Y = UV ;

whence ----
Y — y = UV — uv
= u ( V − v) + V ( U − u) ;
Y-y - U- u
therefore = +V
+ Ꮴ? ,
h h h

and taking the limit

dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx

32. On division by uv the above result may be written

1 dy = 1 du 1 dv
+
y dx u dx v dx
Hence it is clear that the rule may be extended to pro-
ducts of more functions than two.
For example, if y = uvw ; let vw = z, then y = uz.

Whence 1 dy_ 1 du 1 dz
-=
+
У dx u dx z dx '
y
1 dz 1 dv 1 dw
but - +
z dx v dx w dx
 FUNDAMENTAL PROPOSITIONS. 25

whence by substitution
1 dy = 1 du 1 dv 1 dw
+ +
y dx u dx v dx w dx

Generally, if y = uvwt...
1 dy = 1 du 1 dv 1 dw 1 dt
+ + + +.
y dx u d x v d x w d x t dx

and if we multiply by uvwt... we obtain

dy du dv dw
= (vwt...) + (uwt...) + (uvt...) + ....
dx dx dx dx

i.e. multiply the differential coefficient of each separate

function by the product of all the remaining functions
and add up all the results ; the sum will be the differ-
ential coefficient of the product of all the functions.

33. PROP. V. The Differential Coefficient of a

quotient of two functions is
(Diff. Coeff. of Num”. ) (Den”.) – (Diff. Coeff. of Den".) (Num".)
Square of Denominator

or, stated algebraically,

du dv
И
d и dx dx
=
dx v 22

With the same notation as before, let

U U
y=v" and therefore Y = ,

U И
whence Y- y =
V บ

Uv- Vu
= ;
Vv
26 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

U- u V -- ข
- И
Y-y h h
therefore ==
h Vv

and taking the limit

du dv
v น
dy dx dx
=
dx v2

34. To illustrate these rules let the student recall to memory the
X
differential coefficients of r² and a log, sin a established in Art. 21 , viz.
x
2x and cot a respectively.
x
Ex. 1. Thus if y= x² +a log, sin a
dy == 2x + cot-x
we have by Prop. III. dx
X
Ex. 2. If y=x2x a log, sin a
dy
we have by Prop. IV. dx = 2x × a log.sin + xcot .
X
alog, sin a
Ex. 3. If y=
x x
x2.• cot.
dy a -2x.alog, sin a
we have by Prop. V. dx

EXAMPLES.
[The following differential coefficients obtained as results of
preceding examples may for present purposes be assumed :
y= x3, Y₁ =3x² y= ex, Y₁ =ex.

y= x , Y₁ = 4x³. y = log, x, Y17

X
1
y = √x, Y1 = y=tan x, Y₁ =sec²x.
2√x
y=sin x, y₁ = cos x. y= log, sin x, Y₁ =cot x.]
 FUNCTION OF A FUNCTION. 27

Differentiate the following expressions by aid of the foregoing

rules :
1. x³ sin x, x³ex, log, x, x³ tan x, 23 log, sin x.
2. x4/sinx, sin x/x4, sin x/ex, ex/sin x.
3. tan x.log, sin x, ezlog, x, sin² x/cos x.
4. x³ex sin x, x tan x log, x.
5. x³ sin x/e*, x /ex sin x, 1/x³ex sin x.
6. 2 .sinx , 3 tan x/√x, 5+4e /√x.
7. ex (x² + √x), (x + 4) (ex log, x).

35. Function of a function .

Suppose u = f (u ) ... .. (1) ,

where v = $(x)………….. .. (2).
If x be changed to x + dx, v will become v + dv, and
in consequence u will become u + du.
Now if u had been first eliminated between equa-
tions ( 1) and (2 ) we should have a result of the form
u = F(x) ......
.. (3).
This equation will be satisfied by the same simul-
taneous values x + dx, u + Su, which satisfy equations
(1 ) and (2). Also
Su δυ Sv
= •
Sx Sv Sx'

and proceeding to the limit

Su
Lt&x=0 - du as obtained from equation (3),
Sx dx
Su du
Ltsv=0 Sv = as obtained from equation (1),
δυ dv

Ltsx=0 Sv dv
Sx = as obtained from equation (2).
Sx dx
du du dv
Thus = •
dx dv dx
28 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

36. For instance, the diff. coeff. of x² is 2x,

Art. 21.
and of log, sin x is cot x.

Suppose u= (log, sin x)², i.e. v² where vlog, sin x, then

du du dv
dx dvdx = 2v.cotx = 2 cot x.log, sin x.

37. It is obvious that the above result may be

extended. For, if u = $ (v ), v = ¥(w), w = ƒ(x), we have
du du dv
=
dx dv dx'

dv dv dw
but ;
dx dw dx

du du dv dw
and therefore =
dx ´dv ・ dw ・ dx '

and a similar result holds however many functions there

may be.

The rule may be expressed thus :

d (1st Func. ) = d (1st Func.) d (2nd Func.) d (Last Func.)
dx d (2nd Func.) d (3rd Func. ) dx

or if u= [ {F (ƒx)} ],
du
=
dx P
' [† {F (ƒx)} ] × √
′ { F (ƒx) } × F' (ƒx) × ƒ'x.

Thus in the preceding Example

d (log, sin x)² =
__ d (log, sin x)2 dlog, sin x =
dx dx = 2 loge sin x . cotx.
d (log, sin x)
Again,
d (log, sin x²) = d (log, sin x²) d sin x2 · dx²
dx d (sin x²) dx2 dx
1
= cos x² . 2x = 2x cot x².
sin x2
 INTERCHANGE OF THE VARIABLES. 29

38. Interchange of the dependent and inde-

pendent variable . If in the theorem
du du dy
=
dx dy dx
we put u = x,

du dx
then = = Lth=0 (x + h) - x = 1,
dx dx h

and we obtain the result

dy dx
• 1,
dx dy

dy = 1
or
dx dx
dy

39.The truth of this is also manifest geometrically,

dy dx
for and are respectively the tangent and the co-
dx dy
tangent of the angle & which the tangent to the curve
y =ƒ(x) makes with the x-axis.

40. This formula is very useful in the differentiation

of an inverse function.

Thus if we have y =f−¹(x),

x =f(y) ,
dx
and = f (y),
dy

a form which we are supposing to have been investigated.

Thus dy = 1 = 1
dx f' (y) ƒ' [ƒ˜¹ (x)] '
30 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

EXAMPLES.
Assuming as before for present purposes the following differen-
tial coefficients,
d d 1 d
x³ =
- 3x², х sin x cos x,
dx dx 2√x' dx
d - d 1 d
tan x = sec² x,
dx dx·log, x = Ꮖ " dx

write down the differential coefficients of the following com-

binations :
1. e³*, e-x, sin³ x, √sinx, Vlog, x, tan x, sin v/x.
2. esinx, etanx exa evx
, elogez.

3. log, sin x, log, tan x, log. √x, log, x³.

4. sin log, a, tan log, x, sin log. x, sin √x, log, sin √x.

5. log.√sine tan log, sin e Va.

 CHAPTER IV.

STANDARD FORMS.

41. IT is the object of the present Chapter to

investigate and tabulate the results of differentiating
the several standard forms referred to in Art. 21 .
We shall always consider angles to be measured in
circular measure, and all logarithms to be Napierian,
unless the contrary is expressly stated.
It will be remembered that if u = (x), then, bythe
definition of a differential coefficient,
du $ (x + h) − $ (x)
= Lth =0
dx h

42. Differential Coefficient of π”.

If u = $ (x) = x²,
then $ (x + h) = (x + h)",
du
and = Lth=0(x + h)n - xn
dx h

-1
(1 + 2)"
2218

= Ltr=0x
h
Now, since h is to be ultimately zero, we may consider
h
to be less than unity, and we can therefore apply the
32 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Binomial Theorem to expand (1 + 2) " , whatever be the

value of n ; hence
du xn h -
n (n − 1) h²
= Ltp=0 +
da h 2! x²

n (n − 1 ) (n − 2) h³
+
3! (n - 2) ² + ...
h
Lth =0nx²-1 +
× (a convergent series)}

=n

43. It follows by Art. 35 that if u = [ (x)]" then

du
dx = n [p (x)]n−¹ p′ (x).

EXAMPLES.

Write down the differential coefficients of

1. x, 2-10, x-1, x-10, x , x¹, x³ , √√20-5.
1 1
2. (x + α)", 2n +an, x +a ,
x+a √x+a
3. (ax + b)", ax +b, (ax)n + b, a(x + b)", an (x + b).
x2 x3 x4 205
4. 1 + x+ + + + + ..
2 ! 3! 4! 5!
√a+ Vx
5. a+ b √x √a + √x
Na-√x
và ' Na
và - √x
v ' Vat
Na-x'
s, Nats
ax² +bx +c
6. (x +α)P (x + b) , (x+α) /(x + b)º.
cx² + bx + a'

44. Differential Coefficient of ɑ².

If u = $ (x) = a*,
$ (x + h) = ax+h,
 STANDARD FORMS. 33

du ax+h -- ax
and = Lth =0
dx h
ah - 1
= a* Ltn = 0h

= a* logea. [Art. 15. ]

du
COR. 1. If u = ex, = ex logee = ex.
dx
COR. 2 . It follows by Art. 35 that if u = e✨(~) , then
du
= ep (x) . Þ′(x).
dx

45. Differential Coefficient of loga .

If u = $ (x) = logax,
$ (x + h) = loga(x + h),
du
and = Lth = 0 loga (x + h) — loga ≈
dx h
1
= Lta - ologa
h (1 + 4) .
812

Let = z, so that if h = 0, z = ∞ ; therefore

h
du
Ltz: = loga ( 1 + 1 )
dx = Lt.
d
1 Z
-
XC Lt₂= ∞ loga (1
( 1+

-= 1
XC logae. [Art. 14. ]
du 1 1
COR. 1. If u == loge , = - logee =
dx Ꮳ
COR. 2. And it follows as before that if
u = log. (x),
du f' (x)
then
dx (x)·
E. D. C. 3
34 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

EXAMPLES.

Write down the differential coefficients of

e2x+ e3x
1. e²x, e-*, enx2 cosh x, sinh ,
1 + e -x

2. log √x, log (x +a), log (ax + b), log (ax² + bx + c),
1 +x 1 +x2
log -x' log 1-x2 logx α.

3. (e ), (log x), [ (x)] , [ (a + x)]", $ [ (a + x)"].

xmex, ax.ex, 2*, x ° (degrees).
4. ex log (x + a),
5. log (x + e*), ex + log x, ex/log x.
6. exlogx> log (xe* ), log xx.

46. Differential Coefficient of sin x.

If u= (x) = sin x,
(x +h) = sin (x + h),
du sin (x + h) - sin x
and = Ltn =0
=
dx h
h h
2 sin COS x +
2 (
=
= Ltn = 0
h
22

h
sin
= Lth =0 COS x +
h
( )
2
= COS X. [Art. 11 ; I. ]

47. Differential Coefficient of cos x.

If u = $ (x) = cos x,

(x + h) = cos (x + h),
du cos (x + h) cos x
and = Lth =0
dx h
 STANDARD FORMS. 35

h
sin
2
==- Ltn = 0 ' sin (x +
(x + 1/2)

== sin x.

COR. And as in previous cases the differential

coefficients of sin ☀ (x) and cos (x) are respectively

cos (x) . ☀′ (x),

and -sin (x) . ' (x).

EXAMPLES.

Write down the differential coefficients of

1. sin 2x, sin nx, sin" x, sin an, sin √x.

2. √sin√x, log sin x, log sin √x, esinx, evsinx

3. sin x cos x, sin" x/cos" x, sin" (nan), eax sin bx.
4. sin xsin 2x sin 3x, sin x . sin 2x/sin 3x.
5. cos x cos 2x cos 3x, cosp ax . cosa bx , cos" cx.

48. The remaining circular functions can be differ-

entiated from the definition in the same way. It is a
little quicker however to proceed thus after obtaining
the above results.
sin x
(i) If y = tan x = ,
COS x
d
de (sin
dy = dx 2 . cos x- dx (cos x) sin a
(sin x)
da cos² x
cos2 x + sin² x
= sec² x.
cos² x
3-2
36 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

COS X
(ii) If y = cot x = sin "
Ꮖ
dy (- sin x) sin x - cos x (cos x) == cosec²
- x.
da sin² x

(iii) If y = sec x = (cos x)−¹,

dy = d sin
(-1) (cos x)-2dx (cos x) = cos = secx tan x.
dx ²x

(iv) If y == cosec x = (sin x)-¹,

dy d COS X
= (-1 ) (sin x) ² dx (sin x): cosec x cot x.
dx sin2 x

(v) If y = vers x = 1 - cos ,

dy = sin x.
dx

(vi) If y = covers ∞ = 1- sin x,

dy
= COS X.
dx

49. Differentiation of the inverse functions.

We may deduce the differential coefficients of all
the inverse functions directly from the definition as
shewn below.
For this method it seems useful to recur to the
notation of Art. 27 and to denote (x + h) by U.

50. Then if u = (x) = sin¹x,

U = 4 (x + h) = sin−¹ (x + h).
Hence x = sin u, and x + h = sin U ;
therefore h = sin U--- sin u ,
du U- И U- U
and = Ltn=0h = Ltv=u
dx sin U― sin u
 STANDARD FORMS. 37

U и
2 1
= Ltv-u
U -u U +u
sin COS
+ 2 + 2
1 1 1
= -
cos u - - x²
√1 − sin² u
and the remaining inverse functions may be differen-
tiated similarly.

51. But the method indicated in the preceding

chapter (Art. 40) for inverse functions simplifies and
shortens the work considerably.
Thus :
(i) If u = sin¯¹ x,
we have x = sin u ;
dx
whence = cos u ;
du
du 1 1 1 1
and therefore = = = =
dx dx cos u √1 - sin² u 1 -− x²
du
π
and since cos¹ x = - sin-¹x,
2
d cos-¹ x 1
we have
dx √1 -
− x²
(ii) If u = tan¯¹ x,
we have x = tan u ;
dx
whence sec² u ;
du
du 1 1 1
and therefore = = =
dx sec² u 1 + tan² u + x²
π
and since cot-1x = - tan-1x,
2
38 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

d cot-¹ x 1
we have =-
dx 1 + x²
(iii) If u = sec-¹ X,
we have x = sec u ;
dx
whence sec u tan u ;
du =
du cos² u 1 1
and therefore =
dx sin u 1
x² 1. x√x² - 1

26
π
and since cosec -¹x = sec-¹x;
2
d (cosec-¹x) 1
we have
dx Ꮳ -

(iv) If u = vers-1 X,
we have x = vers u = 1 − cos u ;
do
whence = sin u ;
du
du 1 1 1
and therefore
dx sin u 1- cos² u 2x
d covers-¹x 1
whence also
da 2x - x²

EXAMPLES.
Write down the differential coefficients of each of the follow-
ing expressions :
1. sec x², sec - 1 x², tan x², tan - ¹ x², vers x2, vers -1 x2.
2. tan-1 ex, tan ex, log tan x, log tan - 1x, log (tan x)-¹.
X tan-1% 1 - x2
3. vers-1 vers - 1 (x + a), 2, COS -1
α α 1 + x2 °
4. √covers x, tanp xq, (tan - 1x ) , x log tan - ¹x.
5. tanx.sin - 1x, sec-¹ tan x, tan-1 sec x, ex sin -1 x.
 STANDARD FORMS. 39

52. TABLE OF RESULTS TO BE COMMITTED TO

MEMORY.
du
u = xn. = ᏁᎸ - .
dx
du
u = ax. logea.
dx = a
du
u = ex. = ex
dx
du 1
u = logax. =- logae.

81
da
du
u = logex. =-
do x
du
u = sin x. = COS X.
dx
du
u = cos x. = sin x.
dx
du
u = tan x. - sec²x.
dx
du
u = cot x. = cosec² x.
dx
du sin x
u = secx. = •
dx cos² x
du COS X
u = cosec x.
dx sin² x
။

du 1
= sin¯¹ x.
u= =
dx √1 − x²
du 1
u = cos¹x.
dx
√1 - x²
du 1
||

u = tan-¹x.
dx 1 + x²
du 1
u = cot-¹x.
da 1 + x²
40 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

du 1
u = sec¯¹x.
dx XC -.1
du 1
u = cosec-1 x.
dx X
du 1

||
u = vers¹x.
dx 2x - x²
du 1
u = covers-¹ x.
dx 2x - х2

53. The Form u³. Logarithmic Differentiation .

In functions of the form u", where both u and v are

functions of x, it is generally advisable to take logarithms
before proceeding to differentiate.

Let y = u",
then logey = v logeu ;
1 dy dv 1 du
therefore = • Arts. 31 , 45 ,
y dx dx logeu + v . u dx '

dy = uv dv v du
or
dx (logeu • da + u dx

Three cases of this proposition present themselves.

dv
I.
If v be a constant and u a function of x, =0
dx
and the above reduces to

dy = v.uv-1 du
dx dx '

as might be expected from Art. 43.

 STANDARD FORMS. 41

du
II. If u be a constant and v a function of x, 0
dx
and the general form proved above reduces to
dy dv
uº logeu • dx '
dx =
as might be expected from Art. 44 .

III. If u and v be both functions of x, it appears

that the general formula
dv du
dy = uloge u + vuv-1
dx dx dx
is the sum of the two special forms in I. and II. , and
therefore we may, instead of taking logarithms in any
particular example, consider first u constant and then v
constant and add the results obtained on these supposi-
tions.
Ex. 1. Thus if y = (sin x)*,
log y = x log sin x ;
therefore 1 dy_log sin x +x cot x,
y dx
and dy =
dx = (sin x) { log sin x +x cot x}.

Ex. 2. In cases such as y = x² + (sin x) , we cannot take logarithms

directly. Let u = x* and v ==(sin x)*.
dy du dv
Then =
dx dx + dx
But log u = x log x,
and logv =x log sin x;
du
whence =
dx =x*{1 + log x} ,
dv
12
13

and
dx (sin x ) {log sin x+ cot },
and .. dy =
dx = x* { 1 + log x } + (sin x)*{log sin x + x cot x} .

The above compound process is called Logarithmic

differentiation and is useful whenever variables occur
42 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

as an index or when the expression to be differentiated

consists of a product of several involved factors.

EXAMPLES.
1. Differentiate sin , (sin -1x) , 2022, x2x
2. Differentiate (sin x)cosx + (cos x) sinx, (tan x)x +x tan x¸
3. Differentiate tan xxlogxxex xxx x√x.

54. Transformations. Occasionally an Algebraic

or Trigonometrical transformation before beginning to
differentiate will much shorten the work.
(i) For instance, suppose
2x
y=tan-1 1 - x2'
We observe that y=2 tan-¹ x;
whence dy = 2
dx 1 +x2
1+x
(ii) Suppose y=tan-1 1 - x
Here y=tan-¹x +tan-¹ 1,
and therefore dy = 1
dx1 + x2

(iii) If y =tan-1 √1+ x² - √1− x²

√1 + x² + √1 - x²
1 - x2
1-
1 + x² π x2 Π 1
we have y =tan-1 tan-1 cos-1x2 ;
1 - x2 1+x²-4-2
1+
1 + x2
dy
2-1-2

EXAMPLES.
Differentiate :
3x - x3 tan -12 - qx
1. tan-1 2. 3. tan--1 √1 +x² - 1
1-3x² * q +px X
XC 1
4. tan-1 5. elogx 6. Sec -1
1-2x2 '
 STANDARD FORMS. 43

1. sec tan - 1 x. x - x-1

8. COS 9. sin - 1 (3x - 4x³).
x+ x-1'
-X X-
10. tan -1 √x-
1 +2 · 11. cos -¹ (1-2 ). 12.
12 . log {ex (2 + 2) *) .
log {e

55. Examples of Differentiation .

Ex. 1. Let y= √z, where z is a known function of x.
Here y=z¹,
dy 1
and - =
dz = 2z'
whence dy = dy dz
dx dz • dx , (Art. 35)
1 dz
= •
2√z dx
This form occurs so often that it will be found convenient to
commit it to memory .
Ex. 2. Let y=e√cotx
d (eVcotx) = d (e√cotx)2 d√cotx) d (cotx)
Here
dx d( cot x)) d (cot x) dx
1
=e√cotx • ( − cosec²x).
2 cot
Ex. 3. Let y = (sin x)log cot { e* (a + bx)} .
Taking logarithms
log y =logx.log sin x +log cot {ex (a + bx)} .
The differential coefficient of log y is 1 dy •
y dx
Again, log x . log sin x is a product, and when differentiated
becomes (Art. 31)
1
x log sin x +log x . sin x COS X.
Also, log cot {ex (a + bx) } becomes when differentiated
1
[ − cosec³ {e* (a + bx) } ] . {e* (a + bx) + be*} ;
cot { ex (a + bx)} •
dy
..
dx = (sin x) ¹ogx.cot { ex (a + bx) } log sin x +cot x.log x

− 2e² (a +b + bx) cosec 2 (e≈a + bx)] ·

44 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Ex. 4. Let y√a² -

– b² cos² (log x). Then
dy_d√a²
= - b² cos² (log x) d {a² - b² cos2 (log x)} X d {cos (log x)}
dx d {a² - b² cos² (log x) } X d {cos (log x)} d (log x)
log
X d ( x x)
d

– b² cos² (log x) } − × { -
= } {a² - − 2b² cos (log x) } × { – sin (log x) } × X

- b² sin 2 (log x)
2x √a2 - b² cos2 (log x)
Ex. 5. Differentiate x5 with regard to x².
Let x² =z.
ლევა
dx5 dx5 dx dx 5x4
Then
dz dx dz dz 2x
dx
=

56. Implicit relation of x and y. So far we

have been concerned with the case in which y is ex-
pressed explicitly, i.e. directly in terms of x.
Cases however are of frequent occurrence in which
y is not expressed directly in terms of a, but its
functionality is implied by an algebraic relation con-
necting x and y.
In the case of such an implicit relation we proceed
as follows :-
Suppose for instance
x³ + y³ = 3axy,
3x² + 3y² y = 3a ( y + x =
then >

i.e. - =
3 (x² —
— ay) + 3 (y² —
— ax) dy
dx = 0,
dy = - x² - ay
giving da y² - ax
 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION. 45

57. Partial Differentiation . It will be per-

ceived in the foregoing example that the expressions
3 (x² - ay) and 3 (y - ax) occurring are algebraically
the same as would be given by differentiating the ex-
pression + y³ - 3axy first with regard to a, keep-
ing y a constant, and second with regard to y, keeping
x a constant .

When such processes are applied to a function f(x, y)

of two or more variables the results are denoted by the
af af
symbols Əx Əy · Thus in the above example
'
af
= 3 (x² - ay),
дх

and af
= 3 (y² - ax).
dy

This is termed partial differentiation, and the results

are called partial differential coefficients.

58. A general proposition. It appears that in

the preceding example

af + af · dy = 0,
дх ду dx

af
dy дах
or =
dx af
მყ
This proposition is true for all implicit relations between
two variables, such as f(x, y) = 0.
Suppose the function capable of expansion by any
means in powers of x and y, so that any general term
may be denoted by AxPyl.
Then f(x, y) = ΣAx¹y! = 0.
46 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Then differentiating

Σ ( Apær¬¹y² + Aæ³qyr¬dy) == 0,

or dy =
ΣApx -¹y? + (ΣAqx¹y?—¹) = 0,
dx

or af af dy
+ = 0.
Əxǝy dx
Ex. If f(x, y) = x + x¹y +y³ = 0 ,
we have af 5x 4x³y,
= +
მთ
af-=x² + 3y² ;
by
dy 5x4 + 4x³y
dx x +3y²

EXAMPLES.

Find dy in the following cases :

dx
1. x³ + y³ = a³. 2. x² + yn = a”. 3. ev = xy.
4. log xy = x² +y2. 5. x³.yx = 1. 6. x² + y = 1 .

59. Euler's Theorem.

If u = Axªy² + Bœª´y³´ + ... = ΣAxy³, say, where

a + B = a + B' = : ... = n,
ди ди
to show that OC = nu.
дх + y ду

By partial differentiation we obtain

ди
= Σλαπατη ,
дох
+
Ju
= ΣΑβαβ-1,
ду
 EULER'S THEOREM. 47

ди ди
then XC +y = ΣAɑxªy³ + ΣAẞxª³
дх ду
=
= ΣA ( a + ẞ) xªyẞ
= nΣAxªy³ = nu.
It is clear that this theorem can be extended to the
case of three or of any number of independent variables,
and that if, for example,

u = Axªy³z + Bx²´y³´zr' + ...,

where a + B + y = a + ß' + ý:= ... = n,
ди ди ди
then will Ꮖ + ǝy +2 дг = nu.
дх Y

The functions thus described , are called homogeneous

functions ofthe nth degree, and the above result is known
as Euler's Theorem on homogeneous functions.

EXAMPLES.
Verify Euler's theorem for the expressions :
1
(x³ + y³) (x² + yn), xnsiny
x²+ xy + y² '

EXAMPLES .
Find dy in the following cases :
dx
2 + x2
1. y= 1 + x * 2. y= a+x. 3. y= √a² + x².

1.-X 1 - x2 x√x² - 4a²

4. y = 5. y=- 6. y =-
✓ 1 +x √1 + x2 √x²-a²
1-
-x x² +x + 1
7. y= 8. y = log x² − x + 1 '
1 + x + x² ·
9. y = tan-1 (log x). 10. y = sin x°.
11. y = sin (e ) log x. 12. y = tan- 1 (ex) log cot x.
13. y -log cosh x. 14. y =vers 1¹ log (cot x).
48 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

1
15. y = cot- 1 (cosec x).. 16. y = sin- 1
√1+x²
1
17. y =tan- 1 18. y = (sin-1x)m (cos -1 x)".
√22-1
xnx
19. y sin (ex log ) . √1 - (log x)². 20. y =
( + log ).
(1 + ).
x cos-1x
21. y = b tan -1 ( tan-1 ). 22. y =-
√1 - x²
a + b cos x
23. y - cos (a sin-11). 24. y= sin - 1. b + a cos x

25. tan¯¹x log ( sec² x³) .

y = eta -1
26. y = eax cos (b tan−¹ x).
27. y = tan-1 (acz . x²). 28. y =sec (loga √a² +x²).
1 +x
29. y =tan- ¹x + log:1 Ꮖ 30. y = log (log x).

31. y = logn (x), where log" means log log log...(repeated n times).
Ꮖ
1 √b + a + √b - a tan 2
lo
32. y = √√b² - a² g IC
√b +a - √√b - a tan` 2

33. y = sin-1 (x / 1 -
− x − √x √1 − x²). 34. y = 1010*.
35. y = ee*. 36. y = ex*. 37 . y= x *. 38. y = x .
1
39. y = xxxx . 40. y = (cot )cotx +(cosh x)coshx
√x
41. y =tan-1 (αxxsinx) 42. y =sin- 1 (etan - 1 ) .
1+x
m m
43. y = 1 + cos3 ) ( 11-8
- sin
XC
sin ex²
44. y= tan-¹√√√√x+ cos−¹ x. 45. y = ( 1+√x) .

46. y =(cos x)cotx 47. y = (cot-1x)x.

48. y = ( 1 + 1 )* + x + 1 . 49. y- btan - 1 ( + tan- 12).

 EXAMPLES. 49

50. tany =ecos² ,x sin x. 51. ax² +2hxy + by² = 1.

52. ev = (a + bxn) — a 53. (cos x) = (sin y)*.

(bxn)
54. x = etan -1 -x² 55. x= y log xy. 56. y = xy. 57. y= xv .
У
58. y =xlog a+bx' 59. ax² +2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.

60. xy = (x +y)m + n¸ 61. y = etan-¹y log sec² x³.

62. 1 a²
If y=2 a²+- b²
b2π Sp √x q Vx
[p + " shew that when
p + 1 9响 +1
2.pq
x= 9-p
=(a+b)= then will dy=(a +b) .
dx
63. Differentiate log₁0 x with regard to x².
X
64. Differentiate (x² +ax + a²)" log cot with regard to
2
tan-1 (a cos bx).
65. Differentiate sin-1 with regard to sin-¹x.

√1 +x - 1
66. Differentiate tan - 1 with regard to tan-¹x.
X
---
67. Differentiate √1 + x² + √1 - x² with regard to /1 − x¹.
/1-
√1 + x² − √ − x²
1
68. Differentiate sec- 1.
2x2-1 with regard to √1 -
− x².
X 1
69. Differentiate tan- 1 with regard to sec-1 2x² - 1 '
√1 −x²
2x 2x
70. Differentiate tan- 1
1 - x2 with regard to sin-1 1 +22
sin√x
71. Differentiate " log tan-1x with regard to
x
to ∞ y2
dy
72. If y = x** prove x dx =
1 - y log x
E. D. C. 4
50 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

1
73. If y=1 +i +it...to ∞ ,prove dy - 2x
dx 1+
1 +F1itхitit..
+ .

1 dy 1
74. If y = x + x + 1 1 prove dx 2 1
x+ x+ 1
x + ...to ∞ , +
x + ...

75. If y = sin + sin x + sinx + Vetc. to co ,

Y₁ = cos x/(2y - 1).
76. If Sn =the sum of a G. P. to n terms of which r is the
common ratio, prove that
dSn
( -1) dr = (n - 1 ) S₂ - nSn-1 .

P d (P 1
If 2/2=a + 1/12 + 1
77. If
1 prove (5
)- ± Q2
a2+ 1
a3+ ... +
1
1-2 cos 20 3 cos 30
78. Given C = 1 + r cos 0+: 2 + 3!
+ ..
!
7.2sin 20 73 sin 30
and S=r sin 0+ + + ...
2! 3!
dc ds
shew that C +S
dr dr (C²+ S2) cos 0 ;
s
od
(C² + S²) sin 0.
dr dr

79. If y = sec 4x, prove that

dy = 16t (1-4) where t =tan x.
dt (1-612 +14)2 ›
6t² +t4)²
-1 dy
80. If y = e -** sec (x2) and 24 + x²z = x5, find dx in terms of
x and z.

81. Prove that if a be less than unity

1 2x 4x3 8x7 1
+ + ... ad inf. =
1 + x + 1 +x2 + 1 +x4 1 +28 1 -X
 EXAMPLES. 51

82. Prove that if x be less than unity

1-2x 2x - 4x3 4x³ - 8x7 1 + 2x
+ + + ... ad inf. =
1 − x + x² 1 - x² + x4 1 − x + x8 1 + x + x²

83. Given Euler's Theorem that

XC XC X XC sin x
Ltno cos 2 COS 22 COS 23... COS 2n XC
812

1 X 1 X 1
prove ta n + tan + tan + ...ad inf. cot x,
22 22 23 23 X
1 X 1 1 X 1
and sec2 + sec² + sec² + ... ad inf. = cosec² x-
22 2 24 22 26 23 x2'

84. Differentiate logarithmically the expressions for sin

and cos in factors, and deduce the sums to infinity of the
following series
1 1 1 1
(a) 02-2 + 02-22T2 + 0² - – 32,2 + 0² – 42,2+
1 1 1 1
(b) 1² +x² * 2² + x² + + 3² +x² 42+x² +.
1 1 1 1
(c) + + + +.......
12 +x² 32 + x² 52 + x272 + x²
2 2 2
(d) 1+ 1 + 12 + 1+ 221+32 + .

85. Sum to infinity the series

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +.
1 +x 21 +2
1+x4 1+x+ 8 1 + 2

86. If H represent the sum of the homogeneous products

ofn dimensions of x, y, z, prove
дн әнп дн n
(a) x дх + Y by +2 д [n = Hn ;
г
JH
₂ + JHn JHn
(b) + Əz -= (n + 2) Hn − 1 ·
дх dy

4-2
 CHAPTER V.

SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION.

dy
60. WHEN y is a given function of x, and
WHEN has
dx
been found, we may proceed to differentiate a second
d dy
time obtaining da dx This expression is called the
dx
second differential coefficient of y with respect to x.
We may then differentiate again and obtain the third
differential coefficient and so on.
d d \2
The expression is abbreviated into
de (d)
dx y dx y
day d [day d³y
or , is written and so on.
dx² dx
dx dx²
da (da) das
Thus the several differential coefficients of y are
written
dy day d³y dny
dx ' dx2 dx³ dan

They are often further abbreviated into

Y1, y2 y3, Yn ....
Ex. 1. Thus if y = x", we have
1= n ”-1,
Yan(n - 1) x −2,
y =n (n- 1) (n - 2) xn -³,
and generally yrn (n - 1)... (n -
− r + 1) x²- ,

Yn =n!
Yn+1 =Yn+2 = Yn +3 = ... = 0.
 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION. 53
Ex. 2. If y=tan x,
Y₁ =sec²x= 1 + y²,
Y2=2yy₁=2 (y + y³),
Y3=2 (1 + 3y²) yı₁ = 2 (1 + 4y² + 3y+),
Y₁ =2 (8y +12y³) y₁ = 8 (2y + 5y³ + 3y³) ,
&c.
Ex. 3. If y= (sin-1x)2,
Y₁ =2 (sin-¹x)/ 1 − x²,
.. squaring, (1 − x²) y₁² =4y.
Hence differentiating, (1 -
− x²) 2y₁y2-2xy₁² = 4yı,
and dividing by 2y1, (1 − x²) y₂ - xy₁ = 2.

61. Standard results and processes.

The nth differential coefficient of some functions are
easy to find.
Ex. 1. If y = eax we have y₁ = aeª¤, у½ = a²eªx, .
Yn =areax
COR. i. If a = 1,
y = e*, y₁ = ex, Y₂ = ex, ...... Yn = ex.
COR. ii. y= a* = ex log,a;
y₁ = (log.a) ex log, a = (log, a) ax ;
(logea)
Y₂= (log.a)² exlog.a = (log,a)² a¤ ;
etc. etc.
Yn = (log, a)n ex log, a¸==(log,a)n ax.

Ex. 2. If y = loge (x + a) ;
1 1 ( -1) ( -2)
x+a ;; Y2= ~(x + a)² ; Y3 = (x + a)3 ;
(- − 2) ( -
− 1) ( - − 3 ) ...( -
− n + 1)
Yn
(x + a)n
(-1)n -1 (n - 1)!
(x + a)n
1 (-1)" n!
COR. If y= x+ a • Yn =;
(x + a)n+1
54 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Ex. 3. If y =sin (ax + b) ;

Y₁ =a cos (ax + b) =a sin ( ax +b +;}) ;

Y₁ =a² sin (ax+ b + 2 );

3п
y = a³ sin ( ax + b + 2

2 .
Y₂= a" sin (ax +b + ¹7)
Similarly, if y= cos (ax + b),

Yn =an cos (az + b 2

y =a* + ).
COR. If a=1 and b =0 ;
then, when y=sin x, y, =sin (x+
( x+ 2
1) ;

and, when ! = c08, n = cos (x + 27).

Ex. 4. If y = eax sin (bx + c) ;

Y₁ =aeaxsin (bx +c) + beax cos (bx +c).
Let a=rcos and b = r sin 4,
b
so that r² = a² + b² and tan == ;
a
and therefore y₁ = reax sin (bx + c + p).
Thus the operation of differentiating this expression is equivalent
to multiplying by r and adding to the angle.
Thus y2 = r²eax sin (bx + c + 2p),
and generally Yn = rneax sin (bx + c + np).
Similarly, if y= eax cos (bx + c),
Yn = rnaxcos (bx + c + np).
These results are often wanted and the student should be able to
obtain them immediately.
Ex. 5. Find the nth differential coefficient of sin³ x.
1
We have y =sin³x= (3 sin x - − sin 3x).
1
Hence x 3n
Yn=4
3. = {3 sin (= + ) - 3 " sin ( 3 + 2 ) -
 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION. 55

Ex. 6. If y = sin²x cos³x, find yn.

1
Here y= sin² 2x cos x = (1 - cos 4x) cos x
= 1 (2 cos x - cos 3x - cos 5x),
16
1
COS
and y = 16 2008 ( + 2 ) - 300s cos (33x + ) - 500s
cos ( 5+ ) .
2 2

EXAMPLES.
Find Yn in the following cases :
1 1 1 X
1. 2. 3. 4.
ax+b α- x a -bx a + bx
ax+b x2 1
5. 6. 7. 8. √x+a.
cx+ d X- α (x +a)4*
9. (x + a) - %. 10. log (ax +b)".
11. y sin x sin 2x. 12. y =ex sin x sin 2x.
13. y = ex sin² x. 14. y = eax cos² bx.
15. y sin x sin 2x sin 3x. 16. y = e³x sin² x cos³ x.
17. y = sin² x sin 2x. 18. y = e* sin² x sin 2x.

62. Use of Partial Fractions .

Fractional expressions whose numerators and de-

nominators are both rational algebraic expressions
are differentiated n times by first putting them into
partial fractions.
x2 a2 1
Ex. 1. y= - =
´ (x − a) (x − b) (x − c) ¯¯ (a -
− b) (a -
– c) x − a
b2 1 c2 1
+ +
(b - c) (b - a) x --b (c− a) (c − b) x − c
(see note on partial fractions Art. 66) ;
a2 (-1)" n! b2 (-1)nn!
− a)n+1 +
therefore Yn = (a − b) (a – c) (x - − a) (x -− b)n+1
† (b − c) (b -
c2 (-1)nn!
+ (c - a)(c - b) (x- c)n+1 ·
56 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

x2
Ex. 2. y=
(x − 1)2 (x+ 2) *
To put this into Partial Fractions let x = 1 + z ;
1 1 + 2z + z2
then Y = 22 · 3 +2
1 1 52 4 z2
- + by division
22 3 9 + 93 +2
1 5 4 1
+
322 + 9z 93 + 2
1 5 4
=
* 3 (x -
− 1)² + 9 (x − 1 ) + 9 (x + 2) '
(n + 1) ! ( -1) +, 5n ! ( -1)" , 4n! ( -1)"
whence Yn =
3(x - 1) +2 9(x - 1) +19 (x + 2) +1 *

63. Application of Demoivre's Theorem.

When quadratic factors which are not resolvable
into real linear factors occur in the denominator, it is
often convenient to make use of Demoivre's Theorem
as in the following example.
1 1
Let y = x² + a2 =
(x+ 1α) (x -
− a)
1 1 11
=
2ia -la x + ia
1 1 1
Then Yn - Zia (-1)nn ! {/
((x − ɩa)n+1 ¯¯-(x +1ia)n+¹[
(x + ) +1} ·
Let x=r cose and a = r sin 0,
a
whence r²x² + a² and tan0 =-х

Hence (-1)nn! -L
Yn 2iarn+1 {(cos 0 — ‹ sin 0) −n−1 − (cos 0 + ‹ sin 0)−n−1}
(-1) n!
2iarn+1 2ɩ sin (n + 1) 0
( -1)" n!
an+2 sin (n + 1) sin"+¹ 0,

where 0 =tan-1 a
х
 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION. 57

1
COR. 1. Similarly if y=
(x + b)² + a² '
(-
− 1)" n !
Yn== an+2 sin (n + 1 ) @ sin”+¹ 0 ,
a
where 0=tan-1
b +x
x a
COR. 2. If y =tan -1 , y1 =
a x² + a2

and − 1)n−1 (n -− 1) ! sin no sin" 0,

Yn = an
a
where tan 0=-= coty .
X 1

EXAMPLES.

Find the nth differential coefficients of y with respect to x in

the following cases :
1 1
1. y =4x²- 1' 2. y =
4x² + 1'
x+a 1
3. y = log x - a 4. y = x+ -a¹ ·
1 1
6. y=´
5. Y = (x² — a²) (x² — b²) · (x² +a²) (x² + b²) ·
2x 1
7. y =tan -1 1 - x2 8. y =
x² + x + 1
XC X
9. y=24+x²+1' 10. y = x² + x³ + 2x² + x + 1 °

64. Leibnitz's Theorem.

[Lemma. If C, denote the number of combinations of n things
r at a time then will
nCr + nCr+1 = n+1Cr+1 .
In n 1 1
For
Fr In - r \r + 1│n - r- n - r- -7° + r+

In +1
\r + 1 \ n - r = n+1 Cr+1 . ]
58 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Let yuv, and let suffixes denote differentiations

with regard to x. Then

Y₁ = U₁v + UV1 ,
Y½ = U₂V + 2μ₂v₁ + uva, by differentiation.

Assume generally that

Yn = Unv + nC₁un- 1₁ + nC₂un- 20₂ +...
+ nCrun-rVr + nCr+1Un—r—1Vr+ 1 +... + uvn ...(a).
Therefore differentiating

(nC₁ ) 2
Yn+1 = Un+1v + Unv₁ + Un-1V2{ nC₂ ) + ...
+1) (+ n ₁
C

SnCr+il
+ Un-rur+¹ {+ nCr )

= Un+1v + n+ C₁₂V₁ + + ¹Ñ₂Un− 12 + n + 1C3Un−3V3 + ...

+ n +1Cr+1Un-rur+ 1 + ... + uvn +1 , by the Lemma ;
therefore if the law (a) hold for n differentiations it
holds for n + 1.

But it was proved to hold for two differentiations,

and therefore it holds for three ; therefore for four ;
and so on ; and therefore it is generally true, i.e.,
(uv)n = unv + nC₁un-1º₁ + nC₂un-2V₂ +...
+ nCrun_rvr + ...+ uvn.
65. Applications.

Ex. 1. y = x³ sin ax.

Here we take sin ax as u and x3 as v.
Now v₁ = 3x2, v₂ = 3.2x, vg = 3.2 , and V4 &c. are all zero.

Also
2 , etc.
unan sin (( ax+ 77)
Hence by Leibnitz's Theorem we have
n--1
+ n3x2an-1
2 ¹ ×)
2 + 1329 ~1 sin (ax + " ;
Y = r²a" sin (ax + **)
 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION. 59
59
n- 2
+ n(n - 1) 3.2xan-2 sin ( ax +
21 (ax + 12= 3 * )
n(n - 1) (n - 2) 3.2.1an-3 sin
+ 2 *) .
3! ( ax +²=3
The student will note that if one of the factors be a power of x
it will be advisable to take that factor as v .

Ex. 2. Let y = x¹ . eax; find Y5.

Here v = x4, u=eax,
so that v₁ = 4x³, v₁ = 12x², v¸ = 24x, v₁ = 24, and V5 etc. all vanish.
Also un = aneax, etc.
whence
y = a5eaxx¹ + 5a¹eax . 4x³ + 10 . a³eax . 12x² + 10a²eax . 24x + 5αeax . 24
= aeax {a¹x4 + 20a³x³ + 120a²x² + 240ax + 120} .
Ex. 3. Differentiate n times the equation
x2 day + x dxy
dx2 d +y = 0.
dn n (n - 1)-2
dxn¡ (x²y2) = x²Yn+2 + n . 2x • Yn+1 +' 2 ! yn'
dn
= nyn
dxn (xy₁ ) n++

day
dxn Yn;

therefore by addition
x²yn+2 + (2n + 1) xYn+1 + (n² + 1 ) Yn = 0,
dn+2y antly dry
or x2 dxn+2 + (2n + 1) x dx +1 + (n² + 1) dxn = 0.
n

Ex. 4. Even when the general value of y, cannot be obtained we

may sometimes find its value for x =0 as follows.
Suppose y = [log (x + √1 +x²) ]²,
then y₁ =2log (x+ 1 + x²)/ √1 + x². . (1), ·
and (1 +x ) y₁² = 4y,
whence differentiating and dividing by 2y1,
(1 + x²) y₂ + xy₁ = 2 . (2) .
60 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Differentiating n times by Leibnitz's Theorem

(1 + x²) Yn+2 + 2nxyn+1 + n (n − 1) Yn
+ xYn+1 + nyn = 0
or (1 + x²) Yn+2 + (2n + 1) xYn+1 + n²yn =0.
Putting x = 0 we have
(Yn+2)0 = -
− n² (Yn)o………… . (3) ,
indicating by suffix zero the value attained upon the vanishing of x.
Now, when x =0 we have from the value of y and equations (1)
and (2)
(y) =0, ( 1) = 0, (32) = 2.
Hence equation (3) gives
(Y3)0 (45) = (97)0 == (32x+ 1) 0 = 0
and (34)。 = -22.2,
(Y6)o = 42.22.2,
(98)0 = -62.42.22.2,
etc. ,
( 2x) =( - 1)x-12.22.42.62...... (2k - 2)²
= (- 1)*-122-1 { (k - 1) ! }².

EXAMPLES.

Apply Leibnitz's Theorem to find yn in the following cases :

1. y = xe* . 2. y = x²eax¸ 3. y = x² logx.
ост
4. y= x² sin x. 5. y= eax, sin bx. 6. y=j1 + x '
7. y = xtan-1 x. 8. y = x2 tan - ¹x.

66. NOTE ON PARTIAL FRACTIONS.

Since a number of examples on successive differentiation and on
integration depend on the ability of the student to put certain frac-
tional forms into partial fractions, we give the methods to be pursued
in a short note.

Let f(x) be the fraction which is to be resolved into its partial

(x)
fractions.
 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION. 61

1. If f(x) be not already of lower degree than the denominator,

we can divide out until the numerator of the remaining fraction is of
lower degree : e.g.
x2 3x - 2
=1+
(x - 1) (x - 2) (x - 1) (x - 2)
Hence we shall consider only the case in which f(x) is of lower
degree than (x).
2. If (x) contain a single factor (x - a), not repeated, we pro-
ceed thus: suppose
(x) = (x - a) (x),
f(x) A
and let + x (x)
(x -− a) (x) x - a 4 (x) '
A being independent of x.
f(x)
Hence − a) x (x)
= A + (x -
(x) 4 (x) '
This is an identity and therefore true for all values of the variable
x; put x = a. Then, since (x ) does not vanish when x = a (for by
hypothesis (x) does not contain x - a as a factor), we have
A='f(a)
(a)*
Hence the rule to find A is, " Put x= a in every portion of the fraction
except in the factor x - a itself."
x- c a- c 1 -C
b- 1
Ex. (i) = • +
(x -
− a) (x - b) a - x - a b.-a x--b
x² +px + q = a² +pa + q 1
Ex. (ii)
(x − a) (x − b) (x − c) ¯ (a - b) (a -– c) x − a
b² +pb + q 1 c² +pc + q
+ +
(b − c) (b − a) x – b (c - a) (c - b) x - c

Ex. (iii)
Ꮖ
=
1 - 2 + 3
(x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) 2 (x - 1) x- 2 2 (x - 3)
x2
Ex. (iv)
(x − a) (x − b) '
Here the numerator not being of lower degree than the denominator,
we divide the numerator by the denominator. The result will then be
Α B
expressible in the form 1+ x - a + x - b where A and B are found as
a² b2
before and are respectively- and
a- b b- a
62 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

3. Suppose the factor (x - − a) in the denominator to be repeated

r times so that
- a)™¥ (x).
• (x) = (x −
Put x - a = y.
Then f(x) = f(a + y)
φ (x) yy (a + y) '
or expanding each function by any means in ascending powers of y,
A + A₁y + А₂y²+ ...
y" (Bo +By + Bay² +...)"
:-
Divide out thus :-
Bo +By + ... 4o + A₁y + ... Co + C₁y + С₂y² + ... ,
etc.,
and let the division be continued until y" is a factor of the remainder.
Let the remainder be yx (y) .
C2
Hence the fraction = Co + C₁ + + + Cr-1 + x (y)
yr yr−1 yr-2 y ¥ (a + y)
= Co C₁ Ca
(x -
− a)r * (x − a)r−1 + (x − a)r-2 + ..
+ Cr-1 + x (x - a)
x-α 4(x)
Hence the partial fractions corresponding to the factor (x -
− a)" are
determined by a long division sum.
x2
Ex. Take
(x - 1)³ (x + 1)*
Put x - 1 =y.
Hence the fraction =- (1 +y)2
´y³ (2 + y) *
y3
2 + y) + 2 + y² ( + + y + + y² – } 2 +y
3y +y2
3y + y²
Ry
ty²+by³
-y
Therefore the fraction
1 3 1 1
= + + -
2ys 4y2 8y 8 (2 + y)
1 3 1 1
= + +
2 (x − 1)³ † 4 (x − 1)² 8 (x -
− 1) ¯¯ 8 (x + 1 ) *
 EXAMPLES. 63

4. If a factor, such as x² + ax + b, which is not resolvable into real

linear factors occur in the denominator, the form of the corresponding
Ax + B
partial fraction is instance, if the expression be
x² +ax + b' For
1
(x -− a) (x −- b)² (x² + a²) (x² + b²)²
the proper assumption for the form in partial fractions would be
A B C Dx + E Fx + G Hx+K
+
x - a + x- b (x - 6)² + x²+a2 + x² + b² + (x² + b²)² ›
where A, B, and C can be found according to the preceding methods,
and on reduction to a common denominator we can, by equating co-
efficients of like powers in the two numerators, find the remaining
letters D, E, F, G, H, K. Variations upon these methods will
suggest themselves to the student.

EXAMPLES.
1. Given y = sin x², find Y₂, Y3, Y4.
2. Given y= x sin x, find Y2 , Y3, Y4.
3. Given y = e* sin x, find Y21 ...... Yo'
4. Given y = x³ eax, find Y3 and yn
5. If y = Aemx + Be - mx, prove y½ = m²y.
6. If y = A sin mx +B cos mx, prove y½ = -m²y.
7. If y = a sin log x, prove x²y₂ +xy₁ +y = 0.

8. If y = log (a +b )",, prove y =(y - xy₁ )².

9. If y =4 (x+√x² - 1 )" + B (x − √x² - 1 )" ,

prove (x² - - n²y = 0.
−1 ) Y₂ + xy₁—

10. If (x- a) (x - b) find Yn.

y=(x- c) (x - d) '
1
11. If find yn
Y =(x − 1 )³ (x -
− 2) '
12. If y= x" logx, find y₂, Yз, Yn , Yn + 1 °

13. If X=
cosh ( logy ) ,
prove (x² - 1) y₂ +xy₁ - m²y = 0,
and (x² - 1 ) yn + 2 + (2n + 1 ) xyn + 1 + (n² — m²) Yn = 0.
64 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

1
14. Find yn if y = 23+1
1
15. Find yn if
Y = (x + 1 ) (x² + 1 ) ⋅
x2
16. Find yn if
Y =(x − 1 )³ (x + 1 ) '
17. Prove that if y= sin (m sin-¹x),
(1 - x²) y2 = xy1 - m²y,
and (1 --
− x²) Yn + 2 = (2n + 1 ) xYn + 1 + (n² — m²) Yn ·
Hence shew that
Yn +2 =
= n² — m².
Уп
18. If y = etan -1 , prove that
( 1 +x²) Yn + 2 + {2 (n + 1 ) x -− 1 } Yn + 1 + n ( n + 1 ) Yn = 0.
19. If y = asin-1 , prove that
(1 − x²) Yn + 2 − (2n + 1 ) xYn + 1 -− ( n² + a²) Yn = 0,
and Yn +2 = n² + a².
Уп
20. If u=sin nx + cos nx,
Up = n" { 1 + ( − 1)" sin 2nx} .
21. If y = eax {α²x²- 2nax +n (n + 1 )},
Yn= an + 2x²eax
22. If x cos 0 +y sin 0 = α ,
and xsin 0 - y cos 0 =b,
dox day dix dry
prove that
der der dea dor
is constant.
23. Prove that
x ηπ
= cos
de ( in ) - [ Pain (x + 5) +2 000 (2
dxn ( x + "2 ) ] / xn + 1,
2* +3,
where
P= xn - n (n - 1) xn -2
− 2 + n (n - − 2) ( n --
− 1 ) (n - − 3) xn − 4 — ... ,
-3
and Q - na -1 - n (n − 1 ) ( n - 2) xn − ³ + ....
 EXAMPLES. 65

24. Prove
dn ПП
dxn Q sin ( x + **) xn + 1,
d ( ) = [ P cos (x + 25) -9 2 ] ; a ***,
where P and Q have the same values as in 23.
25. Prove that
dn Year sin bx\
=eax {P sin (bx + np) + Q cos (bx +np)}/ xn +1,
dhon ( X
where
P=(rx)n − n (rx)n − 1 cos & + n (n − 1 ) (rx)n − ² cos 24 – ...9
Q= n (rx)n-1sin -n ( n - 1) (rx)n - 2 sin 20 + ... ,
2=a2 +b², and tan =
-b/a.
26. Prove that
dn
dxn ( sin x) = n ! (P sin x+ Q cos x),
x2 x4
where P- 1-"C₂ ! + nC₁ 4 !

and x3
Q= "C₁x ― nC3 3 !;+ "C 5 !
27 . Shew that
dn (log x
dxn xm
( -1 )nn ! rn-1
= ¯(m + n − 1) !.log x- Σ S(m +r − 1 ) !
(m −1) ! xm + n n! r=0 r ! (n − r)
[ I. c. s., 1892. ]
10

E. D. C. 5
 CHAPTER VI.

EXPANSIONS.

67. THE student will have already met with several

expansions of given explicit functions in ascending in-
tegral powers of the independent variable ; for example,
those tabulated on pages 10 and 11 , which occur in
ordinary Algebra and Trigonometry.
The principal methods of development in common
use may be briefly classified as follows :
I. By purely Algebraical or Trigonometrical
processes.
II. By Taylor's or Maclaurin's Theorems.
III. By the use of a differential equation.
IV. By Differentiation of a known series, or a con-
verse process .
These methods we proceed to explain and exemplify.

68. METHOD I. Algebraic and Trigonometri-

cal Methods.
Ex. 1. Find the first three terms of the expansion of log sec x
in ascending powers of x.
By Trigonometry
x2 ха x6
cos x = 1 +
2 ! 4 ! 61+ ..
Hence log secx = -log cos x = -log (1 − z) ,
x2 x4 x6
where 2= - +
2 ! 4! 6 !
 EXPANSIONS. 67

and expanding log (1 -

− z) by the logarithmic theorem we obtain
z2 z3
log sec x = z + 2 + +
3
x2 x4 x6 1
= [2 ! - 4! + 6! -- +
- 2 ! - 4! + ]
1x2
+ ....
3 2!
x6
24 720
x6
+ 8 48 + ...
хв
+ 24
хв
hence log secx = 2 + 12 + 45

Ex. 2. Expand cos³r in powers of x.

Since 4 cos3x = cos 3x + 3 cos x
32x2 34x4 32n x2n
= 1-
2! + 4! + ( −- 1)" . + ...
(2n)!
x2 x4 x2n
+3 -
[1. 2! 4!
+ ·+ (- − 1)n
(2n) ! + ...] ,
x2 x4
we obtain cos³x =
4 {(1+ +3) - (32 + 3) 2 ! + (34 +3) 4!
x2n
+ ( - 1)n (3² +3) +
(2n)! ... }.
x3 25 x7
sin³ x = - -
Similarly 41 {(3³. 3) 3! - (35-3 ) 5! + (37-3) 7 !
32n-1-3
+ ( - 1)n x2n-1
(2n - 1)!
Ex. 3. Expand tan x in powers of x as far as the term involving x³.
x3 x5
x +
Since tan x= - 3! 5 !
x2 x4
1- +
2 ! 4!
we may by actual division show that
x3 2 25
tan x = x + + +.
3 15
5-2
68 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Ex. 4. Expand { { log (1 + x) } ³ in powers of x.

Since (1 +x) = eylog(1+x),
we have, by expanding each side of this identity,
y(y - 1) y(y - 1) (y - 2) 23 y (y - 1) (y - 2) (y - 3)-x++ ...
1+ yx + 2 ! x²+ 3! 4!
y2
= 1 +y log (1 + x) + 2 ! {log (1 +x)}² + ...

Hence, equating coefficients of y²,

1 x2 1+2 1.2 + 2.3 + 3.1
{log (1 + x)} ² = 2! x²+ x¹- etc. ,
3! 4!
a series which may be written in the form
x2 - 1 1
?2 - (1+1
(1 + 1)
) 03 + (1
( 1 + 1 + 1) − (1
(¹ + + + 1) +…..

EXAMPLES.

1 1
1. Prove exsin x -
= 1 + x² + = x² +: 26.
120
nx2 X4
2. Prove coeh * x=
= 1 ++ + n ( 3x - 2 ) ...
2! 4!
sin x x2 X4
3. Prove log
X 6 180
sinh t x2 x04
4. Prove log =
X 6 180
x2 7
5. Prove log x cot x = ....
3 90
tan- 1 x x2 13 - 251
6. Prove log x4 26
20 3 + 90 5.7.92
7. Prove
x2 2x3 x4 x5 x6 - x7
log (1 - x + x²) = −x + 2 + 3 4 5 3 7 + 258 ....

8. Expand log (1 + x³e*) as far as the term containing 25.

 EXPANSIONS. 69

9. Expand in powers of x,
2.x
(a) tan-1 p -qx (c) sin-1
1 + x² *
q +px *
3x - x3 x -x-1
(b) tan-1) (d) cos- 1 x+ x -1 '
1-3x²

69. METHOD II. Taylor's and Maclaurin's

Theorems.
It has been discovered that the Binomial, Ex-
ponential, and other well-known expansions are all
particular cases of one general theorem, which has for
its object the expansion off(x + h) in ascending integral
positive powers ofh, f(x) being a function of x of any
form whatever. It is found that such an expansion is
not always possible, but the student is referred to a
later chapter for a rigorous discussion of the limitations
of the Theorem.

70. Taylor's Theorem .

The theorem referred to is that under certain cir-
cumstances
h2 h3
2! ƒ" (x) + 3!
f(x + h) =f(x) + hf' (x) + 2;ƒ” 3+ ƒ"" (x) +…..
hn
+ n !¡ ƒn (x) +….. to infinity,

an expansion off(x + h) in powers of h.

This is known as Taylor's Theorem .

Assuming the possibility of expanding ƒ(x + h) in

a convergent series of positive integral powers of h, let
h2 ha
f(x + h) = A¸ + A₂h + A₂2 21 + A3
3! +....... ( 1 ) ,

where A. , A1 , A2, ... are functions of x alone which are

to be determined.
70 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Now df(x + h) =
_df(x + h) d (x + h)
=ƒ' (x +h),
dh d (x + h) dh

for x and h are independent quantities and therefore

x may be considered constant in differentiating with
d (x + h) =
regard to h, so that 1.
dh

Similarly
d³f(x + h) -
dh2 = ƒ" (x + h) ; and so on.

Differentiating (1 ) then with regard to h, we have

df(x + h) h2 h³
f' (x + h) = = A₁ + Ah + As 2! + As + ...( 2),
dh 3!
h2
ƒ"
' f (x+h)__
' (x + h) = d′ =
f" dh A¸ + A¸h + A2
2! + …..( 3),

_df
" (x + h) As
f" (x+h) = Ag + Ah + ….. (4),
dh
etc. = etc.

Putting h = 0, we have at once from (1 ), (2) , etc.

A。 =ƒ(x), A‚ = ƒ' (x), A‚ =ƒ" (x), A¸3 = ƒ"'' (x), etc.,
where ƒ' (x), ƒ" (x), ƒ"" (x) ... are the several differential
coefficients of f(x) with respect to x. Substituting
these values in (1),
h2 h³
ƒ(x + h) =f(x) + hf' (x) + 21 2; ƒ" (x) + 3!
3+ ƒ"" (x) + ……..

Ex. 1. Let f(x) = x¹.

Then f'(x)= nx -1, ƒ" (x) = n (n − 1) x²-2, etc. , and
f(x + h) = (x + h)n.
Thus Taylor's Theorem gives the Binomial expansion
n (n -
(x + h)n = x² +nhxn−1 + 2 ! 1) h²xn-2 + ...
 EXPANSIONS. 71

Ex. 2. Let f(x) = sin x.

Then f' (x) cos x, f' (x) = - sin x, ƒ''' (x) = cos x, etc. , and
ƒ(x + h) = sin (x + h).
Thus we obtain
h2 h3
sin (x +h) =sin x + h cos x -- 2 ! sin x - 3 ! cos x + ...

EXAMPLES.

Prove the following results :

h2 h3
1. ex + h = ex + hex +' ex+ ex+
2! 3!
2. tan- 1 (x + h)
h xh2 1-3x2 h³
=tan -1 x + +
1+ 2 (1 + x ) (1 + x2)3 3
3. sin- 1 (x + h)
h X h2 1 + 2x2 h³
= sin -1x+ + +
- x²)§ 3 ! +
√1 − x²¯ ( 1 − x²) § 2 ! (1 −
4. sec-1 (x +h)
h 2x2-1 h2
=sec x+ + ....
x√x² -1 x² (x² - 1 ); 2 !
5. log sin (x +h)
h2 h³ cos x
= log sin x +h cot x cosec² x + ·+ ....
2 3 sin³ x

71. Stirling's or Maclaurin's Theorem .

If in Taylor's expansion
h2 h³
f(x + h) =f(x) + hf' (x) + 21¡ƒ
' ' (x) + 3!
3¹ƒ' ''' (x) + …..
we put 0 for x, and x for h, we arrive at the result
XC2 X3
ƒ(x) =ƒ(0) + xƒ′ (0 ) + 2+ƒ” (0 ) + 3 ƒ''' (0) +...
xn
+ n!~f (0 ) +
72 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

the meaning of fr (0) being that f(x) is to be differ-

entiated r times with respect to x, and then x is to be
put zero in the result.

This result is generally known as Maclaurin's

Theorem. Being a form of Taylor's Theorem it is
subject to similar limitations.

Ex. 1. Expand sin x in powers of x.

Here f(x) = sin x, Hence ƒ (0) = 0,
f' (x) = cos x, ƒ' (0) = 1,
f" (x)= - sin x, f" (0) = 0,
f"" (x) = −cosx, f"" (0) = -1,
&c. &c.
пп пп
f" (0)= sin
ƒ" (x) = sin (x +"2 ) .
пп
sin
x3 x5 2
Thus sin x = x - +
3 ! 5! n!

Ex. 2. Expand log cos x in powers of x.

Here f (x) = log cos x,
f' (x)== - tan x = - t, say,
f" (x):= - sec² x = - (1 + t²),
f''' (x) = -2 tan x sec² x = - − 2t (1 + t²),
ƒ(4)(x) = -− 2 (1 + 3t²) (1 + t²) = − 2 (1 + 4t² + 3t³) ,
f(5) (x) = −2 (8t + 12t³ ) (1 + t²) = −2 (8t + 20t³ + 12t³),
f(6) (x) = − 2 (8 + 60t² + 60tª) ( 1 + t²) = −- 2 (8+ 68t² + 12014 + 60tº),
etc.
Whence
f(0)=log cos 0 = log 1 = 0,
and f' (0) =ƒ(3) (0) =ƒ(5) (0) = ... = 0,
also ƒ" (0) = −1 , ƒ(4) (0) = − 2 , ƒ(6) (0) = -16, etc.
Hence
x2
log cos x = 21-22 1-1629 - etc.
2! 4! 6!
 EXPANSIONS. 73

EXAMPLES.

Apply Maclaurin's Theorem to prove

ПП
x ™ COS
x2 x4 2
1. cos x = 1 - + - + ....
2 ! 4! n!
x2 X4 xn
2. log ( 1 + x) =x - 2 + 3 --- 4 + ... + ( − 1 )n - 1 n +..
22/00

x5 x2n -1
3. tan -1x = x— + ( − 1 )n − 1 ' 2n - 1 + ..
3+ 5
1
4. esinx = 1 + x + = x²² .- x4

X4
5. log (1 + e* ) = log 2 + 1 x + 8=1 x² . 192

a² -b2 -
6. eax cos bx = 1 + ax + x² + a (a² — 3b²) 23+
2! 3!
n
(a²+ b²)2
xn cos n tan-1 4) .+....
n! (n

72. METHOD III. By the formation of a Differ-

ential Equation. First form a differential equation
as in Ex. 3, Art. 60, etc. , and assume the series
аo + α₁x + а2x² +…..
for the expansion.
Substitute the series for y in the differential equa-
tion and equate coefficients of like powers of x in the
resulting identity. We thus obtain sufficient equations
to find all the coefficients except one or two of the first
which may easily be obtained from the values of f(0),
f' (0), etc.
Ex. 1. To apply this method to the expansion of (1 + x)”.
Let y= (1 + x)" = α₂ + ª¸x + ª²x² + αçx³ + .(1).
Then y₁ = n (1 + x)n−1 or (1 + x) y₁ = ny . . (2).
But Y₁ = a₁ + 2a2x + 3a3x² + ...... . (3).
74 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Therefore substituting from (1) and (3) in the differential equation (2)
(1 + x)(a₁ + 2a‚x + 3a3x² + ... ) = n (a + a₁x + ª‚x² +…..).
Hence, comparing coefficients
a1 = nao,
2a2 + a₁ = na1 ,
3a3 +2a2 = na2, etc. ,
and by putting x=0 in equation (1),
a0 =1,
giving a₁ =n,
n -1 n (n -
− 1)
ag= a1 = 21 "
n- 2 n (n -
− 1) (n -
− 2)
ვ= 3 3! " etc.,
n - r+1 n (n − 1) ... (n − r + 1)
Ap= ar-1= r!

whence n (n − 1) x² + ....
(1 + x)^ = 1 + n + 2!

Ex. 2. Let y=f(x)=(sin-2x) .

1
Y₁ =2 sin-¹x.
√1- x2'
.. (1 - x²) y₁² = 4y.
Differentiating, and dividing by 2y₁ , we have
(1 − x²) Y½ = xy₁ + 2………….. . (1).
Now, let yao + a₁x + α„x² + ... + Anx² + an+1²x²+1 + An+2x²+2 .
therefore
Y₁ = α₁ + 2αx + + na„xn−¹ + (n + 1 ) an+1x² + (n + 2) an+2xn+1.+ ....
and
y2 = 2a2 +... + n (n − 1 ) a„xn− ² + (n +1 ) nan+1xn−¹ + (n + 2 ) (n + 1) an+2x² + .
Picking out the coefficient of x" in the equation (which may be done
without actual substitution) we have
(n + 2) (n + 1 ) an+2 --− n (n -− 1) an = nan;
n2
therefore an+2= an .(?).
(n + 1) (n + 2)
 EXPANSIONS. 75

Now, a =ƒ(0) = (sin¯¹ 0)2,

and if we consider sin-1 x to be the smallest positive angle whose
sine is x,
sin-10 = 0.
Hence a0 =0.
1
Again, a, f'(0)=2 sin-10 . ==0,
√1-0
and =1.
a₂ = ¹ƒ″ (0 ) = § ( 1 -2 0 + 0 ) = 1
Hence, from equation (2), ag , A5, A7, ...9 are each = 0,
22 22 22
and as= 3.4 · =
4 3.4 = 4! 2,
42 22.42 22.42
46 5.6'• a₁ = 3.4.5.6 • 2,
6!
etc. etc.;
therefore
2x2 22 22.42
(sin−¹ x)² = 2 ! 2.x4 + 2.x6 + 22.42.62 2x8 + ....
4! 6! 8!

A different method of proceeding is indicated in the

following example :-
Ex. 3. Let
x2 x3
y =sin (m sin-¹ x) = α₂ + α₁x + α₂ 2 ! + az 3! + . (1).
m
Then Y₁ = cos (m sin-¹ x)
√1-22'
whence (1 − x²) y₁² = m² (1 -
− y²).
Differentiating again, and dividing by 2y₁ , we have
(1 − x²) y₂ - xy₁ + m²y = 0 ........... .(2 ).
Differentiating this n times by Leibnitz's Theorem
(1 − x²) Yn+2 -− (2n + 1) xyn+1 + (m² -— n²) yn = 0………………………….. (3) .
Now a =(y)x=0 =sin (m sin-10) = 0,
х is the smallest positive angle whose sine is x)
(assuming that sin-¹x
a₁ = (y1)x=0 = m ,
a =(Y2)x=0 =0,
etc.
an = (Yn)x=0·
76 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Hence, putting x = 0 in equation (3),

an+2 = -
− (m² -
— n²) an·
Hence a4, a6 , ag,9.9 each = 0,
and a3= − (m² – 1²) a₁ = -− m (m² -– 1²),
-
A5 = − (m² — 3²) a¸ — m (m² -– 1²) (m² -– 3²),
- -
Ar = (m² — 5²) а5= -- m (m2 -_ 1) (m° -– 3 ) (m® – 5) ,
etc.
Whence
- -
sin (m sin-¹x) = mx — m (m² – 1²) x3 + m (m² - 12) (m² – 32) x5
3! 5!
m (m² – 1²) (m² — 3²) (m³ -
— 5²) 27+
7!
The corresponding series for cos (m sin−¹ x) is
m2x2 m² (m² - 22)
cos (m sin-¹x) = 1– 2 ! + x4
4!
m² (m² – 22) (m² – 42) 26+
6!
If we write x = sin @ these series become

sin mom sin m (m² - 12) sin³

3!
m (m² — 1²) (m² — 3³) sin50 - etc. ,
+ 5!
m2 sin m² ( m² —2²) sin¹0
cos mo =1- 20+
2! 4!
m² (m² - 2²) (m² - 42) sing
+ etc.
6!

EXAMPLES.

1. Apply this method to find the known expansions of

ax, log ( 1 + x), sin x, tan - 1 x.
2. If y=sin-1x=a + а₁x + α²x² + Azər³ + ... ,
prove (1) (1 − x ) 2 = xY1 )
- x²)
(2) (n + 1 ) ( n + 2 ) an + 2 = n²an
1 x3 1.3 25
(3) sin -1 x= x + 23 2,4 ' 5 +
 EXPANSIONS. 77

3. If y =easin -¹x = αo + α₁x + α²x² + ɑzx² + ….. ,

prove (1 ) ( 1 - x²) Y2 = xY1 +a²y,
(2) (n + 1 ) ( n + 2) αn + 2 = (n² + a²) an ,
a²x² a (a² + 1) a² (a² + 22) x4
(3) ea sin-¹x = 1 + ax + 2 ! + 3! 4!
a (a² + 1 ) (a² +3²) 25+ ....
+ 5!
(4) Deduce from (3) by expanding the left side by the
exponential theorem and equating coefficients of a, a2 , a³... the
series for sin - 1x, (sin - ¹ x)², (sin −¹ x)³.
4. Prove that
(tan - 1 x)2
2!
x2 x6 - 1 1
=
2 - (1 + 1) 4+ + (1 + 1 + 1 ) =6 − (1 +2323 + + 1) 8 +....
~
5. Prove that

- 2 x4 + 2 • 4 x6
(a) = [log (x + √
/ 1 + x²)]² = 2 3 4 3• 5 6

log (x + √1 + x²) = x- 2 23+ 2.4 x+5

(b) 3 ...
√1 +x2 3.5

73. METHOD IV. Differentiation or integra-

tion of a known series. The method of treatment
is best indicated by examples.
Ex. 1. If we differentiate the series
1 x³ 1.3 x5 1.3.5 x7
sin-1x = x +
23 + 2.4 5 + 2.4.6 7 +
we obtain the binomial expansion
1 1 1.23 1.3.5
= 1 + x²+ 26+
1 - x2 2.4·x++ 2.4.5
and it is clear that we must be able by a reverse process (integration)
to infer the first series from the second.
The student unacquainted with integration may obtain the expan-
sion of sin-¹ X from that of (1 - x2) - as follows :
78 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
Let sin-¹x = α + a₁x + A2x² + A¸Ã³ +
then differentiating
1
.......
- ;= α₁ + 2α₂x + 3а¸x² + 4а¸x³ +

1 1.3
But + x²+ x² + ....
2. 4
√1-x2
1.3
Hence a₁ = 1, 2α = 0, 3α = 1, 4a4 = 0, 5аŋ =
= 2.4' etc.
Also a =sin-10 =0
(if we take the smallest positive value of the inverse function).

Hence substituting the values of these coefficients

1x3 1.3 x5
sin-1x = x + + +
2 3 2.4 5

Ex. 2. We have proved in Ex. 2 Art. 72 that

(sin-1 x)2 x2 22x4 22.42 22.42.62
+ 4! + 6 ! x6 + -x8 +
2! 2! 8!
Hence differentiating we arrive at a new series
sin-1 x 22 22.42 5 22.42.62
==x + x3 + 2 +
√1-x2 3! 5! 7!

If we put x= sin 0 we may write this as

20 22 22.42 22.42.62
= 1 + sin20 + sin¹ 0+ sin60 + ...,
sin 20 3! 5! 7!
2 2.4 2.4.6
or = 1 +3 sin20 + 3.5 sin40 + 3.5.7 sin6 0 +

EXAMPLES.

1. Obtain in this manner the expansion of

1 +x
log (1 +x), tan- 1x, log 1 - x

2. Prove
1 x3 1.3x5
log (x + √1 +x²) = x — 2 3 + 2.4 5
 EXAMPLES. 79

3. Expand
2x x √1 + x² - √1 − x²
sin-1 tan- 1 tan -1
1 + x² ' √1+ x² + √1 - x²
in powers of x.
4. Prove
0 2
sin e
22 22.42 22.42.62
sin40 + sin60 +
3.4 sin²0 + 3.4.5.6
=1 +324 3.4.5.6.7.8
5. Prove that
easin-1
(1)

ax (a² + 12) x² , a (a² + 22) x3 , (a² + 12) (a² + 32) x+

= 1+ + + + + ... ,
1! 2! 3! 4!
eo
(2) cos
sin (1 + 12) sin² 0 (1 + 22) sin³ 0
= 1+ +
1! 2! 3!
(1 + 12) ( 1 +32) sin¹ 0
+ + ....
4!

EXAMPLES.
1. Prove

log (1 +tan x) = x·- -1000+ 21003+....

2. Prove
x2 x3 11x4 25
excos x= 1 +x + -
2 3 24 5
3. Prove
x 5x2 X3 251
log { e2 log (1+
+x)} =
24 8 + 2880
4....

4. Prove
08

x2 2.x3 24 205 ენ
= -x + 2 + 3 + 4 - 5
log (1 − x + x²) ==
+

3 7
80 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

x2 11.x4
5. Prove cosh (x cos x) = 1 +-2 24
X3 X-5
sinh ( cos x )= - 3 - 5
tan x x2 7
6. Prove log + x+ ....
XC 3 90
7. Prove
IFI -
cos - 1 (tanh log) 3+ 5
8. Prove
XC x3 x7
tan -1 √1 + x² - 1 = --
X 2 6 + 10 14 +
.

9. Prove log ( 3x + 4x³ + √/ 1 + 9x² + 24x² + 16x6)

1 x3 1.3 x5
3
23 + 2.4 · 5
{ཚ - ...
}.
10. Prove that
x3 2 x5 2.4 x
(a) (1 − x²)¹ sin - ¹x= x- 3 - 35 3•5 7
213

sin2 0 2 sin¹ 0 2.4 sinⓇ

(b) cot 0-1- 3 5 3• 5 7
π 2 1 2 2•4 1 3
2I1

(c) 4 = 1 3་ 5 3• 5
11. Prove that

(x + √1 +x²)n
== 1 + nx +·n²x²n (n² - 1³) 23+ n² (n² − 2²) x² +n(n² — 1²) (n² — 3²) 205
+ 3! 5!
2! 4!
+ ... ,
and deduce the expansions of
1 1
/1 +x²) , 2 ! {log (x + 1 + x )}², 3 ! {log (x + √
log (x+ √√ / 1 + x²)}³.

12. If y= eax cos bx,

prove that Y2-2ay₁ +(a² + b²) y = 0,
and hence that
a² -b2 x²+ a (a² - 362)
eax cos bx = 1 + αx +· 23 + ....
2! 3!
 EXAMPLES. 81

13. Prove
m
(a) sin (m tan-¹ x) (1 + x²) ²
- -
=mx m (m − 1 ) (m− 2) 203+m (m − 1 ) (m − 2) (m − 3) (m − 4) 26
3! 5!
m
(b) cos (m tan-¹x) ( 1 + x²) ²
1) m (m− - 1 ) (m -
− 2) (m −3) х
= 1- m (m - 202+
2! 4!
14. Deduce from 13 (a)
tan- ¹x log √√1 + x²
X3
... ...
= ( + 12) 3 = ( + 12 + 1 + 1) 5 + ( + + + 1)
15. Prove
cosh 12 +12
(a) cos 1+ sin² 0 + (1² +12) ( 1² + 3²) sin* 0 +... ,
2! 4!
sinh 0
(b) cos
.12
= sin + (12 +22) sin³ 0+ (1² +2²) (1² +4²) sin³0 + ……..
1! 3! 5!
16. Prove
(h sin 0)2 sin 20
tan-1 (x + h) = tan- 1 x+(h sin ) sin ◊ – 2
(h sin 0)3 sin 30- (h sin 0)* sin 40+ etc.,
+
3 4
where x =cot 0.
17. Deduce from Ex. 16
cos20 Cos³
(a) == 0+cos e sin 0+ sin 20+ sin 30+ ... ,
2 3
by putting h= -x= -cot 0.
π- 6 1 1 1
(5 ) ==
2 sin 0+ sin 20+ 3 sin 30+ 4 sin 48+ ...,

by putting h=
= - √1 + x².
π sin 1 sin 20 1 sin 30 1 sin 40
(c) + +.....
2 cos 8 2 cos² 0 3 cos³ 4 cos¹ 0
by putting h= -x - x- 1.
E. D. C. 6
82 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

18. Show that

1 (sin-1x)2
(a)
2 ! √1 - x2
x2 1
= +12.32
2 ! + 1² . 3 ( 32 4 !+
( +3)
詞 +1.3.5 ( ++ 52) +
02
(b) sin 20
sin 1 sin³ 0 sin5 0
+12.32 2 + +12.32.52
2! 32 4! ( ++ ) 6 !
+ ....
19. Prove
(tan-1x)3
3!
23 (1 хб
1+ 5+1
=123
~²- ( + 14 (1 + 1 )]
} // ( +1 (1 + 1 )
1
+ / (1 + 3 + }) } =7
7
20. Prove
vers -1 1 1.3 x2 1.3.5 x3
- 1+ x+
(a)
2.x 3.4 5.42 2 ! + 7.43 31+ ... 9
(vers-1x)2 1 x2 1.2 x3 1.2.3x4
=x+ • + +.
(b) 2 3 2 + 3.5 3 3.5.7 4
21. Prove that
- h2 ht
·ƒ(x +h) +f (x − h) =ƒ(x ) + '
" ƒ (x) +
'"; ƒ " (x) + 4+, ƒ
2 4 ! ' '' ...
22. Prove that
(a) f(mx)
x2
=ƒ(x) + (m − 1) x ƒ' ( x) + (m - − 1)² 223!ƒ" (x) + (m - 3! ƒ (x) + ...,
− 1 )32
x2
f
(b) ƒ(1232 )
XC x2 1 X3 1
= ƒ(x) − 1z +
~x ~ƒ ′ (x) + (1 + x)² 2 !·ƒ" (x)· (1 +x)3 3 !・f'" (x) + ... ,
x2 X3
! " (x) —
(e) f(x)=ƒ(0)+ xf'(x) === ƒ" (x) + 337ƒ – etc.
 CHAPTER VII.

INFINITESIMALS.

74. Orders of Smallness .

If we conceive any magnitude A divided into

any large number of equal parts, say a billion (10¹²),
A
then each part is extremely small, and for all
1012
practical purposes negligible, in comparison with A.
If this part be again subdivided into a billion equal
A
parts, each = of these last is extremely small
1024 each
A
in comparison with and so on. We thus obtain
1012 >
A A A
a series of magnitudes, A, 1012 " 1024 " 1036
108 ,' ..., each

of which is excessively small in comparison with the

one which precedes it, but very large compared with
the one which follows it. This furnishes us with what
we may designate a scale of smallness.

75. More generally, if we agree to consider any

given fraction ƒ as being small in comparison with
unity, then ƒA will be small in comparison with A ,
and we may term the expressions fA, f2A, ƒ³A, ....
small quantities of the first, second, third, etc., orders ;
and the numerical quantities f, f²‚ƒ³½ ..., may be called
small fractions of the first, second, third, etc. , orders.
6-2
84 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Thus, supposing A to be any given finite magni-

tude, any given fraction of A is at our choice to
designate a small quantity of the first order in com-
parison with A. When this is chosen, any quantity
which has to this small quantity of the first order a
ratio which is a small fraction of the first order, is itself
a small quantity of the second order. Similarly, any
quantity whose ratio to a small quantity of the second
order is a small fraction of the first order is a small
quantity of the third order, and so on. So that generally,
if a small quantity be such that its ratio to a small
quantity of the pth order be a small fraction of the qth
order, it is itself termed a small quantity of the (p +q)th
order.

76. Infinitesimals .
If these small quantities Af, Aƒ³, Aƒ³, ..., be all
quantities whose limits are zero, then supposing f made
smaller than any assignable quantity by sufficiently
increasing its denominator, these small quantities of the
first , second, third, etc. , orders are termed infinitesimals
of the first, second, third, etc., orders.
From the nature of an infinitesimal it is clear that,
ifany equation contain finite quantities and infinitesimals,
the infinitesimals may be rejected.

77. PROP. In any equation between infinitesimals

of different orders, none but those of the lowest order need
be retained.

Suppose, for instance the equation to be

A₁ + B₁ + C₁ + D₂ + E₂ + F3 + ... = 0......(i)
0 ……………. (i) ,
each letter denoting an infinitesimal of the order in-
dicated by the suffix.
Then, dividing by A₁,
B₁ C₁ D₂ E2 F
1+ + + + + + ... = 0 ...... (ii ) ,
1 + A ₁ A₁ A₁ A₁ A₁
 INFINITESIMALS. 85

B₁ C₁ Da2 E
the limiting ratios A and are finite, while
₁ A₁
infinitesimal
are infinitesimals of the first order, F3 is an
A,
of the second order, and so on. Hence, by Art. 76 ,
equation (ii) may be replaced by
B₁ C₁
1+ + = 0,
A₁ A₁
and therefore equation (i) by
A₁ + B₁ + C₁ = 0,
which proves the statement.

78. PROP. In any equation connecting infinitesimals

we may substitute for any one of the quantities involved
any other which differs from it by a quantity of higher
order.
For if A₁ + B₁ + C₁ + D₂ + ... = 0
be the equation, and if A₁ = F₁ +f2 ,
f denoting an infinitesimal of higher order than F₁ , we
have F₁ + B₁ + C₂ +ƒ½ + D₂ + ... = 0,

i.e. by the last proposition we may write

F₁ + B₁ + C₁ = 0 ,
which may therefore, if desirable, replace the equation
A₁ + B₁ + C₁ = 0.

79. Illustrations.
03 95
(1) Since sin 00 - +
3 ! 5!
02 04
and cos 0 = 1 - +
2 ! 4!
sin 0, 1 - cos 0, 0- sin 0 are respectively of the first, second, and third
orders of small quantities, when is of the first order ; also, 1 may
be written instead of cos e if second order quantities are to be re-
jected, and for sin when cubes and higher powers are rejected.
86 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

(2) Again, suppose AP the arc of a circle of centre O and radius

a. Suppose the angle AOP ( = 0 ) to be a small quantity of the first
order. Let PN be the perpendicular from P upon OA and AQ the
tangent at A, meeting OP produced in Q. Join P, A.
Then arc AP a0 and is of the first order,
NP a sin 0 do. do.,
AQ=a tan 0 do. do.,
0
chord AP = 2a sin do. do. ,
2
NA = a (1 - cos e) and is of the second order.
So that OP - ON is a small quantity of the second order.

N A
0
Again, arc AP - chord AP = a0 - 2a sin 2
8 08
= a0-2a
2 8.3 ! +
- a03 - etc. ,
4.3!
and is of the third order.
PQ - NA NA (sec 0 - − 1)
0
2 sin2
---NA .
cos 0
= (second order)(second order)
-fourth order of small quantities,
and similarly for others.

80. The base angles of a triangle being given to be

small quantities of the first order, to find the order of the
difference between the base and the sum of the sides.
By what has gone before, (Art. 79 ( 2) ), if APB be the
 INFINITESIMALS. 87

triangle and PM the perpendicular on AB, AP - AM

A M B

and BP - BM are both small quantities of the second

order as compared with AB.
Hence AP + PB- AB is of the second order com-
pared with AB.
If AB itself be of the first order of small quantities,
then AP + PB- AB is of the third order.

81. Degree of approximation in taking a small

chord for a small arc in any curve.
Let AB be an arc of a curve supposed continuous
between A and B, and so small as to be concave at each

A B

point throughout its length to the foot of the perpen-

dicular from that point upon the chord. Let AP, BP
be the tangents at A and B. Then, when A and B are
taken sufficiently near together, the chord AB and the
angles at A and B may each be considered small quan-
tities of at least the first order, and therefore, by what
has gone before, AP + PB- AB will be at least of the
third order. Now we may take as an axiom that the
length of the arc AB is intermediate between the length
of the chord AB and the sum of the tangents AP, BP.
Hence the difference of the arc AB and the chord AB,
which is less than that between AP + PB and the chord
AB, must be at least ofthe third order.
88 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

EXAMPLES.

1. In the figure on page 86 suppose PM drawn at right

angles to AQ, and prove
(a) Segment cut off by AP is of the third order of small
quantities,
(b) Triangle PNA is of the third order,
(c) Triangle PQM is of the fifth order.

2. OA, B is a triangle right-angled at A, and of which the

angle at O is small and of the first order. A₁B₁ is drawn per-
pendicular to OB, B¿Â½ to AB, A‚½ to OB, and so on.
Prove
(a) AnB is a small quantity of the (2n --
− 1)th order,
(b) BnAn + 1 is of the 2nth order,
(c) BB is of the 2nth order,
(d) triangle BAmBn is ofthe (2m + 2n - 1 )th order.

3. A straight line of constant length slides between two

straight lines at right angles, viz. CAα, CbB ; AB, ab are two
positions of the line, and P their point of intersection. Show
that, in the limit, when the two positions coincide, we have
Aa CB PA CB2
and
Bb CA PB CA2'
4. From a point T in a radius of a circle, produced, a tangent
TP is drawn to the circle touching it in P. PN is drawn per-
pendicular to the radius OA. Show that, in the limit when P
moves up to A,
NA =AT.
5. Tangents are drawn to a circular arc at its middle point
and at its extremities ; show that the area of the triangle formed
by the chord of the arc and the two tangents at the extremities
is ultimately four times that of the triangle formed by the three
tangents.
6. A regular polygon of n sides is inscribed in a circle. Show
that when n is very great the ratio of the difference of the
circumferences to the circumference of the circle is approximately
T²/6n2.
7. Show that the difference between the perimeters of the
earth and that of an inscribed regular polygon of ten thousand
sides is less than a yard (rad. of Earth = 4000 miles) .
 EXAMPLES. 89

8. The sides of a triangle are 5 and 6 feet and the included

angle exceeds 60° by 10". Calculating the third side for an
angle of 60°, find the correction to be applied for the extra 10".
9. A person at a distance q from a tower of height p observes
that a flag-pole upon the top of it subtends an angle at his eye.
Neglecting his height, show that if the observed angle be subject
to a small error a, the corresponding error in the length of the
pole has to the calculated length the ratio
qa cosec /(g cos ◊ — p sin ◊) .
10. If in the equation sin (@ -0) = sin w cos a, ◊ be small,
show that its approximate value is
2 tan o sin² tan2 @ sin2
(1-
[I. C. S. ]
11. A small error x is made in measuring the side a of a
triangle, a small error y in measuring b, and a small error n″
in measuring C. Prove that the consequent errors in A and B
are each n", provided the relation
- n sin 1″
2 bx - ay sin C =
a² -b2
be satisfied. [ I. c. s., 1892. ]
 CHAPTER VIII.

TANGENTS AND NORMALS.

82. Equation of TANGENT .

It was shown in Art. 18 that the equation of the
tangent at the point (x, y) on the curve y =ƒ(x) is
- dy ―
= . (1),

X and Y being the current co-ordinates of any point on

the tangent .

Suppose the equation of the curve to be given in the

form f(x, y) = 0.
It is shown in Art. 58 that

af
dy == дх
dx
Əy
༄

Substituting this expression for dy in ( 1) we obtain

dx
af
მე
Y - y =- (X - x),

dy
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 91

or (x − 2) 2 + ( Y− y) ; 0 ............ (2 )
дх მყ
for the equation of the tangent.
ди ди
If the partial differential coefficients › etc. be
dx ' dy
denoted byfx, fy , etc., equation (2) may then be written
-
(X − x)ƒx + ( Y− y)ƒy = 0 .

83. Simplification for Algebraic Curves .

If f(x, y) be an algebraic function of x and y of
degree n, suppose it made homogeneous in x, y, and z by
the introduction of a proper power of the linear unit z
wherever necessary. Call the function thus altered
f(x, y, z). Then f(x, y, z) is a homogeneous algebraic
function of the nth degree ; hence we have by Euler's
Theorem (Art. 59)

xfx + yfy + zfz = nf(x, y, z) = 0 ,

by virtue of the equation to the curve.
Adding this to equation ( 2) , the equation of the
tangent takes the form
Xƒx + Yƒy + zfz = 0 ………………………….. . (3),
where the z is to be put = 1 after the differentiations
have been performed .

We often for the sake of symmetry write Z instead

of z in this equation and write the tangent in the form
Xf + Yfy + Zfz = 0.
Ex. f(x, y) = x² + a²xy + b³y + c¹ = 0.
The equation, when made homogeneous in x, y, z by the introduction
ofa proper power ofz, is
f(x, y, z) = x + a²xyz² + b³yz³ + c+z² = 0,
and fx =4x³ + a²yz²,
fy = a2xz2 + b323,
f = 2a²xyz + 3b³yz² +4c¹z³.
92 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Substituting these in Equation 3, and putting Z = z = 1, we have for.

the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point (x, y)
X (4x³ +a³y) + Y (a²x + b³) + 2a²xy +3b³y +4c4 = 0.

With very little practice the introduction of the z

can be performed mentally. It is generally more ad-
vantageous to use equation (3) than equation (2) , be-
cause (3) gives the result in its simplest form, whereas
if (2) be used it is often necessary to reduce by substitu-
tions from the equation of the curve.

84. NORMAL .

DEF. The normal at any point of a curve is a straight

line through that point and perpendicular to the tangent
to the curve at that point.
Let the axes be assumed rectangular. The equation
of the normal may then be at once written down. For
if the equation of the curve be
y = f(x),
the tangent at (x, y) is
dy ( x - x),
Y - y = dy
dx
and the normal is therefore

-
(X − x) + ( Y − y) dy == 0.

If the equation of the curve be given in the form

f ( x, y) = 0,
the equation of the tangent is
-
(X − x)ƒx + ( Y − y) ƒy = 0 ,
and therefore that of the normal is
X - x_Y - y
fx fy
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 93

x2 y2
Ex. 1. Consider the ellipse a2 + 62= 1.

This requires z² in the last term to make a homogeneous equation

in x, y, and z. We have then
x2 y2
- z² = 0.
a2 b2
Hence the equation of the tangent is
2x 2y
X. + Y . -z.2z = 0,
a2 b2
where z is to be put = 1 . Hence we get
Xx Yy
= 1 for the tangent,
a2 +
-x Y- y
and therefore = for the normal.
x Y
a² b2

Ex. 2. Take the general equation of a conic

ax² +2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.
When made homogeneous this becomes
ax² +2hxy + by² + 2gxz + 2fyz + cz² = 0.
The equation of the tangent is therefore
X (ax + hy + g) + Y (hx + by +f) + gx +fy + c = 0,
and that of the normal is
X- x Y- y
ax + hy + ghx + by +f'
X
Ex. 3. Consider the curve a ==log sec a •

dy = tan X
Then a
dx
and the equation of the tangent is
x
Y - y =tan- (X -
− x),
and of the normal
X
(Y - y) tan ~+ (X -
− x) =0.
94 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

85. If f(x, y) = 0 and F (x, y) = 0 be two curves

intersecting at the point x, y, their respective tangents
at that point are
Xƒx + Yƒy + Zfz = 0,
and XFx + YFŋ + ZF₂ = 0.
The angle at which these lines cut is

tan -1 fxFy - fyFx

fxFx +fyFy'
Hence if the curves touch

fx/Fx = fy/Fy;
and if they cut orthogonally,
ƒxFx +ƒyFy = 0.
Ex. Find the angle of intersection of the curves
x³ - 3x² = a,
3x²y - y³ = b.
Calling the left-hand members ƒ and F respectively, we have
fx= 3 (x² - y³) = Fy,
fy= -6xyFx·
Hence clearly JxFx +fyFy = 0,
and the curves cut orthogonally.

86. If the form of a curve be given by the equations

x = $(t), y = ¥ (t)
the tangent at the point determined by the third variable
t is by equation 1 , Art. 82,
y' (t)
Y- (t) = { X − $ (t)},
p' (t)
or - -
Xy
' (t) — Yo' (t) = $ (t) y′ (t) — ¥ (t) p′ (t).
Similarly by Art. 84 the corresponding normal is
Xp' (t) + Y¥' (t) = $ (t) $′ (t) + ¥ (t) yf' (t).
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 95

EXAMPLES.

1. Find the equations of the tangents and normals at the

point (x, y) on each of the following curves :-
(1 ) x² + y² = c². (5) x²y +xy² = a³.
(2) y2 =4ax. (6) ev =sin x.
(3) xy=k². (7) x³ - 3αxy+ y³ = 0.
Xx
(4) y= c cosh (8) (x² +y2)² = a² (x²- y²).

2. Write down the equations of the tangents and normals to

α
the curve y (x² +a²) = ax2 at the points where y = 4
x y
3. Prove that + 3 = 1 touches the curve y = be¯å at the
α
point where the curve crosses the axis of y.

4. Find where the tangent is parallel to the axis of x and

where it is perpendicular to that axis for the following curves :—
(a) ax² +2hxy + by² = 1.
x³- a³
(B) y = ax

(y) y³ = x² (2α - x).

5. Find the tangent and normal at the point determined
by 8 on
(a) The ellipse x=α cos
•
y =b sin 0}
(8) The cycloid x= a (0 +sin 0))
y=a (1 - cos 0)S
Α
(y) The epicycloid x = A cos 0 -
– B cos 음
B이

y=A sin 0 - B sin

6. If p = x cos a +y sin a touch the curve

xm ут
amt bm = 1 ,
m m m
prove that pm -1 = (a cos a)m - 1 +(b sin a)m- 1
96 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Hence write down the polar equation of the locus of the foot
of the perpendicular from the origin on the tangent to this
curve.
Examine the cases of an ellipse and of a rectangular hyper-
bola.

7. Find the condition that the conics

ax² +by² = 1 , a'x² + b'y² = 1
shall cut orthogonally.

8. Prove that, if the axes be oblique and inclined at an

angle w, the equation of the normal to y =f(x) at (x, y) is
= 0.
( Y− y) (cos + dx x) (1
dy ) + (X - 2) dx
+ cos w dy)-
( 1+

9. Show that the parabolas x² = ay and y2 = 2ax intersect

upon the Folium of Descartes 3 +y³ = 3axy ; and find the angles
between each pair at the points of intersection.

87. Tangents at the Origin .

It will be shown in a subsequent article ( 124) that

in the case in which a curve, whose equation is given
in the rational algebraic form, passes through the origin,
the equation of the tangent or tangents at that point
can be at once written down by inspection ; the rule
being to equate to zero the terms of lowest degree in the
equation of the curve.

Ex. 1. In the curve x² + y² + ax + by = 0 , ax + by = 0 isthe equation

of the tangent at the origin ; and in the curve (x² + y²) ² = a² (x² — y²),
x² - y² =0 is the equation of a pair of tangents at the origin.
Ex. 2. Write down the equations of the tangents at the origin
in the following curves :-
(a) (x² +y²)² = a²x² — b²y².
(B) x5 + y5 = 5ax²y².

(y) (y - a)2:x² + y² -=b².

y2
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 97

GEOMETRICAL RESULTS.

88. Cartesians . Intercepts .

From the equation Y - y = dy

dx (X - x)
a)

it is clear that the intercepts which the tangent cuts off

from the axes of x and y are respectively

XC - У and y- XC dy
dy da'
dx

for these are respectively the values of X when Y = 0

and of Y when X = 0.

Yt
Yı

T N G X

Let PN, PT, PG be the ordinate, tangent, and

normal to the curve, and let PT make an angle ↓ with
dy
the axis of x ; then tan = • Let the tangent cut
dx
the axis of y in t, and let OY, OY, be perpendiculars
from O, the origin, on the tangent and normal. Then
the above values of the intercepts are also obvious from
the figure.
E. D. C. 7
98 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

89. Subtangent, etc.

DEF. The line TN is called the subtangent and the

line NG is called the subnormal.

From the figure

y
•
Subtangent = TN = y cot ↓ = Ly
dx
dy
Subnormal = NG = y tan = y dx

Normal = PG = y sec ↓ = y√1 + tan² √

2
y 1+ (dy\
dx

- √1 + tan²
Tangent TP = y cosec =y tany

1+
dy 2
Vi dx
=y
dy
dx

dy dy
y-x y-x
dx dx
OY = Ot cos y =
= 2
√1 + tan² dy
1+
dx
dy
x + y dx
ON + NG
OY, = OG cos =
1+ tan² dy 2
1+
dx

These and other results may of course also be

obtained analytically from the equation of the tangent.
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 99

Thus if the equation of the curve be given in the

form f(x, y) = 0,
the tangent Xƒx + Yƒy + Zfz = 0
makes intercepts -ƒz/fx and -fzfy upon the co-ordinate
axes, and the perpendicular from the origin upon the
tangent is
fz√ƒx +fv²;,
and indeed, any lengths or angles desired may be written
down by the ordinary methods and formulae of analytical
geometry.
Ex. 1. For the " chainette "

y ={ (e²+ e¯
*«)

we have Yı
1. (-e ), c).
x x
ecte C
Hence Subtangent = y = c x
Y1 с
2x 2x
Subnormal = yY1 = с (ec -e c ).

Normal = y = etc.

xn
Ex. 2. Find that curve of the class y = whose subnormal is
an-1
constant.
xn-1
Here Y₁ = n an-1 ,
x2n-1
and subnormal = yy₁ = n· n
a2 -2

Thus if 2n = 1 the x disappears and leaves

α
subnormal =
2'
and the curve is the ordinary parabola
y² =ax.
7-2
100 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

ds da
90. Values of 2 etc.
dx ' ds
Let P, Q be contiguous points on a curve. Let
the co-ordinates of P be (x, y) and of Q (x + dx, y + dy).
Y

R
A

0 M N X

Then the perpendicular PR = dx, and RQ = dy. Let

the arc AP measured from some fixed point A on the
curve be called s and the arc AQ = s + ds. Then arc
PQ =- 8s. When Q travels along the curve so as to
come indefinitely near to P, the arc PQ and the chord
PQ differ ultimately by a quantity of higher order of
smallness than the arc PQ itself. (Art. 81.)
Hence, rejecting infinitesimals of order higher than
the second, we have
Ss² = (chord PQ)² = (dx² + Sy²),
буг dx\2 2
dy
or 1 = Lt (Ba² + 51 )= (14) +
Ss2 ds ds
Ss2 Sy³
Similarly Lt 1
Sx² Lt (1+ y²),
ds\ 2 2
dy
or = 1+
dx dx
and in the same manner
ds \2 dx2
= 1+
dy dy
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 101

If be the angle which the tangent makes with

the axis of x we have as in Art. 18,

RQ
tan = Lt = Lt Sy_d
= = y
ᏢᎡ бах dx 2
and also
PR PR Sx dx
cos y = Lt = Lt = Lt =
chord PQ Es ds
arc PQ
and
RQ RQ
sin ↓ = Lt = == Lt Sy_d
= y
chord PQ Lt Es ds'
arc PQ

EXAMPLES.
1. Find the length of the perpendicular from the origin
on the tangent at the point x, y of the curve
x² + y¹ = c².
x
2. Show that in the curve y = bea the subtangent is of con-
stant length .
3. Show that in the curve by² = (x +a )³ the square of the
subtangent varies as the subnormal .
4. For the parabola y² = 4ax , prove
ds - a+x
dx √at
2
x2 .7
5. Prove that for the ellipse 9 4
b2 = 1, if x = a sin ø,
ds
- a √1 - e² sin² .
аф
6. For the cycloid x=α vers
y= a (0 +sin
Sine) } ,
ds 2α
prove =
dx Xx
7. In the curve x
y =alogsec α
ds XC ds 2
prove = sec- " Cosec and x = a¥.
dx dy
102 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

8. Show that the portion of the tangent to the curve

x³ +y³ = a³,
which is intercepted between the axes, is of constant length.
Find the area of the portion included between the axes and
the tangent.
9. Find for what value of n the length of the subnormal
of the curve xy" = an + 1 is constant. Also for what value of n
the area of the triangle included between the axes and any tan-
gent is constant.
X
10. Prove that for the catenary y = c cosh the length of
the perpendicular from the foot of the ordinate on the tangent
is of constant length.
11. In the tractory
с c-
C- √c² - y²
x = √c²- y² + log
2 c + √ c² -
= y² '
prove that the portion of the tangent intercepted between the
point of contact and the axis of x is of constant length.
91. Polar Co-ordinates.
If the equation of the curve be referred to polar co-
ordinates, suppose O to be the pole and P, Q two con-
tiguous points on the curve. Let the co-ordinates of P
and be (r, 0) and (r + dr, 0 + 80) respectively. Let
PN be the perpendicular on OQ, then NQ differs from

бо

T
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 103

Sr and NP from rde by a quantity of higher order of

smallness than 80. (Art. 79.)
Let the arc measured from some fixed point A to P
be called s and from A to Q, s + Ss. Then arc PQ = ds.
Hence, rejecting infinitesimals of order higher than the
second, we have

Ss = (chord PQ)² = (NQ² + PN²) = ( dr² + r²80²),

and therefore
2
ds\2
+ p² = 1, or = 1 + r²
ds )
(dry )*
•(do dr ·(do
dr)"
,
ds\2 dr²
or = r² + "
(do) de

according as we divide by ds², dr², or 802 before proceeding

to the limit.

92. Inclination of the Radius Vector to the

Tangent.
Next, let be the angle which the tangent at any
point P makes with the radius vector, then
de dr rde
tan = r cos o = > sin =
dr ' ds ds

For, with the figure of the preceding article , since, when

Q has moved along the curve so near to P that Q and
P may be considered as ultimately coincident, QP be-
comes the tangent at P and the angles OQT and OPT
are each of them ultimately equal to 4, and
NP rse de
tan & = Lt tan NQP = Lt = Lt =r
QN бр dr
NQ
cos = Lt cos NQP = Lt
chord QP
NQ Sr dr
= Lt = Lt =
arc QP Ss ds
104 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

NP
sin = Lt sin NQP = Lt
chord QP
NP r60 rdo
= Lt == Lt =
arc QP င်း ds

Ex. Find the angle & in the case of the curve

pn = an sec (no + a) ,
and prove that this curve is intersected by the curve
rn = b" sec (no + B)
at an angle which is independent of a and b. [I. C. S., 1886.]
Taking the logarithmic differential,
1 dr =
r do = tan (no + a),
π-
whence − p = n0 + a.
In a similar manner for the second curve
π - p' = no + ß,

' being the angle which the radius vector makes with the tangent to
the second curve. Hence the angle between the tangents at the point
of intersection is a~ß.

93. Polar Subtangent, Subnormal .

Let Oy be the perpendicular from the origin on the
tangent at P.
Let Tot be drawn through O perpendicular to OP

P
Y

and cutting the tangent in T and the normal in t. Then

 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 105

OT is called the " Polar Subtangent" and Ot is called the

"Polar Subnormal.”
It is clear that
de
OT = OP tan & = 7¹² dr ( 1),

dr
and that Ot = OP cot = . (2).
de

94. It is often found convenient when using polar

1 1 du
co-ordinates to write for r, and therefore for
น u² de
dr
With this notation,
de *
de do
Polar Subtangent = r² =
dr du

Ex. In the conic lu =1 + e cos 0

de
we have 1= -e sin 0
du
Thus the length of the polar subtangent is l/e sin 0.
Also, from the figure, the angular co-ordinate of its extremity is
-π
2
Hence the co-ordinates of T (r₁ , 01) satisfy the equation

r₁ =l/e sin
( +0).
The locus of the extremity is therefore
lu =e cos 0 ;
that is, the directrix corresponding to that focus which is taken as
origin.

95. Perpendicular from Pole on Tangent.

Let OY = p.
Then p = r sin p,
106 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

and therefore
1 1 1 1 1 /dr
= cosec² = = 1+ ;
2.2 (1 + cot² ) r² (do)
p²
1 1 1 (dr\²
therefore = . (1)
p2 T24 (de) ..

= u² + . (2).
(du)³
02
Ex. In the spiral r= a
02-1
we have au = 1-0-2,
du
whence a = 20-3 ;
de
and therefore, squaring and adding,
a2
= 1 − 20 −² + 0−¹ + 40−6.

Thus, corresponding to = ± 1 , we have

a² α
= 4 and p = ±

96. The Pedal Equation .

The relation between p and r often forms a very
convenient equation to the curve. It is called the
Pedal equation .
(1 ) If the curve be given in Cartesians,
′ (x, y) = 0 …………..
say F . (1) ,
the tangent is
XFx + YF + ZF₂ = 0
F2
and p² = F2 +F2 . (2).
Y
If x, y be eliminated between equations (1), (2) and
x² + y² = p² .(3),
the required equation will result.
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 107

Ex. If x² + y2 = 2ax,
X (x -
− a) + Yy = ax
is the equation of the tangent, and
a²x² 14
p² = - -
(x − a)² + y² ¯¯ 4 a²
or r²= 2ap.
This result will also be evident geometrically.

(2) If the curve be given in Polars we may first

obtain p in terms of r and 0 by Art. 95 , and then
eliminate between this result and the equation to the
curve.
Ex. Required the pedal equation of ram sin mo.
By logarithmic differentiation ,
m dr
r do = m cot me,
.. cot = cot me or p = m0,
rm
whence p =r sin p= r sin m0 = r am
or pam =rm+1¸

EXAMPLES.
cot a
1. In the equiangular spiral r = ae® , prove
dr
ds = cosa and p = r sin a.

2. For the involute of a circle, viz. ,

√r²- a² -COS -1
0= 9
α
α
prove cos o ጥ

2a
3. In the parabola 1 - cos e, prove the following re-
sults :-
(a) =π 2
108 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

a
(B) p =
sin

(y) p² = ar.
(8) Polar subtangent -
= 2a cosec §.
4. For the cardioide r = a (1 - cos ), prove
6
(а) ф =2
.
0.
(B) p = 2a sin³ .
23
(x) 20²= 2a

1/2
sin³
(8) Polar subtangent = 2a
COS

97. Maximum number of tangents from a

point to a curve of the nth degree .
Let the equation of the curve be f(x, y) = 0. The
equation of the tangent at the point (x, y) is
Xfx + Yƒy + Zfz = 0,
where z is to be put equal to unity after the differen-
tiation is performed. If this pass through the point
h, k we have
hfx + kf +f = 0.
-
This is an equation of the (n − 1 )th degree in x and
y and represents a curve of the (n - 1)th degree passing
through the points of contact of the tangents drawn from
the point (h, k) to the curve f(x, y) = 0. These two
curves have n (n - 1) points of intersection, and there-
fore there are n (n - 1) points of contact corresponding
to n (n - 1 ) tangents, real or imaginary, which can be
drawn from a given point to a curve of the nth degree.
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 109

Thus for a conic, a cubic, a quartic, the maximum

number of tangents which can be drawn from a given
point is 2, 6, 12 respectively.

98. Number of Normals which can be drawn

to a Curve to pass through a given point.
Let h, k be the point through which the normals are
to pass .
The equation of the normal to the curve f(x, y) = 0
at the point (x, y) is
X-x Y- y
=
fx fy
If this pass through h, k,
-
(h − x)ƒy = (k − y)ƒx·
This equation is of the nth degree in x and y and
represents a curve which goes through the feet of all
normals which can be drawn from the point h, k to the
curve. Combining this with f(x, y) = 0, which is also
of the nth degree, it appears that there are n² points of
intersection, and that therefore there can be n² normals,
real or imaginary, drawn to a given curve to pass through
a given point.
For example, if the curve be an ellipse, n = 2, and the number of
x2 y2
normals is 4. Let =-1 be the equation of the curve, then
a2 + b2
x
(h -
− x) 1/2 = (k − y) a²
is the curve which, with the ellipse, determines the feet of the normals
drawn from the point (h, k). This is a rectangular hyperbola which
passes through the origin and through the point (h, k).
The student should consider how it is that an infinite number of
normals can be drawn from the centre of a circle to the circumference.
99. The curves
- -
(h − xx)ƒx + (k − y) fy = 0 ... ( 1) ,
and -
(h− x)fy - (k − y)fx = 0 ... ( 2),
110 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

on which lie the points of contact of tangents and the

feet of the normals respectively, which can be drawn to
the curve f(x, y) = 0 so as to pass through the point
(h, k), are the same for the curve ƒ(x, y) = α. And, as
equations (1 ) and (2 ) do not depend on a, they represent
the loci of the points of contact and of the feet of the
normals respectively for all values of a, that is, for all
members of the family of curves obtained by varying a
in f(x, y) =
= a in any manner.

EXAMPLES.

1. Through the point h, k tangents are drawn to the curve

Ax3 + By³ = 1 ;
show that the points of contact lie on a conic.
2. If from any point P normals be drawn to the curve whose
equation is y = max", show that the feet of the normals lie on a
conic of which the straight line joining P to the origin is a dia-
meter. Find the position of the axes of this conic.
3. The points of contact of tangents from the point h, k to
the curve x³ +y³ = 3axy lie on a conic which passes through the
origin.
4. Through a given point h, k tangents are drawn to curves
where the ordinate varies as the cube of the abscissa. Show that
the locus of the points of contact is the rectangular hyperbola
2xy +kx - 3hy = 0,
and the locus of the remaining point in which each tangent cuts
the curve is the rectangular hyperbola
xy - 4kx +3hy = 0.

EXAMPLES.

1. Find the points on the curve

y=(x- 1) (x - 2) (x − 3 )
at which the tangent is parallel to the axis of x.
Show also that the tangents at the first and third inter-
sections with the x-axis are parallel, and at the middle inter-
section the tangent makes an angle 135° with that axis.
 EXAMPLES. 111

2. In any Cartesian curve the rectangle contained by the

subtangent and the subnormal is equal to the square on the
corresponding ordinate.
3. Show that the only Cartesian locus in which the ratio
of the subtangent to the subnormal is constant is a straight
line.
4. If the ratio of the subnormal to the subtangent vary as
the square of the abscissa the curve is a parabola.
5. Show that in any curve
Subnormal Normal
Subtangent =(Tangent) .
6. Find that normal to
√xy= a + x,
which makes equal intercepts upon the co-ordinate axes.
7. Prove that the sum of the intercepts of the tangent to
√x+√ÿ=√u
upon the co-ordinate axes is constant.
8. Show that in the curve
y= alog (x² - a²),
the sum of the tangent and the subtangent varies as the product
of the co-ordinates of the point.
9. Show that in the curve
xm + n = am − ny²n,
the mth power of the subtangent varies as the nth power of the
subnormal.
y2 and the sub-
10. In the curve y" -an - ¹x the subnormal X
tangent xx.
a
11. Show that in the curve y = be the subtangent varies as
the square of the abscissa.
12. Ifin a curve the normal varies as the cube of the ordinate,
find the subtangent and the subnormal.
13. Show that in the curve for which
C
s=c log
y
the tangent is of constant length.
112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

14. Show that in the curve for which

y2c2 +82, (The Catenary)
the perpendicular from the foot of the ordinate upon the tangent
is of constant length.

15. Show that the polar subtangent in the curve r = a0 (The

Spiral of Archimedes) varies as the square of the radius vector,
and the polar subnormal is constant.
16. Show that the polar subtangent is constant in the curve
rea. (The Reciprocal Spiral. )
17. Show that in the curve
r =aecota, (The Equiangular Spiral.)
(1) the tangent makes a constant angle with the radius
vector ;
(2) the Polar Subtangent = r tan a ;
the Polar Subnormal = r cot a';
(3) the loci of the extremities of the polar subtangent,
the polar subnormal, the perpendicular upon the tangent from
the pole are curves of the same species as the original.
18. Show that each of the several classes of curves (Cotes's
Spirals)
r= aeme, re = a, r sin noa, r sinh nê = 0,
r cosh no = a,

have pedal equations of the form

1 A
p ² 22+ BB,
₁
p2 7 r
where A and B are certain constants.

19. Find the angle of intersection of the Cardioides

r= a (1 + cos 0),
r= b ( 1 -
− cos ).

20. Find the angle of intersection of

x² - y² = a²
x² +y2 = a²√√/2
 EXAMPLES. 113

21. Show that the condition of tangency of

xcos a +y sin a=p,
with xmyn = am + n,
is pm+n.mm . nn = (m + n)m + nam + n cosm a sin” a.

Hence write down the equation of the locus of the foot of the
perpendicular from the origin upon a tangent.

22. Show that in the curve (the cycloid)

x=α (0+sin 0),

y = a (1 - cos 0),
ds 0 ds =
2a cos and √2a /y.
do 2 dy

23. Show that in the curve (an epicycloid)

a+b
x== (a + b) cos 0 -− b cos 0,
b
a+b
y=(a + b) sin - b sin 0,
we have
α =a +2b Ꮎ ; αψ
p = (a + 2b) sin 26 Ꮎ ; p = (a +2b) sin
26 a+2b
and that the pedal equation is

2a2 + 4. (a+ b) b p2
(a + 2b)2

24. Show that the normal to y2 = 4ax touches the curve

27ay2 =4 (x - 2a)³.

25. Show that the locus of the extremity of the polar sub-
tangent of the curve
u=f(0),
is ૫ – + 0 = 0.

E. D. C. 8
114 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

26. Show that the locus of the extremity of the polar sub-
normal of the curve
r=f(0),
is
r=ƒ' (0−1).
27. In the curve

r
(m+ tan ) -1 +tan 2,
show that the locus of the extremity of the polar subtangent is
m -n
r =1 + cos 0.
2
 CHAPTER IX .

ASYMPTOTES.

100. DEF. If a straight line cut a curve in two

points at an infinite distance from the origin and yet is
not itself wholly at infinity, it is called an asymptote to
the curve .

101. To obtain the Asymptotes.

If (x, y) = 0 .... . (1)
be the equation of any rational algebraic curve of the
nth degree, and
y = mx + c .. . (2)

that of any straight line, the equation

(x, mx + c) = 0 .. . (3)
obtained by substituting the expression ma + c for y
gives the abscissae of the points of intersection.
This equation is in general of the nth degree, showing
that a curve of the nth degree is in general cut in
n points real or imaginary by any straight line.
The two constants of the straight line, viz. m and c,
are at our choice. We are to choose them so as to
make two of the roots of equation (3) infinite. We
then have a line cutting the given curve so that two
of the points of intersection are at an infinite distance
from the origin .
8-2
116 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Imagine equation (3) expanded out and expressed in

descending powers of x as
An + BanСx²
Axn +B +C- ² + ... + K = 0 ...... (4),
A, B, C, etc. being certain functions of m and c.
The equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the
roots of this equation is
A + Bz + Cz² + ... + K2" = 0

(by putting a = ;

and it is evident that if A and B be both zero two roots

of this equation for z will become evanescent, and
therefore two roots of the equation for a become infinite.
If then we choose m and c to satisfy the equations
A = 0, B = 0,

and substitute their values in the equation

= mx + c,
y=
we shall obtain the equation of an asymptote.

102. It will be found in examples (and it admits

of general proof) that the equation A = 0 contains m
only and in a degree not higher than n. Also that
B = 0 contains c in the first degree. Hence a curve of
the nth degree does not possess more than n asymptotes.
Ex. Find the asymptotes of the curve
y³ - x²y + 2y² + 4y + x = 0 .
Putting y = mx +c,
(mx + c)³ − x² (mx + c) + 2 (mx + c) ² + 4 (mx + c ) + x = 0,
or (m³ — m) x³ + (3m²c − c + 2m²) x² + ... etc. = 0.
We now are to choose m and c so that
m³ - m= 0
and 3m²c - c + 2m² = 0)
The first equation is a cubic for m and gives m = 0, 1 or -1.
 ASYMPTOTES. 117

The second equation is of the first degree in c and gives

2m2
C=
1-3m² '
If m = 0 we have c = 0;
if m = 1 we have c == -
-1 ;
if m= -1 we have c= - − 1.
Hence we obtain three asymptotes, viz.
y = 0,
y = x - 1,
y = − x − 1.

EXAMPLES.

Find the asymptotes of

1. y³ - 6xy² + 11x²y - 6x³ + x + y = 0.

2. y³- 4x²y - xy² + 4x³ +4xy — 4x² == 5 .

3. y³ - 3x²y + xy² - 3x³ + 2y² + 2xy + 4x + 5y + 6 = 0.

4. (y + x + 1 ) (y + 2x + 2) (y + 3x + 3) (y − x) + x² +y² - 2 = 0.

5. (2x + 3y) (3x + 4y) (4x + 5y) + 26x² + 70xy + 47y² +2x + 3y
= 1.

103. The case of parallel Asymptotes.

After having formed equation (4) of Art. 101

by substitution of mx + c for y and rearrangement,
it sometimes happens that one or more of the values
of m, deduced from the equation A = 0, will make
B vanish identically, and therefore any value of c will
give a line cutting the curve in two points at infinity.
In this case as the letter c is still at our choice ,
it may be chosen so as to make the third coefficient
C vanish. It will be seen from examples that each such
value of m now gives rise to two values of c. This is
the case of parallel asymptotes. The two lines thus
obtained each cut the curve at three points at infinity.
118 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Ex. Find the asymptotes of the cubic curve,

y³ — 5xy² + 8x³y – 4x³ -
– 3y² + 9xy -·6x2 + 2y - 2x = 1.
Putting mx +c for y and rearranging,
(m³ - 5m² + 8m - 4) x³ + (3m²c -– 10mc + 8c - 3m² + 9m −6) x²
+ (3mc² – 5c² – 6mc + 9c + 2m -− 2) x + c³ -
− 3c² + 2c − 1 = 0.
Choosing m³ - 5m² + 8m - 4 = 0)
and 3m²c - 10mc + 8c - 3m² + 9m - 6 = 0) ' .
the first gives (m - 1) (m - 2)² = 0,
whence m = 1, 2 or 2.
If m 1 the second equation gives c = 0 and the corresponding
asymptote is y = x.
If m =2 we have 12c - 20c + 8c - 12 + 18 - 6 which vanishes identi-
cally for all finite values of c. Thus any line parallel to y = 2x will
cut the curve in two points at infinity. We may however choose c so
that the next coefficient
3mc2-5c2-6mc + 9c + 2m - 2
vanishes for the value m = 2, giving
c2-3c + 2 = 0, i. e. c = 1 or 2.
Thus each of the system of lines parallel to y = 2x cuts the curve
in two points at infinity. But of all this infinite system of parallel
straight lines the two whose equations are
y = 2x + 1,
and y = 2x + 2,
are the only ones which cut the curve in three points at infinity and
therefore the name asymptote is confined to them.
The asymptotes are therefore
y=x
y=2x + 1
y= 2x +2

EXAMPLES.

Find the asymptotes of

1. y³ - xy2 - x²y + x³ + x² - y² = 1.
2. - 2x² + 2y² = 1 .
y4-2xy³ + 2x³y -— x² - 3x³ + 3x²y + 3xy2 -- 3y³ —
3. (y2 -x2)2-2 (x² +y²) = 1 ,
 ASYMPTOTES. 119

104. Those asymptotes which are parallel to the y-

axis will not be discovered by the above processes for
their equations are of the form x = a, and are not
included in the form y = mx + c for a finite value of m.
We, therefore, specially consider the case of those
asymptotes which may be parallel to one or other of
the co-ordinate axes.

105. Asymptotes Parallel to the Axes .

Let the equation of the curve be

а¸x² + α²x²- ¹у + αx²¬²y² + ... + ɑn¬ıxуn¬¹ + ɑnyn
+ b₁xn−1 + b₁xn−2y + + bnyn-ı
+ C₂x²-2 + ...
+ ... = 0 . (1 ).
If arranged in descending powers of x this is
а¸x² + (α₂y + b₁) x² 0 .....
-1 + ... = 0
xn−1 . (2).

Hence, if a vanish, and y be so chosen that

a₁y + b₁ = 0,
the coefficients of the two highest powers of x in equa-
tion (2) vanish, and therefore two of its roots are infinite.
Hence the straight line a₁y + b₁ = 0 is an asymptote.

In the same way, if an = 0, ɑn-1x + bn = 0 is an

asymptote.
-
Again, if a₁ = 0, a₁ = 0, b₁ = 0, and if y be so chosen
that
аy² + b₂y + c₂ = 0,
three roots of equation (2) become infinite, and the
lines represented by
a₂y² + b₂y + C₂ = 0
represent a pair of asymptotes, real or imaginary, parallel
to the axis of x.
120 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Hence the rule to find those asymptotes which are

parallel to the axes is, " equate to zero the coefficients of
the highest powers of x and y."
Ex. 1. Find the asymptotes of the curve
x²y² - x²y - xy² + x + y + 1 = 0.
Here the coefficient of x2 is y² - y and the coefficient of y2 is x² -X.
Hence x = 0, x = 1 , y = 0 , and y = 1 are asymptotes. Also , since the
curve is one of the fourth degree, we have thus obtained all the
asymptotes.
Ex. 2. Find the asymptotes of the cubic curve
x³ +2x²y +xy² -
— x² -
− xy + 2 = 0.
Equating to zero the coefficient of y² we obtain x = 0, the only asym-
ptote parallel to either axis.
Putting mx +c for y,
x² +2x² (mx + c) + x (mx + c )² − x² − x (mx + c) + 2 = 0 ,
or rearranging,
x³ (1 + 2m + m²) + x² (2c + 2mc − 1 − m) + x (c² -
− c) + 2 = 0,
1 + 2m + m² = 0 gives two roots m = -1. 2c + 2mc - 1 - m = 0 is an
identity if m1 and this fails to find c. Proceeding to the next
coefficient c² - c = 0 gives c = 0 or 1.
Hence the three asymptotes are x = 0, and the pair of parallel lines
y + x = 0,
y +x= 1.

EXAMPLES.

1. The asymptotes of y² (x² -— a²) = x are

y=0 |
X= ± a
2. The co-ordinate axes are the asymptotes of
xy³ +x³y= a¹.
3. The asymptotes of the curve x²y² = c² (x² +y²) are the
sides of a square.

106. The methods given above will obtain all linear

asymptotes. It is often more expeditious however to
 ASYMPTOTES. 121

obtain the oblique asymptotes as an approximation of

the curve to a linear form at infinity as described in the
next article.

107. Form of the Curve at Infinity. Another

Method for Oblique Asymptotes.
Let Pr, F, be used to denote rational algebraical
expressions which contain terms of the 7th and lower, but
of no higher degrees.
Suppose the equation of a curve of the nth degree to
be thrown into the form
.....
(ax + by + c) Pn−1 + Fn-1 = 0 ……………………………. (1 ).
Then any straight line parallel to ax +by = 0 obviously
cuts the curve in one point at infinity ; and to find the
particular member of this family of parallel straight
lines which cuts the curve in a second point at infinity,
let us examine what is the ultimate linear form to
which the curve gradually approximates as we travel to
infinity in the above direction, thus obtaining the ulti-
mate direction of the curve and forming the equation
of the tangent at infinity. To do this we make the x
and y of the curve become large in the ratio given by
- b : a,
x : y
and we obtain the equation
a Fn-1
ax + by + c + Lt₂y= - x= ∞ P = 0.

If this limit be finite we have arrived at the equa-

tion of a straight line which at infinity represents the
limiting form of the curve, and which satisfies the
definition of an asymptote.

To obtain the value of the limit it is advantageous

b α
to put x = - and y== 7 , and then after simplification
t t
make t = 0.
122 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Ex. Find the asymptote of

x³ + 3x²y + 3xy² + 2y³ = x² + y² + x.
We may write this curve as
(x + 2y) (x²+ xy + y²) = x² + y² + x,
whence the equation of the asymptote is given by
x² +y² + x
x +2y =Lt₂-- 23 =∞ x² + xy + y² '
x= -2y
2 1
and putting = · " = we have

1222
21118
4 1 -
12 + 12 t 5-2t 5
x +2y = Ltr=0 = Lt =0 =

160
- 3
t2 +
5
i.e., x + 2y •

a
EXAMPLE. Show that x + y =F2 is the only real asymptote of the
curve (x + y) (2 * + y *)= a (2 * + a *) .

108. Next, suppose the equation of a curve put

into the form

(ax + by + c) Fn−1 + Fn−2 = 0 ,

then the line ax + by + c = 0 cuts the curve in two

points at infinity, for no terms of the nth or (n − 1 )th
degrees remain in the equation determining the points
of intersection. Hence in general the line

ax + by + c = 0
is an asymptote. We say, in general, because if F -1
be of the form (ax + by + c) P -2, itself containing a
factor ax + by + c, there will be a pair of asymptotes
parallel to ax + by + c = 0, each cutting the curve in
three points at infinity. The equation of the curve
then becomes

(ax + by + c)²Pn-2 + Fn−2 = 0 ,

 ASYMPTOTES. 123

and the equations of the parallel asymptotes are

Fn
n-2
ax + by + c = ± - Lt "
Pn-2

where x and y in the limit on the right-hand side be-

XC b
come infinite in the ratio =
y a

Or, if the curve be written in the form

(ax + by)² Pn-2 + (ax + by) Fn-2 +ƒn−2 = 0 ,

in proceeding to infinity in the direction ax + by = 0,
we have
Fr
n-2
(ax + by)² + (ax + by) . Lt Pn- + Lt √n-2
Pn = 0,
2

when the limits are to be obtained by putting x

t
a
y= 2
t , and then diminishing t indefinitely. We thus
obtain a pair of parallel asymptotes,
ax + by = a and ax + by = ß,
where a and B are the roots of
Fn-2
p²+ pLt + Lt fn-2 = 0.
Pn-2 Pn-2

And other particular forms which the equation of

the curve may assume can be treated similarly.
Ex. 1. To find the pair of parallel asymptotes of the curve
(2x -
− 3y + 1)² (x + y ) -
− 8x + 2y - 9 = 0.
Here 2x -3y +1 = ±, Lt 8x - 2y + 9
x +y
where x and y become infinite in the direction of the line 2x - 3y .
3 2
Putting x , y = j ' the right side becomes ± 2. Hence the
asymptotes required are 2x - 3y = 1 and 2x -
− 3y + 3 = 0 ,
124 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Ex. 2. Find the asymptotes of

(x − y )² (x² + y²) -
− 10 (x -
− y) x² + 12y² + 2x + y = 0 .
x2 y2
Here (x –− y)² –– 10 (x − y) Ltx-y= x² +y²´+ 12Ltx=y=∞ x² +y² = 0,
or (xy) -5 (x - y) + 6 = 0,
giving the parallel asymptotes x - y = 2 and x - y = 3.

109. Asymptotes by Inspection .

It is now clear that if the equation F = 0 break up

into linear factors so as to represent a system of n
straight lines, no two of which are parallel , they will be
the asymptotes of any curve of the form
Fn+ Fn-2 = 0.
Ex. 1. (x- y) (x + y) (x + 2y - 1) = 3x + 4y + 5
is a cubic curve whose asymptotes are obviously
x - y = 0,
x + y = 0,
x +2y - 1 = 0.
Ex. 2. (xy)2 (x + 2y - 1) = 3x + 4y + 5.
Here x + 2y - 1-0 is one asymptote. The other two asymptotes
are parallel to y = x. Their equations are

x-y= ± 3+4 + 5t
Ltt-o =±
√ 1 +2 - t 3

110. Case in which all the Asymptotes pass

through the Origin.
If then, when the equation of a curve is arranged in
homogeneous sets of terms, as
Un + Un-2 + Un- 3 + ·... = 0 ,
it be found that there are no terms of degree n - 1, and
if also un contain no repeated factor, the n straight lines
passing through the origin, and whose equation is un = 0,
are the n asymptotes ,
 ASYMPTOTES. 125

EXAMPLES.

Find the asymptotes of the following curves :-

1. y³ = x² (2α − x). 2. y³ = x (a²x²).
3. x³ + y³ = a³. 4. y (a² + x²) = a²x.
5. axy = x³ - a³. 6. y² (2α - x) = x³.
7. x3 + y³ = 3axy. 8. x²y + y²x = a³.
9. x²y² = (a +y)² (b² — y²) . 10. x2y = a²y2 - b²x².
11. xy (xy) -a (x² - y²) = b³. 12. (a²x²) y² = x² (a² + x²).
13. ay² -4a² (2a — x). 14. y2 (a - x)= x (b− x)².
15. x²y = x³ + x+y. 16. xy² + 2y = x³ + mx² + nx +p.
17. x + 2x²y - xy² - 2y³ + 4y² + 2xy + y - 1 = 0.
18. x³ - 2x²y + xy² + x² − xy + 2 = 0.
19. y (x -y) y (xy) +2.
20. x³ + 2x²y – 4xy² — 8y³ — 4x + 8y = 1 .
21. (x +y)² (x + 2y + 2) = x + 9y – 2.
22. 3x + 17x2y + 21xy2-9y3-2ax² - 12axy - 18ay2-3a2x +azy
= 0.

111. Intersections of a Curve with its Asym-

ptotes.

If a curve of the nth degree have n asymptotes, no

two of which are parallel, we have seen in Art. 109 that
the equations of the asymptotes and of the curve may
be respectively written
Fn = 0,
and Fn + Fn-2 = 0.

Then asymptotes therefore intersect the curve again

at points lying upon the curve F -2-0. Now each
asymptote cuts its curve in two points at infinity, and
therefore in n - 2 other points. Hence these n (n - 2)
points lie on a certain curve of degree n - 2. For
example,
126 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

1. The asymptotes of a cubic will cut the curve

again in three points lying in a straight line ;
2. The asymptotes of a quartic curve will cut the
curve again in eight points lying on a conic
sectionn ;
and so on with curves of higher degree.

EXAMPLES.
1. Find the equation of a cubic which has the same asym-
ptotes as the curve x3 - 6x2y + 11xy² −6y³ + x + y + 1 = 0, and which
touches the axis of y at the origin, and goes through the point
(3,2).
2. Show that the asymptotes of the cubic
x²y- xy² +xy + y² + x - y = 0
cut the curve again in three points which lie on the line
x + y = 0.
3. Find the equation of the conic on which lie the eight
points of intersection of the quartic curve
xy (x² - y²) + a²y² + b²x² = a²b²
with its asymptotes.
4. Show that the four asymptotes of the curve
(x² — y²) (y² — 4x²) - — 2y³ -
— 6x³ + 5x²y + 3xy² - − x² + 3xy – 1 = 0
cut the curve again in eight points which lie on a circle.

112. Polar co-ordinates.

When the equation of a curve is given in the form

rf₁ (0) +ƒ。 (0) = 0. (1),
it is clear that the directions given by

f₁ ( 0) = 0 ....... . (2),
are those in which r becomes infinite.

Let this equation be solved, and let the roots be

a, B, y, etc.
 ASYMPTOTES. 127

Let XOP = α. Then the radius OP, the curve, and

the asymptote meet at infinity towards P. Let OY (= p)

P
P

2
Y

r 10

be the perpendicular upon the asymptote. Since OY

is at right angles to OP it is the polar subtangent, and
de
p: Let XOY = a' , and let Q be any point whose
du
co-ordinates are r, upon the asymptote. Then the
equation of the asymptote is
- a') ………………..
p = r cos (0 — . (3).
π
It is clear from the figure that a' Ξα - •
2
de 1
To find the value of when u = 0, write
du U
for r in equation ( 1 ) , and we have
。 (0) = 0.
ƒ₁ (0) + uf
Whence differentiating
du
fi (0) + ufo (0) + d@f
defoo (0) = 0.
128 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Putting = a, and therefore u = 0, we have (iff. (a)

be finite)
de = Lo (a)
.(4).
=0o fi (a)
duu-

Substitute this value of for Ρ in equation

(-d
duo) u= 0
(3) and we obtain

fo (a)
= r cos (0.- a + = r sin (a− 0).
fí (a) 2
E)
Hence the equations of the asymptotes are

- Lo (a)
r sin (a - 0) =
fi (a) '
'
fo (B)
r sin (B -
— 0) :
fi (B)'
etc.

113. Rule for Drawing the Asymptote.

After having found the value of (-de) imagine

u= 0
we stand at the origin looking in the direction of that
value of which makes u = 0. Draw a line at right
angles to that direction through the origin and of length
de
equal to the calculated value of ( du) - to the right
u= 0
or to the left, according as that value is positive or
negative. Through the end of this line draw a perpen-
dicular to it of indefinite length. This straight line
will be the asymptote.

Ex. Find the asymptotes of the curve

r cos - a sin 0 = 0.
-
Here f₁ (0) = cos 0 and ƒ¡ (0))=
= − a sin 0,
π 3п
cos 0=0 gives a = 9 β etc.
 ASYMPTOTES. 129

and the length of the polar subtangent

- a sin a
= fo (a) = = α.
fi(a) - sin a

Hence the equations of.the asymptotes are

π 3п -
r sin =a
2
(3-0) =a and r sin •)=α ,
i.e. r cos 0 = a and rcos 0 = - a.

These are perpendicular to the initial line and at distances a respec-

tively to right and left of the origin.

EXAMPLES.

Find the asymptotes and draw their positions for the follow-
ing curves :—
1. rež-= α. 2. r0 = a.
= α.
3. rsin ne = 4. ra cosec +b.
5. r =2a sin tan 0. 6. r sin 20 = a cos 30.
7. r = a + bcot no. 8. pn sin no = an.

114. Circular Asymptotes.

In many polar curves when is increased indefinitely

it happens that the equation ultimately takes the form
of an equation in r which represents one or more con-
centric circles.
Ꮎ
For example, in the curve ra
-1 1
1
which may be written r= α- "
-

it is clear that if e becomes very large the curve approaches in-

definitely near the limiting circle r = a.

Such a circle is called an asymptotic circle of the

curve.
E. D. C. 9
130 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

EXAMPLES.
Find the asymptotes of the following curves :-
1. x − y = axy . 2. x5 - y5 - ax¹.
x² +1
3. x³ - y³ = ay¹. 4. y = x x² - 1 •

(x - 3)
5. (x - a) y² = (2a − x) x². 6. y = (x - 1)(x - 2)

7. y2 - 2.2
y - 1 X--2 ° 8. (y- )* = a

9. (x² - y²)² = a²x² — b²y². 10. y2 (a2 - x ) = (x²- 2a²)².

11. y² = (a - x)² 12. y³ = (x - 1 )2 (x - 4).

x2 x²+a2

13. (y - x)²x² = 4 (y − x)² + 16. 14. (x - 4 ) = 2 (x² + y²).

15. xy2 - y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d.
16. (y - 2x)² (3x +4y) +3 (y − 2x) (3x +4y) = 5.
17. (y - 2x)2 (3x + 4y) +3 (y - 2x) (3x + 4y) + 11y = 5.
18. y4-4xy³ + 3x²y² + 4x³y - 4x4
+ 3y³ - 6xy2-3x²y + 6x³ + 2y² -
— 2x² = x.
19. r =bsec ae.

20. r (e° -1 ) = a (e® + 1 ).

Find also the circular asymptote.
21. r (0² - 1 ) = a0².
Find also the circular asymptote.
sin
22. r cos 0 = 2a 23. r cos 20 = a sin 30.
1 + sin 0
Show that the asymptotes of
24.
(x2 y2)2 = 2 (x² + y²)
form a square.
Show that the asymptotes of
25.
x²y² - -a³ (x + y) + a¹ = 0
— a² (x² +y²) —
form a square, through two of whose angular points the curve
passes.
 EXAMPLES. 131

26. Show that the asymptotes of

x³ +2x²y— xy² - 2y³ + x² -
— y² = 2x + 3y
cut the curve again in three points collinear with the origin .
27. Show that the asymptotes of the quartic
x45x2y2 + 4y++x³ - xy2-2x²y + 2y³ - xy = 1
cut the curve again in eight points lying upon a rectangular
hyperbola.
28. Show that the asymptotes of the quartic
(x² — y²) (x² — 4y²) + 2x³ -— 2xy² + 2x² - 2xy = 2x + 2y - 1
cut the curve again in eight points lying upon a parabola which
touches the co-ordinate axes.
29. Show that the three quartics
(a) xy (x² - y²) + 2x² +y² = 1 ,
(b) xy (x² - y²) + x² + 2y² = 1 ,
(c) xy (x² - y²) + 2x² + 2xy + 2y2 = 1
have the same asymptotes ; and that each of the three conics
on which lie the other eight points of intersection of each curve
with its asymptotes have double contact with a certain circle.
30. Find the asymptotes of the sextic
xy (x² — y²) (x² - 4y²) + 2x²y (x² — y²) + 5x² + 5y² = 1.
Show that they cut the curve again in twenty-four points
lying upon a certain quartic. Find the equation to this quartic
and show that its own asymptotes are common with four asymp-
totes of the sextic and that they cut the quartic again in eight
points lying upon a circle. Also that the remaining asymptotes
of the sextic are tangents to this circle.

9-2
 CHAPTER X.

CURVATURE.

115. Angle of Contingence .

Let PQ be an arc of a curve. Suppose that between
P and Q the bending is continuously in one direction.
Let LPR and MQ be the tangents at P and Q, inter-

Р T

14 + 84
L M Ꮓ

secting at T and cutting a given fixed straight line LZ

in L and M. Then the angle RTQ is called the angle
ofcontingence of the arc PQ.
The angle of contingence of any arc is therefore the
difference of the angles which the tangents at its ex-
tremities make with any given fixed straight line. It
is also obviously the angle turned through by a line
which rolls along the curve from one extremity of the
arc to the other.
 CURVATURE. 133

116. Measure of Curvature .

It is clear that the whole bendingor curvature which
the curve undergoes between P and Q is greater or less
according as the angle of contingence RTQ is greater or
angle of contingence is called the
less. The fraction
length of arc
average bending or average curvature of the arc. We
shall define the curvature of a curve in the immediate
neighbourhood of a given point to be the rate ofdeflection
from the tangent at that point. And we shall take as
a measure of this rate of deflection at the given point
angle of contingence when
the limit of the expression
length of arc
the length of the arc measured from the given point,
and therefore also the angle of contingence are inde-
finitely diminished.

117. Curvature of a Circle .

In the case of the circle the curvature is the same at

every point and is measured by the RECIPROCAL OF THE
RADIUS.
T R
Р

For let r be the radius, O the centre. Then

arc PQ
RfQ = PÔQ =
r

the angle being supposed measured in circular measure.

134 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Hence
angle of contingence = 1
length of arc r

and this is true whether the limit be taken or not.

Hence the "curvature " of a circle at any point is
measured by the reciprocal of the radius.

118. Circle of Curvature .

If three contiguous points P, Q, R be taken on a
curve, a circle may be drawn to pass through them.
When the points are indefinitely close together, PQ and
QR are ultimately tangents both to the curve and to
the circle. Hence at the point of ultimate coincidence
the curve and the circle have the same angle of con-
tingence, viz. the angle RQZ (see Fig.). Moreover,
the arcs PR of the circle and the curve differ by a
small quantity of order higher than their own, and
therefore may be considered equal in the limit (see Art.
81). Hence the curvatures of this circle and of the

curve at the point of contact are equal. It is therefore

convenient to describe the curvature of a curve at a
given point by reference to a circle thus drawn, the
 CURVATURE. 135

reciprocal of the radius being a correct measure of the

rate of bend. We shall therefore consider such a circle
to exist for each point of a curve and shall speak of it
as the circle of curvature of that point. Its radius
and centre will be called the radius and centre of
curvature respectively, and a chord of this circle.
drawn through the point of contact in any direction
will be referred to as the chord of curvature in that
direction.

119. Formula for Radius of Curvature .

Let PQ and QR be considered equal chords, and

therefore when we proceed to the limit the elementary
arcs PQ and QR may be considered equal . Call each
ds, and the angle RQZ = d .
Now the radius of the circum- circle of the triangle
PQR is
ᏢᎡ
2 sin PQR
Hence if p be the radius of curvature, we have
ᏢᎡ 28s
p = Lt = Lt
2 sin PQR 2 sin dy
Es бо ds
== Lt = ..(A).
dy sin dy dy
Also, it is clear that the lines which bisect at right
angles the chords PQ, QR intersect at the circum-
centre of PQR, i.e. in the limit the centre of curvature
of any point on a curve may be considered as the point
of intersection of the normal at that point with the normal
at a contiguous and ultimately coincident point.

120. The formula (A) is useful in the case in which the equation
of the curve is given in its intrinsic form, i. e. when the equation is
given as a relation between s and y. For example, that relation for
a catenary is s =c tan y, whence
ds
p= = c sec²4,
dy
136 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

and the rate of its deflection at any point is measured by

cos2y с
=
с s² + c² .

121. Transformations.
This formula must be transformed so as to suit each
of the systems of co -ordinates in which it is usual to
express the equation of a curve. These transformations
we proceed to perform.
We have the equations
dx
cos y = ds " sin = dy
ds

Hence, differentiating each of these with respect to s,

- sin dy - d²x dy_day

=
ds " cos y
ds2 ds ds2'
d²x day
HIQ

1 dsa ds2
whence .. (B),
ρ dy dx
ds ds

and by squaring and adding

2 2
1 = (d²x²
+ (day
) .. (c).
p² ds2 ds2

These formulae (B) and (C) are only suitable for the
case in which both x and y are known functions of s.

122. Cartesian Formula. Explicit Functions .

Again , since tan - dy

dx

we have sec² = d³y

dy__
dx dx2

by differentiating with regard to x.

 CURVATURE. 137

ds 1
Now dy_= dy • =
dx ds dx p cos y

1
therefore sec³ • = dzy ,
ρ dx2
2
and sec² √ = 1 + tan² √ = 1 + (dy);
dx

1+ (dy
dx
therefore p= ± .(D).
day
dx²

This important form of the result is adapted to the

evaluation of the radius of curvature when the equation
of the curve is given in Cartesian co-ordinates, y being
an explicit function of x.

Ex. In the curve y = log sin x,

we have y₁ = cot x,
Y2 = -cosec²x .

Hence p= ± (1+ y₁ ?)#

Y2
(1+cot2x)
cosec² x = cosec x.

123. Curvature at the Origin .

When the curve passes through the origin the values

dy dzy
of dx (= p) and ( q) at the origin may be deduced
dx2
without actual differentiation by substituting for y the
qx²
expression på + + ... (the expansion of y by Mac-
2!
laurin's Theorem) and equating coefficients of like
138 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

powers of x in the identity obtained . The radius of

curvature at the origin may then be at once deduced
from the formula

(1 + p²)*
p= ± [Formula (D) ].
q
Ex. Find the curvature of the conic y − x = x² + 2xy + y² at the
origin.
x2
Putting y= px +q12! + ...

we have 9x2
(p - 1) x + + = x² + 2px² +p²x² +...

identically ;
whence by equating coefficients of like powers of x,
p = 1, q = 2 (p + 1 )² = 8,

and (1+p²) = 2 · 3535....

p=
q

124. If we apply the same method to the general curve

ax +by
+a'x² + 2h'xy + b'y²
+ ...... = 0.......... .(1) ,
we obtain after substituting
9x2
px + 2 ! + ... for y,

and collecting the powers of x,

bq
(a + bp) x + ( a' + 2h'p + b'p² + ¹£)
2 x² +... = 0.

Hence a + bp = 0 . (2),
bq
a'+2p+ 8p²+ =0 . (3),
etc. ,
 CURVATURE. 139

= -qa , q = −2 a² + 2h p' +b'p² etc. ,

giving p= b' 9

(1 + p²)* = 1 (a²+b²)
whence . (4) ,
Я 2 a'b2-2h'ab + b'a²
the value of the radius of curvature of the given curve at the origin.

125. Tangents at the origin. Double point.

It will be noted that the equation
a
p=

dy
indicating the value of
dx at the origin proves the equation of the
tangent there to be
Y -a
=
Χ b " or aX + bY= 0,

which therefore might be at once written down as being the terms of

the lowest degree in the equation of the curve (see Art. 87) .
When no linear terms occur in the equation of the curve we have
dy
a= 0 and b = 0, and the value of dx at the origin takes an undeter-
mined form. We however obtain from equation (3) the quadratic
b'p² +2h'p + a' = 0 . (5) ,
giving two values of p at the origin. It is thus indicated that in this
case two branches of the curve pass through the origin in the direc-
tions given by equation (5). The tangents to the curve at the origin
are therefore
a'X2 +2h'XY +b'Y² = 0,
a result which may be written down by inspection from the equation
of the curve, by equating to zero the second degree terms ; i.e. the
terms of lowest degree (Art. 87). The origin is now said to be a
double point upon the curve.
The curvatures of the two branches at the double point may be
obtained by the same method as before (Art. 123) as shown in the
following example.

Ex. Find the radii of curvature at the origin for the curve
y² - 3xy + 2x² - x³ + y¹ = 0.
140 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Substituting px + q x² + ... for y, and collecting the powers of x,

2!
3
we have (p² - 3p + 2) x² + PL x³+ ... = 0,
(21 - 293 4 - 1).
1 ) 23.
whence p² - 3p + 2 = 0,
3
pq -29-1 = 0,

etc. ,
whence p = 1 or 2,
and q= --- 2 or 2,

and therefore (1+p²) = 2

p= √2 = −1 · 414...,

or = 52 = 5 √5 = 5.590 ....
2 2
The difference of sign introduced by the q indicates that the two
branches passing through the origin bend in opposite directions.

B
O

N X
A

126. Newtonian Method.

The Newtonian Method of finding the curvature of

the curve at the origin is instructive and interesting.
Suppose the axes taken so that the axis of x is a tangent
to the curve at the point A , and the axis of y, viz. AB,
 CURVATURE. 141

is therefore the normal. Let APB be the circle of

curvature, P the point adjacent to and ultimately co-
incident with A in which the curve and the circle inter-
sect ; PN a perpendicular upon AB. Then
PN -AN.NB,
PN2
or NB:=AN

Now in the limit

NB AB = twice the radius of curvature.
1PN2 x²
Hence p = Lt 2 AN = Lt . (E).
2y

Similarly, if the axis of y be the tangent at the

уг
origin, we have ρ = Lt
2x

Ex. Find the radius of curvature at the origin for the curve
2x² + 3y² + 4x²y + xy −-y² + 2x = 0.
In this case the axis of y is a tangent at the origin , and therefore
we shall endeavour to find Lty²
2x*
y2 y2
Dividing by x, 2x³ + 3y² . x ·+4xy + y · x + 2 = 0.
y2
Now, at the origin Lt x = 2p , x = 0, y = 0, and the equation becomes

- 2p +2 = 0,
or p=1.

EXAMPLES.

1. Apply formula (A) to the curves

s= a↓, s = a sin ↓, s = a sec³ √,
π
s= a log tan + 2
142 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

2. Apply formula (D) to the curves

XC X
y=x³, y = c cosh с , y = a log sec α

3. Apply formulae (в and c) to the curve for which

Ꭶ
xa cos -
S
y =a sin

4. Prove that in the case of the equiangular spiral whose

intrinsic equation is
s= a (emp -
− 1),
p=maemy
5. For the tractrix s = c log sec prove that
p= c tan v.
6. Show that in the curve
y = x + 3x² - x³
the radius of curvature at the origin = '4714 ... , and that at
the point (1 , 3) it is infinite.
7. Show that in the curve
y² - 3xy - 4x² + x³ + x¹y +yб = 0
the radii of curvature at the origin are
85
2 17 and 5/2.

8. Show that the radii of curvature of the curve

a+ x
y2 =x2
α-x
for the origin =
= ± α √2,
α
and for the point ( —α,
-a, 0) = 2 .

9. Show that the radii of curvature at the origin for the

curve
x³ + y³ = 3axy
За
are each
2
 CURVATURE. 143

10. Prove that the chord of curvature parallel to the axis

of y for the curve
X
y = a log sec α
is of constant length.

11. Prove that for the curve

s=m (sec³ -
− 1 ),
p= 3m tan sec³ ,
and hence that
3m dy day == 1 .
dx dx2

Also, that this differential equation is satisfied by the semicubical

parabola
27my2 = 8x3.

12. Prove that for the curve

π sin
s = a log cot +a
4
(1-1) + Cos²
p= 2a sec³↓ ;
and hence that
day= 1
dx2 2a '

and that this differential equation is satisfied by the parabola

x² =4ay.
x
13. Show that for the curve in which s = aec

©p = 8 (sc) .

14. Show that the curve for which s√8ay (the cycloid)
has for its intrinsic equation
s=4a sin y.

Hence prove y .
p=4a 2a
144 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

15. Prove that the curve for which y² = c² +s² (the catenary)
has for its intrinsic equation
s=c tan y.

Hence prove _y2

с = the part of the normal intercepted be-
tween the curve and the x-axis.

127. Formula for Pedal Equations .

Since a curve and its circle of curvature at any point

Pintersect in three contiguous and ultimately coincident
points they may be regarded as having two contiguous
tangents common. Therefore the values of r + Sr and

p + dp are common in addition to those of r and p ; i.e.

dr
the value of is common. Now let O be the pole and
dp
C the centre of curvature corresponding to the point P
on the curve.

Then OC² = r² + p² - 2rp cos OPC

= r² + p² - 2rp sin &

= p² + p² - 2pp.
 CURVATURE. 145

Considering this as referring to the circle (for which OC

and p are constant) we obtain by differentiating
dr
--2p,
0 = 2r dp

and it has been pointed out that the values of r and

dr
are the same at the point P for the curve and for
dp
the circle. Hence for the curve itself we also have
dr
p=r ( F).
dp

Ex. In the equation p² = Ar² + B, which represents any epi- or

hypocycloid [p. 113 , Ex. 23 ] , we have
dr
p =Ar
dp'
and therefore ραρ.
The equiangular spiral, in which par, is included as the case in
which B =0.

128. Polar Curves.

We shall next reduce the formula to a shape suited

for application to curves given by their polar equations.

We proved in Art. 95 that

1
=・u² +
p² (dry)*.

1 dp = dzu du
Hence u+
p ³ d e ·(u + de²) de '

dp == dau
or ·p³ ( u + de
du

rdr 1
Now P= and r = -
и
dp
E. D. C. 10
146 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

1 du 1
therefore p:
u³ dp deu
p³µ³ ( u + d02

/du
+(da)y
30

or .(G).
d²u
usu + de2

129. This may easily be put in the r, e form

thus :-
1
Since u= 2

du 1 dr
we have
de r² do'
d'u 1 der
and therefore = 2 (dr\2 -
d02 p³ do r² do2
1 1 /dr 2
+
ps de
therefore
dry
+ - 1 der
ps r ps de r² do
(dr
+
de
.(H).
'dr\2 d²r
r²+ 2 -r
de d02

130. Tangential Polar Form.

Let the tangent P₁T make an angle with the

initial line. Then the perpendicular makes an angle
π
a=y. 2 with the same line. Let OY = p. Let P₁P₂

be the normal, and P, its point of intersection with the

normal at the contiguous point Q. Let OY, be the
perpendicular from O upon the normal. Call this p₁.
 CURVATURE. 147

Let P,P, be drawn at right angles to P₁P₂ , and let the

T X
P2

P3

length of OY₂, the perpendicular upon it from O, be p².

The equation of P₁T is clearly
p = x cos a + y sin a ..... .. (1) .
The contiguous tangent at Q has for its equation
p + dp = x cos (a + da) + y sin (a + da)...(2).
Hence subtracting and proceeding to the limit it ap-
pears that
dp
== x sin a + y cos a…. .(3)
da

is a straight line passing through the point of inter-

section of (1 ) and (2) ; also being perpendicular to ( 1 ) it
is the equation of the normal P₁P½.1-
d2p
Similarly x cos a― y sin a…………………
. ..(4)
da²

represents a straight line through the point of inter-

section of two contiguous positions of the line PP, and
perpendicular to PP₂, viz. the line P, P,, and so on for
further differentiations.
10-2
148 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

From this it is obvious that

dp_dp dy =
OY, = = " since =1;
da dy da
d²p d²p
OY, = =
da² dy '
etc.
dp
Hence P₁Y =
dy'
d2p
and p = P₁P₂ = OY + OY₂ = p + ie ···(1).
d
This formula is suitable for the case in which p is given
in terms of y.

Ex. It is known that the general p, equation of all epi- and

hypocycloids can be written in the form
p=A sin By.
Hence p=A sin By - AB2 sin By,
and therefore ραρ.

131. Point of Inflexion .

If at some point upon a curve the tangent, after its

cross and recross, crosses the curve again at a third
ultimately coincident point, as shewn magnified in the

figure, the point is called a point of inflexion. At such

a point the two successive chords PQ, QR are in line
and the angle of contingence vanishes.
 CURVATURE. 149

At a point of inflexion the circle of curvature passes

through three collinear points, and the radius of curva-
ture becomes infinite and changes sign. We may hence
deduce various forms of the condition for a point of
inflexion ; thus if
p= ∞,
dy
we get from (A),
ds = 0
day
da = 0 from (D) ,
d2u
u+ = 0 from (G),
d02
(dr\2 d²r
r² + 2 -r = 0 from (H).
de d02

132. List of Formulae.

The formulae proved above are now collected for
convenience.
ds
p= .. (A),
dy
d²x day
ds2 ds2
.. (B),
။

P dy dx
ds ds
1 2 2
= y .. (c),
+ (d a )Ⓡ
p²
(1+ y²)#
ρ . (D) ,
Y2
XC2
= Lt
p =. . (E) ,
2y
dr
p= r . (F),
dp
150 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

(u² + u₁₂²)#
p= . (G),
u³ (u + U₂)
(2² + 1 ;²)#
P . (H),
p² + 2r₁² - rr2
d2p
p= p + .( 1).
dy2

EXAMPLES.

1. Apply formula (F) to the curves

pm +1
p² = ar, ap = r², p = am

2. Apply formulæ (G), ( H) to the curves

au == 0, r = a0, r = a sin 0.
3. Apply the polar formula for radius of curvature to show
that the radius of the circle
α
ra cose is •
2
4. Show that for the cardioide r = a (1 + cos 8)
4a 0
Ρ = 3 COS 2 ; i.e. , x Jr.

Also deduce the same result from the pedal equation of the
curve, viz .,
P√2a =rt.
5. Show that at the points in which the Archimedean spiral
r =a0 intersects the reciprocal spiral re - a their curvatures are
in the ratio 3 : 1.
6. For the equiangular spiral r = aeme prove that the centre
of curvature is at the point where the perpendicular to the
radius vector through the pole intersects the normal.
7. Prove that for the curve
r = a sec 20,
p4
p=
3p3 *
 CURVATURE. 151

8. For any curve prove the formula

p=
αφ
sin 1+ do
4(
rde
where tan & =
dr
Deduce the ordinary formula in terms of r and 6.
9. Show that the chord of curvature through the pole for
the curve
p=f(r)
dr_9f (r)
is given by chord= 2p dp= f' (r) "

10. Show that the chord of curvature through the pole of

the cardioide
r = a (1 + cos () is r.

11. Show that the chord of curvature through the pole of

the equiangular spiral
raeme is 2r.

12. Show that the chord of curvature through the pole of

the curve
2r
pm = am cos me is
m+1
Examine the cases when m = - 2, −1 , -
−1, 1, 1 , 2.
13. Show that the radius of curvature of the curve
r=a sin no
na
at the origin is •
2

14. For the curve rm = am cos mo,

am
prove that p=
(m + 1) pm−1 ·
Examine the particular cases of a rectangular hyperbola,
lemniscate, parabola, cardioide, straight line, circle.
152 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

133. Centre of Curvature.

The Cartesian co-ordinates of the centre of curva-
ture may be found thus :
Let Q be the centre of curvature corresponding to
the point P of the curve. Let OX be the axis of x ;
O the origin ; x, y the co-ordinates of P ; x, y those of

น
T M N X

Q; the angle the tangent makes with the axis of x.

Draw PN, QM perpendiculars upon the x-axis and PR
a perpendicular upon QM. Then
x= OM = ON - – RP

= ON - QP sin

= x - p sin ,
and y = MQ = NP + RQ

= y + p cos .
Now = ₁;
tany

sin = Ут
therefore
√1 + y²
1
and cos y =
 CURVATURE. 153

_ (1 +y,³)*
Also p=
Y2
Y₁ (1+ y₁²)
x= x (a),
Hence Y2
1+y²2
y =y + (B).
Y2

EXAMPLES.

1. For the parabola

y= x2/4a,
x3 3.x2
x= -
prove 4a2 , y= 2a + 4a

2. For the parabola

y2 = 4ax,
prove x=2a +3x, y = -2.x¹³/a³, p= 2SP /a
SP being the focal distance of the point of the parabola whose
coordinates are (x, y).

3. For the ellipse

x²/a² +y²/b² = 1 ,
a² -b2 b2 -a² a2b2
prove x= x³, y = b4 y³, p=
a4 p3,
p being the central perpendicular upon the tangent at (x, y).
4. For the cubical parabola
a²y= x³,
9x4 5 x3 аз
prove 3- (1-2), 3-1 + 6x

CONTACT.

134. Consider the point P at which two curves cut.

It is clear that in general each has its own tangent at
that point, and that if the curves be of the mth and nth
154 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

degrees respectively, they will cut in mn - 1 other

points real or imaginary.

Next, suppose one of these other points (say Q) to

move along one of the curves up to coincidence with P.
The curves now cut in two ultimately coincident points
at P, and therefore have a common tangent. There is
then said to be contact of the first order.
the first order. It will be
observed that at such a point the curves do not on the
whole cross each other.
Again, suppose another of the mn points of inter-
section (viz. R) to follow Q along one of the curves to

coincidence with P. There are now three contiguous

points on each curve common, and therefore the curves
have two contiguous tangents common , namely, the
ultimate position of the chord PQ and the ultimate
position of the chord QR. Contact of this kind is said
to be of the second order, and the curves on the whole
cross each other.
Finally, if other points of intersection follow Q and
R up to P, so that ultimately k points of intersection
 CURVATURE. 155

coincide at P, there will be k - 1 contiguous common

tangents at P, and the contact is said to be of the
(k - 1)th order. And if k be odd and the contact there-
fore of an even order the curves will cross, but if k be
even and the contact therefore of an odd order they will
not cross.

135. Closest Degree of Contact of the Conic Sections with a

Curve.
The simplest curve which can be drawn so as to pass
through two given points is a straight line.
do. three do. circle.
do. four do. parabola.
do. five do. conic.
Hence, if the points be contiguous and ultimately coincident points
on a given curve, we can have respectively the
Straight Line of Closest Contact (or tangent), having contact of the
first order and cutting the curve in two ultimately coincident
points, and therefore not in general crossing its curve ; the
Circle of Closest Contact, having contact of the second order and cut-
ting the curve in three ultimately coincident points, and therefore
in general crossing its curve (this is the circle already investigated
as the circle of curvature) ; the
Parabola of Closest Contact, having contact of the third order and
cutting the curve in four ultimately coincident points, and there-
fore in general not crossing; and the
Conic of Closest Contact, having contact of the fourth order and cut-
ting the curve in five ultimately coincident points, and therefore
in general crossing.
It is often necessary to qualify such propositions as these by the
words in general. Consider for instance the " circle of closest contact"
at a given point on a conic section. A circle and a conic section
intersect in four points, real or imaginary, and since three of these
are real and coincident, the circle of closest contact cuts the curve
again in some one real fourth point. But it may happen, as in the case
in which the three ultimately coincident points are at an end of one of
the axes of the conic that the fourth point is coincident with the other
three, in which case the circle of closest contact has a contact of
higher order than usual, viz., of the third order, cutting the curve
in four ultimately coincident points, and therefore on the whole not
crossing the curve. The student should draw for himself figures of
the circle of closest contact at various points of a conic section,
remembering that the common chord of the circle and conic and the
tangent at the point of contact make equal angles with either axis.
The conic which has the closest possible contact is said to osculate
156 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

its curve at the point of contact, and is called the osculating conic.
Thus the circle of curvature is called the osculating circle, the para-
bola of closest contact is called the osculating parabola, and so on.

136. Analytical Conditions for Contact of a

given order.

We may treat this subject analytically as follows.

Let
y = $ (x) \
y = y (x))
be the equations of two curves which cut at the point
P (x, y).
Consider the values of the respective ordinates at
the points P₁ , P, whose common abscissa is x + h.
Let MN = h.
Then NP₁1 = (x + h),
NP₂2 = ↓ (x + h),
and PP₁ = NP₁-
1 NP₂2 = (x + h) -— 4 (x + h)
-
= [$ (x) − ↓ (x)] + h [p′ (x) − y' (x) ]
h²
-
+ 2 ! [p″ (x) –
− ¥” (x) ] + ……..

y=$ (x)

y=4 (x)

(x,y) P₂

M N X

If the expression for PP, be equated to zero, the

roots of the resulting equation for h will determine the
points at which the curves cut.
 CURVATURE. 157

If p (x) = f (x), the equation has one root zero and

the curves cut at P.

If also p' (x) = ' (x) for the same value of x, the
equation has two roots zero and the curves cut
in two contiguous points at P, and therefore
have a common tangent. The contact is now of
the first order.
If also p″ (x) = " (x) for the same value of x, the
equation for h has three roots zero and the
curves cut in three ultimately coincident points
at P. There are now two contiguous tangents
common, and the contact is said to be of the
second order ; and so on.

Similarly for curves given by their polar equations,

if r = ƒ(0), r = $(0) be the two equations, there will be
n + 1 equations to be satisfied for the same value of
in order that for that value there may be contact of the
nth order, viz.

ƒ(0) = $ (0), ƒ' (0) = 4′ (0) , ƒ'' (0) = p″ (0) ,

fn (0) = n ( 0).

EXAMPLES.
1. Shew that the parabola whose axis is parallel to the y axis
and which has the closest contact possible with the curve y = x²
at the point (1, 1) is
y= 3-8x + 6x².

2. Draw carefully the circle of curvature

(1) at an ordinary point on an ellipse,
(2) at the end of the major axis,
(3) at the end of the minor axis,
(4) at an ordinary point on a parabola,
(5) at the vertex of the parabola,
and name the order of contact in each case.
158 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

3. Shew that the curves

y= x +1 (x - α) (x - b),
y= xn + 1 (x − c) (x -− d),
have contact of the nth order at the origin.

EXAMPLES,
1. Find the curvature at the origin in the curves

(a) y = 2x + 3x² +4x³,

(b) y = 2x + 3x² +4xy,
(c) (y - x) (y - 2x) = x³ + y³,
(d) (x - y)2 (x - 2y) (x - 3y) = 2a (x³ - y³) + 2a² (x+y)(x - 2y).
x
2. In the curve y= aea ,
prove p= a sec² 0 cosec 6, where 0 - tan - 19
a'
and that the curve has no point of inflexion.

3. In the limaçon r= a + b cos 0,

(a² +2ab cos 0 +b²)*
prove p=
a² +3ab cos 0 +262 ,
and hence shew that if a and b are both positive the limaçon can
only have points of inflexion when a is intermediate between b
and 26.
Deduce for a cardioide (b = a),
4 6
a cos
p=3 2
4. Shew that the curve y = e - 3 has points of inflexion where
X== ± 1/√2.
Ꮖ
5. Shew that y = a sin
α has points of inflexion wherever it
cuts the x-axis.

6. Shew that the points of inflexion upon

x²y= a² (x - y),
are given by x = 0 and x == ± a√3.
 EXAMPLES. 159

7. Shew that the curve

x (x² - ay) = a³
has a point of inflexion where it cuts the x-axis. Find the
equation of the tangent there.
8. Shew that the curve
23 +y³ = a3
has inflexions where it cuts the coordinate axes.

9. Shew that the curve x = log has a point of inflexion

at (-2, -2e-2).
10. Shew that rea has a point of inflexion at a distance
a /2 from the pole.
11. Find the points of inflexion upon
12y = x² - 16x³ + 42x² + 12x + 1 .
12. Shew that in a parabola the chord of curvature through
the focus and the chord of curvature parallel to the axis are each
four times the focal distance of the point of contact.

13. In a parabola the common chord of the curve and its

circle of curvature = 8 √√r (r− a).
Ꮖ
14. In the chainette y = c cosh the chord of curvature
с
parallel to the y-axis is double of the ordinate, and that parallel
to the x-axis
2.x
= csinh
с

15. If C and C, be the chords of curvature parallel to the

axes at any point of the curve
x
y = aea,
prove that
1 1 1
+ =

16. If C, and Ce be the chords of curvature respectively

along and perpendicular to the radius vector, shew that'
2p √r² - p²
Cr+ = 2pp , Co = r
160 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

17. At the point upon the Archimedean Spiral

r= a0,
at which the tangent makes half a right angle with the radius
vector,
= 4
prove α.

18. Shew that for each of the curves

r = a , r0 = a , rsin nê = a, rsinh nê = a,
r cosh ne =
-a (Cotes's Spirals),
1 0 3
the curvature x- •

19. Shew that in the curve for which

y = a cosm ,
the radius of curvature is m times the normal.

20. Shew that in the curve for which

y= aemy,
the radius of curvature is m times the tangent.
21. Shew that in the curve for which
r² = a² +b²↓,
the radius of curvature varies inversely as the perpendicular
from the origin upon the normal.
22. Shew that in the chainette the radius of curvature varies
as the square of its projection upon the y-axis.

23. In the curve

0_√r² — a² a
COS
α
shew that p²= 2as,
s being so measured that p and s vanish together.
24. Prove that in any curve
dp
ds = {341322-33 ( 1 + y₁2)}/y₂²,
and shew that at every point of a circle
Y3= 3Y1Y2²/(1 +y₁²).
 EXAMPLES. 161

25. For any plane curve prove

1 d2x d³y day d³x
(a) - "
p³ ds2 ds3 ds2 ds3
= d³x\2 + (d³y 2
(b) = {1+ (1/0)"}
ds ds3 ds3
dx dx dy dy dp
(c) ds4 · ds + ds4 ds - 3 2
p³ ds
dx day dry d²x = 3 dp
(d) ds4
ds2 dst ds2 p¹ ds '
d4x dx dły dy
+
ds4 ds ds4 ds
(e) p=
d+x • d²y - d¹y d³x'
ds4 ds2 ds4 ds2

E. D. C. 11
 CHAPTER XI.

ENVELOPES.

137. Families of Curves.

If in the equation ( x, y, c) = 0 we give any arbitrary

numerical values to the constant c, we obtain a number
of equations representing a certain family of curves ;
and any member of the family may be specified by the
particular value assigned to the constant c. The quan-
tity c, which is constant for the same curve but different
for different curves, is called the parameter of the
family.

138. Envelope . Definition .

Let all the members of the family of curves
$ (x, y, c) = 0
be drawn which correspond to a system of infinitesimally
close values of the parameter, supposed arranged in
order of magnitude. We shall designate as consecutive
curves any two curves which correspond to two consecu-
tive values of c from the list. Then the locus of the
ultimate points of intersection of consecutive members
of this family of curves is called the ENVELOPE of the
family.
 ENVELOPES. 163

139. The Envelope touches each of the Inter-

secting Members of the Family.
Let A, B, C represent three consecutive intersecting

P
B
A

members of the family. Let P be the point of inter-

section of A and B, and Q that of B and C.
Now, by definition, P and Q are points on the en-
velope. Thus the curve B and the envelope have two
contiguous points common, and therefore have ulti-
mately a common tangent, and therefore touch each
other. Similarly, the envelope may be shown to touch
any other curve of the system.

140. The Envelope of Ax² + 2Bλ + C = 0 is

B² = AC.

If A, B, C be any functions of x, y and the equation

of any curve be
Ax² + 2Bx + C = 0,
λ being an arbitrary parameter, the envelope of all such
curves for different values of λ is B² = AC.

For the equation

Ax² + 2Bλ + C = 0
may be regarded as a quadratic equation to find the
values of for the two particular members of the family
which pass through a given point (x, y). Now, if (x, y)
be supposed to be a point on the envelope, these mem-
bers will in the limit be coincident. Hence for such
values of x, y the quadratic for λ must have two equal
roots, and the locus of such points is therefore
B² = AC.
11-2
164 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

α
Ex. 1. Thus the line y = mx + may be written in the form
m
m²x - my + a = 0,
whence the equation of the envelope for different values of m is plainly
y2= 4ax.

Ex. 2. The line y = mx + √a²m² + b²

may be written in the form
m² (x² — a²) – 2mxy + y² — b²= 0,
and the envelope is
x²y² = (x² - a²) (y² — b²),
or x²/a² +y²/b² = 1.

141. Envelope of p (x, y, c) = 0.

The envelope of the more general family of curves
(x, y, c) = 0
may be considered in the same way.
It is proved in Theory of Equations that if ƒ(c) = 0
be a rational algebraic equation for c the condition for a
pair of equal roots is obtained by eliminating c between
f(c) = 0 and ƒ' (c) = 0.
Hence to find the envelope of
$ (x, y, c) = 0
we differentiate with regard to c thus forming
д
ǝc (x, y, c) = 0

and then eliminate c.

Ex. 1. Thus to find the envelope of the line

a
y= cx + с

for different values of c, we have upon differentiating with regard to c

a
0 = x- "
 ENVELOPES. 165

whence cy= a + c²x = 2a,

a
and squaring, y2 . X
== 4a²,

giving y2 = 4ax.
Ex. 2. Find the envelope of
x cos³0 +y sin³0 =a
for different values of 0.
Differentiating with regard to 0,
- x cos20 sin 0+y sin20 cos 0 = 0,
cos sin 0 √cos20 + sin20 1
giving x
y √x²+y2 √x² + y²'
Hence the equation of the envelope is
y3 x3
x +y 3 = a,
(x²+y²) (x²+ y2)
or xy
= a,
√x² +y²
1 1
which may be written =
x2 y2 a

EXAMPLES.

1. Show that the envelope of the line

X
2+2=
α 1,
when ab = c², a constant, is
4xy = c².
2. Find the equation of the curve whose tangent is of the
form
y = mx + m²,
m being independent of x and y.
3. Find the envelope of the curves
ལྔ | 8

a² cos 0 b2 sin o
X y
for different values of .
166 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

4. Find the envelope of the family of trajectories

1 x2
y= x tan - 9
2 u2 cos20 '
✔ being the arbitrary parameter.
5. Find the envelopes of straight lines drawn at right angles
to tangents to a given parabola and passing through the points
in which those tangents cut
(1 ) the axis of the parabola,
(2) a fixed line parallel to the directrix.
6. Find the envelope of straight lines drawn at right angles
to normals to a given parabola and passing through the points
in which those normals cut the axis of the parabola.
7. A series of circles have their centres on a given straight
line, and their radii are proportional to the distances of their
corresponding centres from a given point in that line. Find the
envelope.
8. P is a point which moves along a given straight line.
PM, PN are perpendiculars on the co-ordinate axes supposed
rectangular. Find the envelope of the line MN.

142. The envelope of

$ (x, y, c) = 0 ....... . (1)
may also be obtained as follows :
Let (x, y, c + dc) = 0 . (2)
be the consecutive member of the family.
This, by Taylor's Theorem, may be expressed in its
expanded form as
a
$(x, y, c) + 8c —
до $ (x, y, c) + ... = 0.
Hence in the limit when Sc is infinitesimally small
we obtain
д
до (x, y, c) = 0

as the equation of a curve passing through the ultimate

point of intersection of the curves ( 1 ) and (2).
 ENVELOPES. 167

If then we eliminate c between

¤ (x, y, c) = 0)
д
and
до $ (x, y, c) = 0

we obtain the locus of that point of intersection for all

values of the parameter c. This is the Envelope.
Polar curves of the form

$ (r, 0, c) = 0
may be treated in the same manner.

Ex. 1. Find the envelope of a circle drawn upon radii vectores of

the circle r = 2a cos 0 as diameters .
Let d, a be the polar co-ordinates of any point on the given circle,
then d = 2a cosa.
The equation of a circle on the radius vector d for diameter is
r = d cos (0 - a) . (1) ,
or r=2a cos a cos (0 - a) ..(2).
Here a is the parameter. Differentiating with regard to a,
- sin a cos (0 -
– – a) + cos a sin (0 -
− a) = 0,
0
whence sin (0-2a) =0 or a = ;2 . (3).
Substituting this value of a in (2),
0
r== 2a cos² or r=a (1 +cos 0),
the equation of a cardioide.

Ex. 2. Find the envelope of a straight line drawn at right angles

to radii vectores of the cardioide r = a ( 1+ cos 0) through their ex-
tremities.
Here we are to find the envelope of the line
x cos a +y sin a = d,
where d, a are the polar co-ordinates of any point on the cardioide;
i. e. where d = a (1 + cos a).
The equation of the line is therefore
x cos a +y sina = a (1 + cosa),
168 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

or (x -
− a) cos a + y sin a = a,
a line which from its form obviously touches the circle
(x -
− a)² + y² = a² or r = 2a cos 0,
which is therefore its envelope.
Ex. 3. Find the envelope of
x y
+ =1 . (1) ,
a
with the condition
an +bn constant = c" say .. (2).
Here there are two parameters with a condition connecting them, so
that only one is independent. Imagine a and b to be both functions
of some third arbitrary parameter t. Differentiating both equations
with regard to t,
x da y db
+ = 0,
a2 dt b2 dt
da db
an-1 + bn-1 =0;
dt dt
x y
a2 b2
=
an- bn-1,
x y x y
+
a b a b
i.e. = =
bn
Thus an+1 = cnx and b²+1 = c^y.
.. substituting in (2),
n n
(c ” x)n+1 + (cny)n +1 = cn ,
n n n
or xn+1 + yn+1 =ch+1¸
which is the required envelope.

EXAMPLES.

1. Find the envelope of

y= mx - 2am -— am³,
i.e. of normals of the parabola
y2 = 4ax.
 EXAMPLES. 169

2. Find the envelope of

ax by
= a2 - b²,
cos sin 0
i.e. of normals of the ellipse
x²/a2 +y2/b² = 1.

3. Find the envelopes of

(a) y = mx + am²,
(B) y = mx + am³,
(y) y = mx + amº;
m being the arbitrary parameter.

4. Find the envelopes of

(a) x cos 0 +y sin = a,
(B) x√cos 0 + y√√sin 0 = a,
20 y
(2) + = α,
√cos e √sin 0
(8) XC cos +y sin¹ 0 = a,

(€) X cos 0 + y sin# 0 = a,

(5) x cos¹ 0 +y sin¹ 0 = a,
(n) x cos^0 +y sin" 0 = a ;
✔ being the arbitrary parameter in each case.

5. Find the envelopes of

(a) xcos a +y sin a = a √√cos 2a,
(B) x cos 2a +y sin 2a = a cos²a,
m
(y) x cos ma +y sin ma = a (cos na)" ;
a being the parameter in each case.

6. Find the envelopes of circles described on the radii vectores

of the following curves as diameters :-
(a) x2/a2 + y2 /b2 = 1,
(B) y² = 4ax,
170 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

(y) y² = 4a (x + a),
(8) r = a ( 1 + cos 8),
1
(€) = 1 +e cos 0,
r
($) r² cos 20 = a²,
(n) r² = a² cos 20,
(0) p = an cos no.

7. Find the envelopes of the circles which pass through

the pole and whose centres lie on the several curves of ques-
tion 6.

8. Find the envelopes of straight lines at right angles to

the radii vectores of the following curves drawn through their
extremities :--
(a) a straight line,
(B) a circle through the pole,
(y) any circle,
(8) a cardioide r = a ( 1 + cos ),
(€) a limaçon r = a + b cos 0,
(5) a lemniscate r² = a² cos 20,
тв
(7) an equiangular spiral r = ae"
(0) pman cos no.

9. Find the envelopes of the straight line

=1
α+{-1
under the several conditions

(a) a + b = c,
(B) a² + b² = c²,
(y) amon = cmtn
 EXAMPLES. 171

10. Find the envelopes of the ellipse

x2 y2
1
a2 Х 62
under the several conditions
(a) a² + b² = c²,
(B) an + b² = c",
(y) amon = cm tr
11. Find the envelopes of the parabola

√&+ √ = 1
under the several conditions
(a) a + b = c,
(B) an + bn = cn,
(x) amon = cmtn
12. Find the envelope of
xm ут
=1
am + bm
under the condition
ap + br = cr.

13. Show that the envelope of the family of curves

AX³ +3BX² + 3Cλ + D = 0,
where X is the arbitrary parameter, and A, B, C, D are functions
of x and y, is
(BC- AD)² = 4 (BD – C²) ( AC — B²).

14. If A, B, C be any functions of x and y the envelope of

m
A cos ma +B sin ma= C' (cos na)"
n
A²+ B2\ m-n n B
is = cos2 tan -1
AC2
( B
+ ) m -n Α΄

15. A straight line ofgiven length slides with its extremities

on two fixed straight lines at right angles. Find the envelope
of a circle drawn on the sliding line as diameter.
172 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

16. Show that the envelope of straight lines joining the

extremities of a pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse is a
similar ellipse.

17. The envelope of the polars with respect to the circle

r = 2a cos 0

of points which lie upon the circle r = 2b cos is

{(a − b) x +ab}² = b² {(x− a)² + y²} .

18. Show that the pedal equation of the envelope of the

line
x cos me +ysin me = a cos no
is m²r² = (m² — n²) p² +n²a².

19. Two particles move along parallel lines, the one with
uniform velocity and the other with the same initial velocity
but with uniform acceleration. Show that the line joining them
always touches a fixed hyperbola.

20. Show that the radius of curvature of the envelope of

the line
xcos a +ysin a =ƒ(a)
is f(a)+f"(a),
and that the centre of curvature is at the point
x= −ƒ'(a) sin a -ƒ"(a) cos al
y= f'(a) cos a -ƒ"(a) sin af
 CHAPTER XII.

ASSOCIATED LOCI.

143. IT is intended in the present chapter to present

a brief introduction to a study of several important loci
which are intrinsically connected with every curve.

PEDAL CURVES.

144. DEF. If a perpendicular OY be drawn from

any fixed point 0 upon the tangent to any curve the
locus of is called the "first Positive Pedal " of the
original curve with regard to the given point 0.
Two important cases occur in the Conic Sections :
(1 ) In a parabola the locus of the foot of the per-
pendicular from the focus upon a tangent is
the tangent at the vertex. This line is there-
fore the first positive pedal of the parabola
with regard to the focus.
(2) In a central conic the locus of the foot of the
perpendicular from a focus upon a tangent is
the auxiliary circle. This circle is therefore
the first positive pedal of the conic with regard
to the focus.

145. To find the Pedal with regard to the

Origin for Cartesian Curves .
When the Cartesian equation of a curve is given,
the condition of tangency of
X cos a + Y sin a = p
174 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

may be obtained by comparison of this line with the

tangent at any point (x, y).
Let this condition when found be

f(p, a) = 0 .
Then since p, a are the polar co-ordinates of the point
whose locus is sought we may replace them by the
current co-ordinates r, 0, and the equation of the pedal
will be
f(r, 0) = 0 .
Ex. 1. The condition that
x cos a +y sin a =p touches x²/a² + y²/b² = 1
is known to be p² = a2 cos²a + b² sin² a.
Hence the first positive pedal with regard to the origin is
r2= a2 cos20 + b² sin²0.

Ex. 2. Find the first positive pedal of the curve xmyn = am +n with
regard to the origin.
The equation of the tangent is plainly
.m n
X + Y== m + n.
x y
Comparing with X cos a + Ysin a = p,
x cos a y sin a Ρ
m n m +n
m Ρ n P
giving x=
m + n cos a " y== m +n sin a
Hence the condition of tangency is
m Ρ m = am+n,
m +n cos aa)™ (
(m+n sina)"
and replacing p and a by r and 6, the equation of the pedal becomes
(m + n)m+n
pm +n = am+n. cosmo sin" 0.
mmnn

146. To find the Pedal with regard to the

Pole of any curve whose Polar Equation is
given.
 PEDALS. 175

Let F (r, 0) = 0 ... .. ( 1 )

be the equation of the curve.

P(r, 0)
Y(10)

Let r' , ' be the polar co-ordinates of the point Y,

which is the foot of the perpendicular OY drawn from
the pole on a tangent. Let OA be the initial line.
Then

0 = AÔP = AÔY + TẬP

π
= 0 + 2/2- 8 . (2) ,

de
also tan & = r . (3),
dr

and r' = r sin o,

1 1 /dr (Art. 95) ........
.....(4) .
or =
's p2 + de

If r, 0, be eliminated from equations 1 , 2, 3, and 4,

there will remain an equation in r' , '. The dashes
may then be dropped and the required equation will be
obtained.

Ex. To find the equation of the first positive pedal of the curve
mam cos me.
Taking the logarithmic differential
m dr
=- m tan me ;
r de
therefore cot - tan m0 ;
therefore p= 2+ mo.
176 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

π
But 0=0' + -·Φ,
0'
therefore 0 =0' - me, or 0 :-
m +1 '
Again r' = rsin p =r cos me

= a cosmmo.cos me
m+1 mo'
= a cos m •
m+1
Hence the equation of the pedal curve is
m m m
rm+1 = am+1 cos 0.
m +1
147. DEF. If there be a series of curves which we
may designate as
A, A1 , A2, A3 , ... An, ...
such that each is the first positive pedal curve of the
one which immediately precedes it ; then A,, A,, etc. ,
are respectively called the second, third, etc., positive
pedals of A. Also, any one of this series of curves may
be regarded as the original curve, e.g. A,; then A, is
called the first negative pedal of A¸ , A , the second nega-
tive pedal, and so on.

Ex. 1. Find the kth positive pedal of

rmam cos mo.
It has been shown that the first positive pedal is
miami cos m₁ 0,
m
where m₁ = 1 + m

Similarly the second positive pedal is

pm2 = am² cos m₂0,
m1 m
where M₂= 1+ mi = 1 + 2m
2=
and generally the kth positive pedal is
утк = атк cos mx0,
m
where mk=
1+ km'
 PEDALS. 177
Ex. 2. Find the kth negative pedal of the curve
pmam cos mo.
We have shown above that m - am cos me is the kth positive pedal
n
of the curve nan cos ne, provided m =:
1 + kn'
m
This gives n=
1- km '
Hence the kth negative pedal of rmam cos me is
pn=an cos no,
m
where n ==1- km'

EXAMPLES.

1. Show that the first positive pedal of a circle with regard

to any point is a Limaçon (r = a +b cos 0), which becomes a
Cardioide {ra ( 1 +cos 0)} when the point is on the circum-
ference.

2. Show that the first positive pedal of a central conic with

regard to the centre is of the form 72 = A + B cos 20, which
becomes a Bernoulli's Lemniscate (r² = a² cos 20) when the conic
is a rectangular hyperbola.
3. Show that the first positive pedal of the parabola y² = 4ax
with regard to the vertex is the cissoid
x (x² + y2) + ay2 = 0.
4. Show that
f
r²=a² cos 20, = α COS 0, =α cos 0,

r = a cos デ0, = aα20 cos 0,

9
are the first, second, third, fourth and fifth pedals of a rect-
angular hyperbola.

5. Show that the 10th positive and negative pedals of the

circle ra cos are respectively
0
r=a cos¹l and ra sec9
11
E. D. C. 12
178 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

6. Show that the first positive pedal of

xn +yn = an,
n n n n
is (x² +y²)n - 1 = an − 1 (xn − 1 + yn-

148. Perpendicular on Tangent to Pedal.

Let PY, QY' be tangents at the contiguous points
P, Q on the curve, and let OY, OY' be perpendiculars
from O upon these tangents. Let OZ be drawn at right
angles to Y'Y produced. Let the tangents at P and Q
intersect at T.

R S X

It is clear that since

YÔY' = YTY ',

the points O, Y, Y' , T are concyclic, and therefore

' = OTY' ;
oŶz =π - ofy

and the triangles OYZ and OTY' are similar. Therefore

OZ OY'
=
OY OT

and in the limit when Q comes into coincidence with P,

Y comes into coincidence with Y, and the limiting
 PEDALS. 179

position of YY' is the tangent to the pedal curve. Let

the perpendicular on the tangent at Y to the pedal
curve be called p,, then the above result becomes

P1_P
=
p r
or P₁r = p².

149. Circle on Radius Vector for diameter

touches Pedal.

This fact is clear from the figure of Art. 148, for OT

is in the limit a radius vector and the circle on OT for
diameter cuts the pedal in the ultimately coincident
points Y and Y' , and therefore in the limit has the
same tangent at I as the pedal curve.

150. Pedals regarded as Envelopes .

It is clear then that the problem of finding the first

positive pedal of a given curve is identical with that of
finding the envelope of circles described on radii vec-
tores as diameters (see Art. 142).
Again, the first negative pedal is the curve touched
by (ie. the envelope of) a straight line drawn through
any point of the curve and at right angles to the radius
vector to the point.

Thus by Art. 142, Ex. 1, the first positive pedal of

r=2a cos 0
with regard to the origin is the cardioide
r= a (1 + cos 0),
and by Ex. 2, the first negative pedal of
ra (1+cos 0)
with regard to the origin is the circle
r=2a cos 0.
12-2
180 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

INVERSION .

151. DEF. Let O be the pole, and suppose any

point P be given ; then if a second point Q be taken on
OP, or OP produced, such that OP.OQ = constant, k²
say, then Qis said to be the inverse of the point P with
respect to a circle of radius k and centre 0 (or shortly,
with respect to 0).
If the point P move in any given manner, the path
of Q is said to be inverse to the path of P. If (r, 0) be
the polar co-ordinates of the point P, and (r', 0) those
of the inverse point Q, then
rr' = k².
Hence if the locus of P be

f(r, 0) = 0,
that of Q will be

=0.
‫( ރ‬1 , 0) =
ƒ
For example the curves
rmam cos me and rm cos me = am
are inverse to each other with regard to a circle of radius a.

152. Tangents to Curve and Inverse inclined

to Radius Vector at Supplementary Angles.
If P, P' be two contiguous points on a curve, and
 INVERSION. 181

Q, Q' the inverse points, then, since

OP . OQ = OP' . OQ',
the points P, P', Q , Q are concyclic ; and since the
angles OPT and OQ'T are therefore supplementary, it
follows that in the limit when P' ultimately coincides
with P and Q with Q the tangents at P and Q make
supplementary angles with OPQ.

EXAMPLES .
1. Show that the inverse of the conic
1
= 1 + e cos 0
r
with regard to the focus is the Limaçon
7
k2r= 1 + e cos 0
which becomes a cardioide
[r =a (1 + cos 0)]
in the case when the conic is a parabola.
2. If the point x', y' be inverse to (x, y), show that
k2x
x= and y= x²k²y '
+y'² *
x²+y2'
3. Show that the inverses of the lines x = a, y = b are re-
spectively
k2
x² +y² ==
α x,
k2
and x² +y2 = by.

4. Show that the inverse of the conic

ax² +2bxy + cy² = 2y,
is the cubic k2 (ax² + 2bxy + cy2) = 2y (x² +y2).
5. Find the inverses of the straight lines
3x + 4y = 5, 4x - 3y = 5
with regard to the origin, and show that they are circles cutting
orthogonally.
182 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

POLAR RECIPROCALS.

153. Polar Reciprocal of a Curve with regard

to a given Circle.
DEF. If OY be the perpendicular from the pole
upon the tangent to a given curve, and if a point Ź be
taken on OY or OY produced such that OY . OZ is con-
stant (= k² say), the locus of Z is called the polar reci-
procal of the given curve with regard to a circle of
radius k and centre at 0.
From the definition it is obvious that this curve is the
inverse of the first positive pedal curve, and therefore its
equation can at once be found.
Ex. Polar reciprocal of an ellipse with regard to its centre.
x2 y2
For the ellipse
a2 + b2 =1,
the condition that p = x cosa +y sina touches the curve is
p² =a2 cos²a + b² sin²a.
Hence the polar equation of the pedal with regard to the origin is
r²=a2 cos²0 + b² sin² 0.
Again, the inverse of this curve is
k4
= a2 cos20 + b² sin² 0,
or a²x² +b²y² = k4,
which is therefore the equation of the polar reciprocal of the ellipse
with regard to a circle with centre at the origin and radius k.

EXAMPLES.
Find the polar reciprocals with regard to a circle of radius k
and centre at the origin of the curves.
1. r=a cos 8. 5. nan cos no.
2. Any circle. 6. xmyn = am+n
3. = 1 +e cos 0. 7. xn +yn = an.
go
m m
4. r =a (1 +cos 0). =
8. ( )" + (8) " - 1.
 INVOLUTES AND EVOLUTES. 183

INVOLUTES AND EVOLUTES.

154. DEF. The locus of the centres of curvature
of all points on a given curve is called the evolute.
If the evolute itself be regarded as the original
curve, a curve of which it is the evolute is called an
involute.
Ex. To find the evolute of the parabola
y2 = 4ax.
By Ex. 2, p. 153, the co-ordinates of the centre of curvature are
x = 2a + 3x 1 .
J =-2x³/at}·
The arbitrary abscissa x must be eliminated between these equations.
We have
(≈ – 2a)‡ = 3£x} = − 3ºa¹y/2,
or squaring and dropping the bar,
4 (x - 2a)³ 27ay³,
a semicubical parabola.

EXAMPLES.

1. Show that the locus of the centres of curvature of the

ellipse
x²/a² +y²/b²= 1,
is (ax)* + (by)³ = (a² — b²)³.
2. Show that the locus of the centres of curvature of the
catenary
X
y=c cosh
с
-402 = x + y
is c log y + √32 √y² - 4c².
2c 4c

155. Evolute touched by the Normals .

Let P₁ , P₂, P, be contiguous points on a given curve,
and let the normals at P₁ , P, and at P₂, P,3 intersect at
Q1 , Q2 respectively. Then in the limit when P₂, Pз
 184 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

move along the curve to ultimate coincidence with P₁

the limiting positions of Q1 , Q2 are the centres of curva-

Q₂ P₂
Q

ture corresponding to the points P₁, P,2 of the curve.

Now Q and Q₂ both lie on the normal at P,, and there-
fore it is clear that the normal is a tangent to the locus
of such points as Q1 , Q2, i.e. each of the normals of the
original curve is a tangent to the evolute ; and in general
the best method of investigating the equation of the
evolute of any proposed curve is to consider it as the
envelope ofthe normals of that curve.
Ex. 1. To find the evolute of the ellipse
x2 y2
+ =1.
a2 12
The equation of the normal at the point whose eccentric angle is
pis
ах by == a² b².
- . (1) .
сов ф sin
We have to find the envelope of this line for different values of the
parameter 4.
Differentiating with regard to 4,
sin o cos o
ах
cos2 + by sin2 = 0. ...(2) ,
or sin³ , cos³
by + ах = 0.
sin
Hence = cos o 1
by . (3).
- To y Tax √( ax) + (by)}
Substituting these values of sin $ and cos & in equation (1) we obtain,
after reduction (ax) + (by) = (a² – b²) .
 INVOLUTES AND EVOLUTES. 185

Ex. 2. Shew that the envelope of y = mx -2am - am³ (i. e. the

normal to y2 = 4ax) is 27ay2 = 4 (x − 2a)³.

156. There is but one Evolute, but an infinite

number of Involutes .
Let ABCD ... be the original curve on which the
successive points A, B, C, D, ... are indefinitely close to
each other. Let a, b, c, ... be the successive points of
intersection of normals at A, B, C, ... and therefore the
centres of curvature of those points . Then looking at
ABC... as the original curve, abcd ... is its evolute.
And regarding abcd... as the original curve, ABCD...
is an involute.

B
B

D
25

F
2

If we suppose any equal lengths AA' , BB', CC , ..

to be taken along each normal, as shown in the figure,
then a new curve is formed, viz. A'B'C' ..., which may
be called a parallel to the original curve, having the
same normals as the original curve and therefore having
the same evolute. It is therefore clear that if any
186 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

curve be given it can have but one evolute, but an

infinite number of curves may have the same evolute,
and therefore any curve may have an infinite number of
involutes. The involutes of a given curve thus form a
system ofparallel curves.

157. Involutes traced out by the several points

of a string unwound from a curve. Length of
Arc of Evolute .

Since a is the centre of the circle of curvature for

the point A (Fig., Art. 156),
aA = aB
== bB + elementary arc ab (Art. 81) .

Hence aA - bB= arc ab.

Similarly bB - cC = arc bc,

CC - dDarc cd,
etc. ,

fFgG = arcfg.

Hence by addition

aA - gG = arc ab + arc bc + ... + arcfg

= arc ag.

Hence the difference between the radii of curvature at

two points of a curve is equal to the length of the corre-
sponding arc of the evolute. Also, if the evolute abc...
be regarded as a rigid curve and a string be unwound
from it, being kept tight, then the points ofthe unwind-
ing string describe a system of parallel curves, each
of which is an involute of the curve abcd..., one of
them coinciding with the original curve ABC.... It is
from this property that the names involute and evolute
are derived.
 EXAMPLES. 187

EXAMPLES.
1. Show that the whole length of the evolute of the ellipse
x²/a² + y²/b² = 1,
b2
is 4
+(9²- 22 α).

2.Show that in the parabola

y2 =4ax
the length of the part of the evolute intercepted within the
parabola is
4a (3√3-1 ).

EXAMPLES.
1. Show that the fourth negative pedal of the cardioide
r=a (1 + cos 0)
is a parabola.

2. Show that the fourth and fifth positive pedals of the

curve
2
r= α
(sec30)
are respectively a rectangular hyperbola and a lemniscate
[r² =a² cos 20].

3. Show that the first positive pedal may be obtained by

7.2
writing r instead ofp and instead of r in the pedal equation of
P
the original curve.

4. Show that the first positive pedal of the epicycloid

p²= Ar² +B,
has for its pedal equation
204
r2 = A + B.
p2

5. Show that the equation of the nth pedal of the curve

f(p, r) = 0,
is = 0,
pn
188 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

i.e. it may be obtained from the original equation by writing

n
20 for P, and r for r.
( (5)"r

6.Show that the inverse of the hyperbola

1 1-1
+
X y a
with regard to the origin is
a (x² + y²) (x + y) = k²xy.

7. Show that the inverse of the ellipse

x2 y2
-
a2 + 62 = 1 ,
with regard to the origin is
4 y2
(x² +y²)² = k¥ 92 62

8. Show that the equation of the inverse of a curve with

regard to the pole may be obtained from the pedal equation
by writing
k2 fo
and r r,
p.2 for p
kep ↑
i.e. if f (p, r)= 0
be the original curve

f
ƒ(Mp , 44) = 0
will be the inverse.

9. Show that the inverse of the curve

p² =Ar² + B,
is kAp² = Ak²² + Br4.

10. Show that the pedal equation of the evolute of the

curve p =ƒ(r) will be obtained by eliminating p and r between
p=f(r),
P₁² =r2 -p²,
- dr
dp * - 2pr dp
r₂² = r² + r² (dn)
 EXAMPLES. 189

11. Show that the evolute of the epi- or hypocycloid

p²=Ar² + B
B
is p² = Ar² + ²² (A − 1 )
A (4
(i.e. a similar epi- or hypocycloid , see Q. 23 , p. 113).

12. Prove the following series of results for the Equiangular

or Logarithmic spiral
e cot a
r= αe

(1 ) p = a. (Hence the name " Equiangular.”)

(2) The pedal equation is
p = r sin a.
(3) p = r cosec a.
(4) Let O be the pole, PT the tangent at P, OY the
perpendicular, OT the polar subtangent cutting the normal in C.
Prove that Cis the centre of curvature.
(5) s = rsec a (s being supposed measured from the pole).
(6) 8 = PT.

(7) Prove geometrically that all the pedals, the inverse,

the polar reciprocal, the evolute are equal equiangular spirals
(i.e. for which is the same).
(8) The equation of the first positive pedal is

r=a sina e( -a) cota @cot a

(9) The nth pedal is

n -a cota
ra sin" a e ( -a) eocota
(10) The inverse is
k2 - 0 cot a
r= e
α

(11) The Polar reciprocal is

k2 a - 0 cot a
T= e ( -a) cot e
a sin a
190 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

(12) The evolute is

π
cot a
r = a cot ae e cot a

13. Prove the following series of results for the cardioide

r=a (1- cos 0).
(1) The curve may be constructed as the locus of a point
on the circumference of a circle of diameter a which rolls without
sliding upon the circumference of a circle of equal radius.
(2) Hence prove geometrically
0
φ-2 •
Prove this also from the equation by means of the formula
tan =r do dr •

(3) If O be a fixed point upon a circle of radius a and

centre C, and P any other point upon the circumference, make
the angle CPQ - CPO. Prove that PQ always touches a car-
α
dioide formed by the rolling of a circle of radius 3 upon a circle
of equal radius (geometrical).
(4) The curve may also be constructed thus :-Take a
circle OQD of diameter a and centre E. Let a straight rod PP'
of length 2a move in such a manner that its mid-point Q de-
scribes the given circle whilst the rod is constrained to pass
through a fixed point 0 on the circumference. The points P, P '
trace out the cardioide. The point O may be called the focus.
(5) Any "focal chord " is of constant length.
(6) The " Instantaneous Centre " for the motion of the
rod is at the point R of the circle in (4) diametrically opposite
to Q.
(7) The lines RP, RP ' are normals (geometrical).
(8) Normals at the ends of a focal chord intersect at right
angles on the circle in (4) (geometrical).
(9) Tangents at the ends of a focal chord intersect at
right angles on a concentric circle of three times the radius
(geometrical).
( 10) If RP cuts the circle in (4) again at S the angle OSR
is bisected by ES (geometrical).
 EXAMPLES. 191

(11) Hence show (by 3) that the evolute of the cardioide

is a cardioide of one-third the linear dimensions and turned the
opposite way (geometrical).
(12) Show (by 11 ) that the whole length of the arc of
the cardioide
r=a (1 - cos 0) is 8a.
(13) The cardioide is the first positive pedal of a circle
with regard to a point upon the circumference.
(14) The pedal equation is

p=
(2a)
(15) The curvature at any point is
3/2√2ar.
(16) The nth pedal of
r= a (1 +cos 8),
1 1 0
is =
pn +2. (2a)n+2 cos
n +2
( 17) The Inverse of the cardioide with regard to the pole
is a parabola.
14. Show that if p be the radius of curvature at any point
p, r upon the curve ƒ(p, r) = 0 and p₁ that at the corresponding
point upon the inverse, then

P1 =k22 p - 22²),
1:2/(2p
where 2 is the constant of inversion.
15. With the same notation the radius of curvature at the
corresponding point of the polar reciprocal is
k2r3
"
p³p
where k² is the constant of reciprocation .

16. With the same notation if pn be the radius of curvature

at the corresponding point of the nth pedal, prove that
pn -2 1 1 1 1 γρ
Pn
pn-1 2-2-2 -...- 2-72
(where there are n + 1 quotients)
nr² - (n -
− 1) pp
=
(n + 1) ² - npp'
 CHAPTER XIII.

MAXIMA AND MINIMA. ONE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE.

158. Elementary Algebraical and Geome-

trical methods.

Examples frequently occur in Algebra and Geometry

in which it is required to find whether any limitations
exist to the admissible values of certain proposed
functions for real values of the variable upon which
they depend. These investigations can often be con-
ducted in an elementary manner. A few examples
follow in illustration .
b
Ex. 1. The function ax + may be written in the form
x

ах
(Jax- √√) +2√√ab,
from which it is obvious that the expression can never be less than
or x = • For
2 √ab , the value it attains when √ √ √
the square of a real quantity is essentially positive and therefore any
value of x other than x = will give to the expression a greater
value than 2 ab.
Ex. 2. Investigate whether any limitation exists to the real values
3x² - 4x + 3
of the expression 3x² +4x + 3 for real values of x.
3.x² - 4x + 3
Let
3x² +4x + 3 = Y.
Then 3 (1 − y) x² - 4 ( 1+ y ) x + 3 ( 1 − y ) = 0,
 MAXIMA AND MINIMA. 193

If x be real, we must have

4 (1+y) 2-9 (1 − y)² >0,
i.e. (5y - 1) (5− y) must be positive.
Hence y must lie between the values 5 and
Therefore the maximum value of the expression is 5 and the
1
minimum value is
5་
Ex. 3. If the sum of two quantities be given , when is their pro-
duct a maximum ?
Let x +y = a, a constant,
then 4xy = (x + y)² - (x − y )² = a² - (x − y) ².
The right-hand side has its maximum value when (x − y)² has its
minimum, i.e. when x = y, for being a square it cannot be negative.
a2
Thus the maximum value of xy is 4
This may be shown geometrically as follows :-the problem is to
divide a given line AB in such manner that the rectangle of the
segments is as great as possible. Let C be the centre and P any other
point of the line. Then by Euc. 11. 5,
rect. AP . PB + sq. on CP = sq. on AC = rect. AC . CB,
i. e. the rect. AP . PB is less than the rect. AC . CB.
Hence the point of division is the mid-point, or the line must be
bisected.

Ex. 4. If x + y + z + w be constant, when will xyzw have its

maximum value ?
So long as any two, say x and y, are unequal we can without
altering z and w (and thus keeping_x + y constant) increase xy, and
therefore also ryzw by making x and y more nearly equal (by Ex. 3).
Hence xyzw does not attain its maximum value until
x = y = z = w.
The same argument obviously applies to the product of any number
of quantities whose sum is constant.
If we are searching for the maximum value of such an expression
as xy²z³, say, with condition x + y + z = a , we proceed thus
y y 2 Z Z
• and is to be a maximum,
xy2z3 = 2233.x . 2 · 2 3 • 3'3
2130
213
2130
212
22

where x+ + + + =a;
+

E. D. C. 13
194 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

and by the preceding work we are to make

x =y = 2 = a
2 3 69
22.33a6 ασ
whence the maximum value is
66 24.33
Ex. 5. In any triangle the maximum value of
1
cos A cos B cos C is
8'
For 2 cos A cos B cos C = cos A cos (B - C) - cos A} ,
and therefore as long as B and C are unequal we may increase the
expression by making them more nearly equal and keeping their sum
constant. Thus cos A cos B cos C does not attain its maximum value
π 1
until A B = C = and then its value is
8°
Ex. 6. What are the greatest and least values of a sin x + b cos x ?
Let a =c cos a and b c sin a,
b
so that c2a2 + b² and tan a = - .
a
Thus a sin x + b cos x = c sin x cos a + c cos x sin a
= a² +b² sin (x + a),
and as the greatest and least values of a sine are 1 and -1 , the
maximum and minimum values required are √√a² + b² and −√a² + b²
respectively.

Ex. 7. If A, B, C... be a number of points and P any other

point, and if G be the centroid of masses λ at A, μ µ at B, etc. , then it
is a known proposition that
\PA² +μPB² + ... = (\GA² + µGB² + ... ) + (λ + µ + ...) PG²,
or EXPA² =ENGA² + (Zλ) PG².
Hence since EXGA² is a fixed quantity for all positions of P, Σ\PA²
has its minimum value when P is at G.

EXAMPLES.
1. Show that the minimum value of
x² - 4x +9 is 5.
1
2. Show that the expression x+ cannot have any value
X
intermediate between 2 and -2.
 EXAMPLES. 195

x² +x + 1
3. Show that
x2 - x + 1 has 3 for its maximum value, and
for its minimum.

4. Show that the value of x² +px + 1 is intermediate be-

x² −px + 1
tween
2 +P and 2-p
2- p 2 +p
ax² +2bx + c
5. Show that is unlimited in value if
cx² +2bx + a
a + c < 2b.
6. Show that the shortest distance from a given point to a
given straight line is the perpendicular distance.
7. Show that the greatest triangle inscribed in a given circle
is equilateral.
8. Deduce from 7 by projection that a maximum triangle
inscribed in an ellipse
(a) is such that the tangent at each angular point is
parallel to the opposite side,
(b) has its centroid at the centre of the ellipse,
3√3
(c) that its area ==4 ab, where a and b are the semi-
axes.

9. Show that the triangle of greatest area with given base

and vertical angle is isosceles.
10. Show that if ABC be a triangle, and P any point
PA2 +PB2+PC²
will be a minimum when P is at the centroid.
11. Show that
PA2 tan A +PB² tan B+ PC2 tan C
has its minimum value when P is at the orthocentre.
12. Show that
PA2 sin A +PB² sin B+ PC² sin C
has its minimum value when P is at the incentre.
13-2
196 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

13. If ABCD be a quadrilateral, and P any point,

PA²+PB²+ PC² + PD²
has its minimum value when P is at the intersection of the
joins of mid-points of opposite sides.

14. Find the maximum rectangle inscribable in a given

ellipse, i.e. find the maximum value of xy, having given
x²/a² +y2/b² = 1.
15. Find the maximum value of xyz, having given
x +y + 2 = α.
16. Find the maximum value of xyz, having given
x2 y2 z2
+ = 1.
a2 + 62 c2
17. Find the maximum value of xy², having given
x + y = a.
18. Find the maximum value of xy , having given
x + y = a.
19. If 0 +0 = constant, the maximum value of sin sin is
attained when 0 =4.
20. Find the maximum value of
sin A sin B sin C
for a triangle.
21. Find the maximum and minimum values of
a sin² x +b cos² x.

22. Show that the greatest chord through a point of inter-

section of two given circles is that which is parallel to the line of
centres.

23. Find the greatest triangle of given species whose sides

pass through three fixed points.

24. Find the greatest rectangle whose sides pass through the
angular points of a given rectangle.

25. Find the two perpendicular focal chords of a given conic

whose sum is a maximum.
 MAXIMA AND MINIMA. 197

THE GENERAL PROBLEM.

159. Suppose x to be any independent variable

capable of assuming any real value whatever, and let
(x) be any given function of x. Let the curve
y = (x) be represented in the adjoining figure, and
let A, B, C, D, ... be those points on the curve at
which the tangent is parallel to one of the co-ordinate
axes.

B
F

Με Μ2 X

Suppose an ordinate to travel from left to right

along the axis of x. Then it will be seen that as the
ordinate passes such points as A, C, or E it ceases to
increase and begins to decrease; whilst when it passes
through B, D, or F it ceases to decrease and begins to
increase. At each of the former sets of points the
ordinate is said to have a maximum value, whilst at
the latter it is said to have a minimum value.

160. Points of Inflexion.

On inspection ofthe accompanying figure it will be at

once obvious that at such points of inflexion as G or H,
198 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

where the tangent is parallel to one of the co-ordinate

axes, there is neither a maximum nor a minimum or-

dinate. Near G, for instance, the ordinate increases up

to a certain value NG, and then as it passes through
G it continues to increase without any prior sensible
decrease.
This point may however be considered as a com-
bination of two such points as A and B in the figure of

N₁ N₂
Art. 159, the ordinate increasing up to a certain value
NG₁ , then decreasing through an indefinitely small and
negligible interval to NG₂, and then increasing again
as shown in the magnified figure, the points G₁ , G₂ being
ultimately coincident.

161. We are thus led to the following definition :—

DEF. If, while the independent variable x increases
continuously, a function dependent upon it, say (x),
 MAXIMA AND MINIMA. 199

increase through any finite interval however small until

x = a and then decrease, (a) is said to be a MAXIMUM
value of (x). And if (x) decrease to (a) and then
increase, both decrease and increase being through a
finite interval, then (a) is said to be a MINIMUM value
of (x).

162. Criteria for the discrimination of Maxima

and Minima Values.

The criteria may be deduced at once from the aspect

of dy as a rate-measurer. For dy is positive or negative
da dx
according as y is an increasing or a decreasing function.
Now, if y have a maximum value it is ceasing to in-
dy
crease and beginning to decrease, and therefore dx

must be changing from positive to negative ; and if y

have a minimum value it is ceasing to decrease and
dy
beginning to increase, and therefore must be changing
dx
from negative to positive. Moreover, since a change
from positive to negative, or vice versa, can only occur
by passing through one of the values zero or infinity,
we must search for the maximum and minimum values
among those corresponding to the values of a given by
' (x) = 0 or by p′ (x) = ∞ .

dy
163. Further, since must be increasing when it
dx
dzy
changes from negative to positive, if not zero must
dx2

then be positive ; and similarly, when dx

dy changes from
day
positive to negative must be negative, so we arrive
dx2
at another form of the criterion for maxima and minima
values, viz. that there will be a maximum or minimum
200 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

dy
according as the value of x which makes zero or
dx
dzy
infinite, gives
dx² a negative or a positive sign.
164. Properties ofMaxima and MinimaValues.
Criteria obtained Geometrically.
The following statements will be obvious from the
figures of Arts. 159, 160.
(a) According to the definition given in Art. 161 ,
the term maximum value does not mean the absolutely
greatest nor minimum the absolutely least value of the
function discussed. Moreover there may be several
maxima values and several minima values of the same
function, some greater and some less than others, as
in the case of the ordinates at A, B, C, ... (Fig.,
Art. 159).
(B) Between two equal values of a function at
least one maximum or one minimum must lie ; for
whether the function be increasing or decreasing as
it passes the value [M,P, in Fig. , Art. 159 ] it must, if
continuous, respectively decrease or increase again at
least once before it attains its original value, and there-
fore must pass through at least one maximum or mini-
mum value in the interval.
(y) For a similar reason it is clear that between
two maxima at least one minimum must lie ; and be-
tween two minima at least one maximum must lie. In
other words, maxima and minima values must occur
alternately . Thus we have a maximum at A, a
minimum at B, a maximum at C, etc.
(8) In the immediate neighbourhood of a maximum
or minimum ordinate two contiguous ordinates are equal,
one on each side of the maximum or minimum ordi-
nate ; and these may be considered as ultimately co-
incident with the maximum or minimum ordinate.
Moreover as the ordinate is ceasing to increase and
 MAXIMA AND MINIMA. 201

beginning to decrease, or vice versa, its rate of variation

is itself in general an infinitesimal. This is expressed
by saying that at a maximum or minimum the function
discussed has a stationary value. This principle is of
much use in the geometrical treatment of maxima and
minima problems.
(e) At all points, such as A, B, C, D, E, at
which maxima or minima ordinates occur the tangent
is parallel to one or other of the co-ordinate axes. At
dy
points like A , B, C, D the value of vanishes, whilst
dx
at the cuspidal points E, F, dy becomes infinite. The
dx
positions of maxima and minima ordinates are therefore
given by the roots of the equations
' (x) = 0
' (x) =
$ = ∞ }.
dy
dy = 0, or dx = ∞
( 5 ) That dx are not in themselves

sufficient conditions for the existence of a maximum or

minimum value is clear from observing the points G, H
of the figure of Art. 160 , at which the tangent is parallel
to one of the co-ordinate axes, but at which the ordinate

Vracute
N X

has not a maximum or minimum value. But in passing

a maximum value of the ordinate the sign of dy , that
dx
is the sign of the tangent of the angle which the
tangent makes with the x-axis, changes from positive to
negative; while in passing a minimum value the change
202 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

of sign is in the reverse order, namely, from negative to

positive.

Vrobtuse

165. Working Rule.

We can therefore make the following rule for the
detection and discrimination of maxima and minima
dy
values. First find and by equating it to zero find
dx
for what values of x it vanishes; also observe if any
values of a will make it become infinite. Then test for
each of these values whether the sign of dy changes
dx
― -
from + to or from to + as a increases through that
value. If the former be the case y has a maximum
value for that value of x ; but if the latter, a minimum.
If no change of sign take place the point is a point of
inflexion at which the tangent is parallel to one of
the co-ordinate axes ; or, in some cases it may be more
convenient to discriminate by applying the test of
dzy
Art. 163. Find the sign of corresponding to the
dx2
value of x under discussion. A positive sign indicates a
minimum value for y; a negative sign, a maximum.
dzy =
When 0 this test fails and there is need of further
dx²
investigation *.
* See Art. 488 of the author's larger book on the subject.
 EXAMPLES. 203

EXAMPLES.
1. Find the maximum and minimum values of y where
y = (x − 1 ) (x − 2)².
dy
Here
dx = (x −- 2)² + 2 (x −- 1 ) (x -
− 2)

=(x - 2) (3x - 4).

Putting this expression = 0 we obtain for the values of x which
give possible maxima or minima values
4
x =2 and x = ·
To test these : we have
dy
if x be a little less than 2, dx = ( − ) ( + ) = negative,
dy
if x be a little greater than 2, dx: = ( + ) ( + ) = positive.

Hence there is a change of sign, viz., from negative to positive as x

passes through the value 2, and therefore x = 2 gives y a minimum
value.
4 dy
Again, if x be a little less than 3 ' dx. = ( − ) ( − ) = positive,
4 dy
and if x be a little greater than 3' dx = ( − ) ( + ) = negative,
dy
showing that there is a change of sign in dx viz. from positive to
4
negative, and therefore x = 3 gives a maximum value for y. This we
might have anticipated from Art. 164, (y).
Otherwise : dy -
dx = (x − 2) (3x − 4) ,
so that when dy is put = 0 we obtain x = 2 or
dx
And day = 6x - 10,
dx2
d2y
so that, when x = 2, d.x2 = 2,
a positive quantity, showing that, when x = 2, y assumes a minimum
value, whilst, when x = 4 day = -2,
3' dx2
which is negative, showing that, for this value of x, y assumes a
maximum value.
204 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

dy
2. If
dx = (x − a)²n (x − b)2p + 1,
where n and p are positive integers, show that x = a gives neither
maximum nor minimum values of y, but that x= b gives a mini-
mum .
It will be clear from this example that neither maxima nor
dy
minima values can arise from the vanishing of such factors ofdx
as have even indices.
x² - 7x + 6
3. Show that has a maximum value when x = 4
X-- 10
and a minimum when x = 16.

4. If dy -
dx; = x (x − 1 )² (x − 3)³,
show that x=0 gives a maximum value to y
and x=3 gives a minimum.

5. Find the maximum and minimum values of

2x315x² + 36x + 6.
6. Show that the expression
(x- 2) (x - 3)2
7
has a maximum value when x = ; and a minimum value when
73 ?
x= 3.
7. Show that the expression
x³ - 3x² + 6x + 3
has neither a maximum nor a minimum value.

8. Investigate the maximum and minimum values of the

expression
3x5-25x3 + 60x.
9. For a certain curve
dy
dx· = (x − 1 ) ( x − 2)² ( x − 3)³ (x − 4)¹ ;
discuss the character of the curve at the points
x= 1, x = 2, x = 3, x = 4.
 EXAMPLES. 205

10. Find the positions of the maximum and minimum ordi-

nates of the curve for which

dy= -
dx (x − 2) ³ (2.x − 3)¹ (3x – 4)³ (4.x — 5) º.
11. To show that a triangle of maximum area inscribed in any
oval curve is such that the tangent at each angular point is parallel
to the opposite side.
If PQR be a maximum triangle inscribed in the oval, its vertex P
lies between the vertices L, M of two equal triangles LQR, MQR
P
M

inscribed in the oval. Now, the chord LM is parallel to QR and the

tangent at P is the limiting position of the chord LM, which proves
the proposition.
It follows that, if the oval be an ellipse, the medians of the tri-
angle are diameters of the curve, and therefore the centre of gravity
of the triangle is at the centre of the ellipse.
12. Show that the sides ofa triangle of minimum area circum-
scribing any oval curve are bisected at the points ofcontact; and
C

C
AN

P
FT
P
206 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

hence that, if the oval be an ellipse, the centre ofgravity of such

a triangle coincides with the centre of the ellipse.
Let ABC be a triangle of minimum area circumscribing the oval.
Suppose P the point of contact of BC. Let AB₁C₁ , AB,C₂ be two
equal circumscribing triangles such that BC , B,C, touch the oval at
P1, P2 on opposite sides of P and intersect in T. Then
triangle TB,B₂ = triangle TC₁C₂
or TB₁ . TB, sin BTB, = TC₁ . TC, sin C₁TC .

If we bring P₁ and P₂ nearer and nearer to P so as to entrap the

minimum triangle, the above equation ultimately becomes
TB2= TC² ;
and T being ultimately the point of contact P, the side BC is bisected
at its point of contact. The remainder of the question follows as
in Ex. 11 .

EXAMPLES .

1. Find the position of the maximum and minimum ordi-

nates of the curves
(a) y = (x - 1 ) ( x -
− 2) (x − 3),
(b) 4y = x - 8.x³ + 22x² - 24x,
(c) a²y = (x - a)2 (x - b),
(d) a³y² = (x - a) (x - b).
2. Find the maxima and minima radii vectores of the
curves
(a) r=a sin +b cos 0,
(b) r=a sin² 0 + b cos² 0,
(c) (x² +y²)² = ax² + 2hxy + by²,
a2 b2
(d) sin²0 + cos² 0
a2 b2
(e) 1,
y2
(f) r = a sin³0 cos¹ 0.
 EXAMPLES. 207

3. Discuss the maxima and minima values of the following

expressions :
(a) x (1 - x) (1 - x²),
(b) (x² - 1 ) /(x² + 3)³,
(c) sin x cos³ x,
(d) log x/x,
(e) sin" x sin nx.

4. Discuss the maxima and minima values of the following

expressions :
(a) x² + y2 where ax² +2hxy +by² = 1 ,
(b) ax + by where xy= c²,
(c) sin +sin where 0 + 0 = a,
(d) sin²0 + sin² where 0 + 0 = a.
5. What fraction exceeds its pth power by the greatest
number possible ?

6. Divide a given number a into two parts such that the

product of the pth power of one and the qth power of the other
shall be as great as possible.
7. Given the length of an arc of a circle, find the radius
when the corresponding segment has a maximum or minimum
area.
8. In a submarine telegraph cable the speed of signalling
1
varies as a² log x where x is the ratio of the radius of the core to
that of the covering. Show that the greatest speed is attained
when this ratio is 1 : √ē.

9. An open tank is to be constructed with a square base

and vertical sides so as to contain a given quantity of water.
Show that the expense of lining it with lead will be least if
the depth is made half of the width.

10. From a fixed point A on the circumference of a circle

of radius c the perpendicular AY is let fall on the tangent at P ;
prove that the maximum area of the triangle APY is
3
208 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

11. The sum of the perimeters of a circle and a square is l.

Show that when the sum of the areas is least the side of the
square is double the radius of the circle.

12. The sum of the surfaces of a sphere and a cube is given.

Show that when the sum of the volumes is least, the diameter of
the sphere is equal to the edge of the cube.
13. Show that the cone of greatest volume which can be
inscribed in a given sphere is such that three times its altitude
is twice the diameter of the sphere. Show also that this is the
cone of greatest convex surface inscribable in the sphere.
14. Find the cylinder of greatest volume which can be in-
scribed in a given cone.
15. Show that the right circular cylinder of given surface
and maximum volume is such that its height is equal to the
diameter of its base.
16. Show that the semivertical angle of the right cone of
1
given surface and maximum volume is sin- 1

17. Show that a triangle of maximum perimeter inscribed

in any oval curve is such that the tangent at any angular point
makes equal angles with the sides which meet at that point.
Show also that if the oval be an ellipse, the sides of the triangle
will touch a confocal.

18. If a triangle of minimum perimeter circumscribe an

oval show that the points of contact of the sides are also the
points where they are touched by the e-circles of the triangle.
19. Show that the chord of a given curve which passes
through a given point and cuts off a maximum or minimum area
is bisected at the point.
20. Find the area of the greatest triangle which can be
inscribed in a given parabolic segment having for its base the
bounding chord of the segment.
21. In any oval curve the maximum or minimum chord
which is normal at one end is either a radius of curvature at
that end or normal at both ends.
22. Show that if a triangle of minimum area be circum-
scribed about an ellipse the normals at the points of contact
meet in a point, and find the equation of its locus.
 EXAMPLES. 209

23. Find the co-ordinates of the limiting position, when

a' = a, b′ = b of the intersection of the straight lines
X y X y
α + 3b = 1 , a' + b
3' = 1 ,
where an + bn = a'n + b'n = 2cn.
Find the co-ordinates of the point on the locus of the limiting
position of the intersection, which is at a maximum distance
с
from the origin, and prove that the maximum distance is
√/2
[I. C. S. , 1892. ]

E. D. C. 14
 CHAPTER XIV.

UNDETERMINED FORMS.

166. ELEMENTARY methods of procedure have been

explained in the first chapter.
We propose now to show how the processes of the
Differential Calculus may be employed in the deter-
mination of the true values of functions assuming
singular forms, and shall discuss each singularity in
order (see Art. 16).

0
167. I. Form

Consider a curve passing through the origin and

defined by the equations
x = ↓ (t),
y = $ (t). [
Let x, y be the co- ordinates of a point P on the

N X
 UNDETERMINED FORMS. 211

curve very near the origin, and suppose a to be the

value of t corresponding to the origin, so that
(a) = 0 and (a) = 0.

Then ultimately we have

d
Lty = Lttan PON = Lte = 0 y = Ltt-a p' (t)
XC dx y' (t)'

Hence Ltt-a $ (t) = Ltt-c φ' (t)

(t) '' (t)

and if ☀'´ (t) 0

be not of the form when t takes its assigned
y' (t) 0
value a, we therefore obtain

_ p' (a)
Ltt-a $ (t) =
(t)¯¯y' (a)
p' (t) be also of undetermined form, we may
But, if
y' (t)
repeat the process ; thus
" (t) =
Ltt-a o' (t) = Lt
t- a = etc. ,
' (t)
y f" (t)
proceeding in this manner until we arrive at a fraction
such that when the value a is substituted for t its
numerator and denominator do not both vanish, and
thus obtaining an intelligible result-zero, finite, or
infinite.

Ex. 1 . 1- cos 0
Lte=0 02
Here (0) = 1 - cos 0 and † (0) = 0², which both vanish when
vanishes.
' (0) =sin and ' (0) = 20,
which again both vanish when @ vanishes.
" (0) = cos 0 and y'' (0) = 2,
whence "(0) = 1 and y″ (0) = 2.
1- cos 0 - 1
Therefore Lte =0
= 02
14-2
212 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Ex. 2. Lte=0 e0+e-0+ 2 cos 0 - 4

84 [form ]
e-0-2 sin
= Lte =0 form
403 8
:3
eo +e -0-2 cos
=Lte=0 form
1202
eo- e-0+ 2 sin
= Lte =0 240 [form
eo+e -0 + 2 cos 0 4 1
= Lte=0 24 24 6

EXAMPLES.

Find by the above method the following limits :

ax-1 x - sin x cos x
1. Ltxc== 00 bx - 1 6. Ltx = 0 X3
sin ax x5-2x³ - 4x² + 9x - 4
2. Ltz= 0 sinba 7. Ltx =
x4-2x3 + 2x - 1
xex- log (1 + x) ex sin x - x-
- x2
3. Ltx = 0 8. Ltx = 0
x2 X3
x cos x - log (1 +x) 3 tan x - 3x - x³
4. Ltx = 0 9. Ltx=== 0
x2

cosh x - COS x sin (2+ ) - 1

5. Ltx = 0 10. Ltx =
x sin x log sin 2x

168. II. Form 0x∞ .

Let (a) = 0 and (a) , so that p(x) (x)
takes the form 0x∞ when a approaches and ultimately
coincides with the value a.

Then Ltx=a ' 1 ,

Ltz-a$ (x) ↓ (x) = Ltz_aÞ(x)

(x)
1 1
and since = 0,
(a)
 UNDETERMINED FORMS. 213

and may
the limit may be supposed to take the form 0
be treated like Form I.

Ex. 1. Lte -00cot 0 = Lte = 0 - Lte - 0 se1c² 0= 1.

tan 0
a a
sin sin
a x х
Ex. 2. Lt_ sin == == Lta 0a = α.
x L = a
X Ꮖ

169. III. Form

$ (x) takes the

Let (a) = ∞ , (a ) = ∞ , so that
∞ f (x)
form when a approaches indefinitely near the
∞
value a.

The artifice adopted in this case is to write

1
__ ¥ª (c )
$ (x ) =
(x) 1
$ (x)
1 1 1
Then since = = 0, and
= = 0, we may
(a) တ
$(a)
0
consider this as taking the form , and therefore we
0
may apply the rule of Art . 167.
1 y' (x)
(x) = Ltx-a √ (x) =
Ltx-a Ltx-a [† (x)]²
(x) 1 φ' (α)
(x) [$ (x) ]²
2
= Ltx-a $ (x)]² + (x)
† (x) ] $' (x) '
 214 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
2
Therefore Ltz-a $ (x) = Ltx-a (x)7 y' (x)
(a ) * Ltz-a ☀
' (4)
(x) (x).

(x)
Hence, unless Ltx- a be zero or infinite, we have
(x)

1 = c= a
$ (x) Ltx-a f (x))
{Ltx + (x)) ' (x) '

Ltx-a φ (α) == Ltx -a ' (x)

40

or
(x) ' (x)·

(x) be zero, then

170. If, however, Lt -a
(x)

Ltx-a (x) + (x) = 1,

4 (x)
and therefore, by the former case (the limit being neither zero nor
infinite),
= Ltx=a ' (x) + ' (x)
' (x)
Hence, subtracting unity from each side,
Ltx-a $(x) = Lt a ' (x)
(x) ' ' (x)"

Finally, in the case in which

Ltz= a (x) then Lt -a 4(x) =0,

(x) (x)
and therefore by the last case
= Ltz: a ' (x)
' (x)

therefore Ltx-a $ (x) = Ltx - a '(x)

(x) ''' (x) *
This result is therefore proved true in all cases.

171. If any function become infinite for any finite value of the
independent variable, then all its differential coefficients will also
 UNDETERMINED FORMS. 215

become infinite for the same value. An algebraical function only

becomes infinite by the vanishing of some factor in the denominator.
Now, the process of differentiating never removes such a factor, but
raises it to a higher power in the denominator. Hence all differential
coefficients of the given function will contain that vanishing factor
in the denominator , and will therefore become infinite when such a
value is given to the independent variable as will make that factor
vanish.
It is obvious too that the circular functions which admit of infinite
values , viz. , tan x, cot x, sec x, cosec x, are really fractional forms ,
and become infinite by the vanishing of a sine or cosine in the deno-
minator, and therefore these follow the same rule as the above.
The rule is also true for the logarithmic function log (x - a) when
1
x =a, or for the exponential function b - a when x = a, b being sup-
posed greater than unity.

172. From the above remarks it will appear that if (a) and
(a) become infinite so also in general will p′ (a ) and y' (a) . Hence
' (x) is no
at first sight it would appear that the formula Lt. = .
(x) ' (x)
better than the original form Lt₂-a But it generally happens
(x)*
that the limit of the expression ' (x) when x =a, can be more easily
' (x) '
evaluated.
π
log
Ex. 1. Find Lt。 = which is of the form
tan 0
Following the rule of differentiating numerator for new numerator,
and denominator for new denominator, we may write the above limit
1
π
0-
= Lto =π
sec²0'
∞
which is still of the form But it can be written
∞
cos20
= Lte:= π which is of the form
-π o)

-2 cos 0 sin 0
= Ltp = 1
=0.
216 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Evaluate Lt₂= xn ∞
Ex. 2. =8 " which is oftheform ∞

xn nn -1
Lty= 0 =
ex = Lt₂ = 0
n! n!
= Lt₂ = = ∞

It is obvious that the same result is true when n is fractional,

Ex. 3. Evaluate Ltx =0xm (log x)”, m and n being positive.

This is of the form 0x∞ , but may be written
n
Ltz= 0 (logmx
[Form ]
x n
m
and by putting xe this expression is reduced to
n n
m
18
Lty= = 0 as in Ex. 2.
ey

173. Form ∞ - ∞ .

Next, suppose (a) = ∞ and (a) := ∞ , so that

(x) - o - , when a approaches
(x) takes the form ∞∞
and ultimately coincides with the value a.

Let u = p (x) -
− ↓ (x) = ↓ (x) {†(x) -
(f (x)
From this method of writing the expression it is obvious
that unless Ltz- a $ (x) =
1 the limit of u becomes
(x)
(a) × (a quantity which does not vanish) ;
and therefore the limit sought is ∞ .

φ (α)
But if Ltx-a = 1 , the problem is reduced to
(x)
the evaluation of an expression which takes the form
× 0, a form which has already been already discussed
(II. ).
 UNDETERMINED FORMS. 217

Ex. Ltz-0 = Lt - x cot x)

= (1 - cot x) = Lt. = 0 х
sin x - x cos x
= Lt = 0 which is of the form
x sin x
x sin x which is of the same`
sin x + x cos x form still
sin x + x cos x
= Ltr = 0 = 0.
2 cos x - x sin x

EXAMPLES.
a
1. Find Ltx = » 2* sin 2x •

π
2. Find •
Lt C=
=1see on
2.x log .
1
3. Find Ltx -o cosec" x — xn
for the values n = 1 , 2, 3.
4. Find Ltx -o logtan x tan 2x.
cot tr
5. Find Ltx= ( +
(3.x² - 1))
X x² - x4 J

174. V. Forms 0°, °, 1°.

Let y = u", u and v being functions of x ; then

loge y = v logeu.
=
Now log, 1 = 0, log, ∞∞ , log, 0 == = -∞ ; and therefore
when the expression u takes one of the forms 0°, ∞º,
1°, log y takes the undetermined form 0x∞ . The
rule is therefore to take the logarithm and proceed as in
Art. 168.
Ex. 1. Find Lt -ox , which takes the undetermined form 0º.
1
log.x - x
Ltx=olog, x = Lt₂ = 0 ″ 1 = Lte =0 1 = Ltx = 0 ( − x) = 0 ,
x x²
whence Ltx=0x = eº = 1.
218 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Ex. 2. Find Lt π (sin x)tanx This takes the form 1° .

x=2
Ltx=2 (sin x)tanx = Ltx= π etanxlogsinx
2
log sin x cot x
and Ltx=- tan x log sin x Ltx= Το cot x Ltx=
2 = -cosec²x

= Ltx=π ( - sin x cos x) = 0,

2
whence required limit = eº = 1.
A slightly different arrangement of the work is exemplified here.

175. The following example is worthy of notice ,

viz.
Ltx-a {1 + $ (x)} ¥ (x) "
given that $ (a) = 0, ↓ (a) = ∞ ,

Ltx-a (x) ↓ (x) = m.

We can write the above in the form
1 › (x) • (x) ,
Litz=a [ {1 + $ (x) } ším ]* (*) *6

which is clearly em by Art. 14, Chap. I.

It will be observed that many examples take this

form, such, for example, as
1
tan x2
Lt =o
Ꮳ

on p. 9, and Exs. 21 to 26 on p. 12.

176. dy of doubtful value at a Multiple Point.

dx

The value of dy takes the undetermined form at

dx
a multiple point.
 EXAMPLES. 219

The rule of Art. 167 may be applied to find the

dy
true limiting values of for such cases, but it is
dx
generally better to proceed otherwise.
If the multiple point be at the origin, the equations
of the tangents at that point can be at once written
dy
down by inspection and the required values of thus
dx
found.

If the multiple point be not at the origin, the

equation of the curve should be transformed to parallel
axes through the multiple point and the problem is
then solved as before.

dy
Ex. Consider the value of
dx at the origin for the curve
x² + ax²y + bxy² + y¹ = 0.
The tangents at the origin are obviously
x= 0, y = 0, ax + by = 0,
making with the axis of r angles whose tangents are respectively
a
∞ , 0,
dy
which are therefore the required values of dx

EXAMPLES.

Investigate the following limiting forms :-:-

1 + cos πX
1. Ltx = 0log (1 - x²) 4. Ltx = 1 tan2
log cos x x
2x³ - 3x² + 1
2. Ltxx == 11 ვენ _ 5 ე 3 +2 5. Ltz - a log (| 22-2 ) cot (x - a).

1 - tan x logsin x COS X

3. Lt x= 75 6. Ltx =0
41-1/2 sin x X
10%sinx2 cos 2
220 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

0
cot tan-1 (m tan 6) -m cos2 2
7. Lt
8=0
sin2
1
8. Ltxo (cos x)cot² x 9. Ltx= 1 (1 - x2)log (1 −x)

10. Lt = 0 (logc )log (1 - x )

Axn +Bxn -1 + Сxn − 2 + ..
11. Ltx = according as n is >, = or
axm + bxm - 1 + cxm − 2 + .
<m.
sinh2 x
12. Find Lt =
=0 x2 cos x
vers -1 3C
13. Find
√2x - x²
-
14. Find Lte =0 √a² + ax + x² - √√a² — ax+ x²
√a + x - Na - x
20 1 e -x
15. Find Ltx-0 2x² +
2 sinh
sin 2x +a sin x
16. If Lte= 0
X3
be finite, find the value of a and the limit.

17. If Ltx = 0 sinh 3x + sinh 2x + , sinh x

x05
have a finite limit, find it and determine the necessary values
of a1 and a2.

18. If Lt = 0 cos4x + a₁cos2x + α2

X4
have a finite limit, find it and determine the necessary values
of а1 and az.

19. If Lt = 0 sin x + a₁ex +age¬ * + a, log 1 + x

x3
have a finite limit, find it and determine the values of α1 , α ,
༩q •
 EXAMPLES. 221

20. Show that

ex
( 1 + x)x − e + 2 lle
Ltx = 0 ==
x2 24

dzy
21. Find Lt。 =0 dx² '
1
where y=0 sine and 0: vers X.
1
22. Find Lte =0 (winh Ja
Lée

1
sinh t −
23. Find Lt = 0
X3

1
24. Find (a) Ltx-o (cosh a)x²,
1
cosh x2
Ltzes
( b ) Li -o (2 combx2x - 1) +
{2
1
(24 cosh x -
bz 24–24- 12- 72 .
(c) Ltx= 0 x4
 CHAPTER XV.

LIMITATIONS OF TAYLOR'S THEOREM.

CONTINUITY.

177. SUPPOSE that portion of the curve y = px which

lies between two given ordinates
AL (x = a) and BM (x = b)
to be drawn. Then if we find that as x increases
through some value, as ON, the ordinate pa suddenly
changes from NP to NQ (say) without going through
the intermediate values, the function is said to be dis-
continuous for the value = ON of the independent
variable.

A N B X

Thus for a function or to be continuous between

two values a and b of the independent variable, it is
necessary that its Cartesian graph y = px shall be able
to be described by the motion of a particle travelling
 CONTINUITY. 223

along it from the point (a, pa ) to the point (b, pb)

without moving off the curve.

178. In the same way, if at a point P on a curve,

if the tangent suddenly changes its inclination to the
axis of x without going through the intermediate
positions there, as shown in the accompanying figure,
there is said to be a discontinuity in the value of p'x.

T'

A B X

179. If the curve y = px cut the x-axis at two

points A (x = a, y = 0) and B (x = b, y = 0) , it is obvious
that provided that the curve y = px and the inclination
of its tangent be finite and continuous between A and
B, the tangent to the curve must be parallel to the
x-axis at some intermediate point P between A and B.

A B X
224 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

It is also evident from a figure that the tangent

may be parallel to the x-axis at more than one inter-
mediate point .
Y

S
P

A. B X

180. We thus arrive at the following important

result :
If any function of x, say px, vanish when x = a and
also when xb, and is finite and continuous, as also its
first differential coefficient d'x between those values, then
' x must vanish for at least one intermediate value.

EXAMPLES.
1
1. Show that e takes the form 0 or according as x
is very small and positive, or very small and negative. Give
a graphical illustration by tracing the curve
1
y+ 1=e
2. Show that if a rational integral function of a vanish for
n values between given limits, its first and second differential
ccefficients will vanish for at least (n - 1 ) and (n − 2) values of x
respectively between the same limits. Illustrate these results
geometrically.
3. Prove that no more than one root of an equation ƒ(x) = 0
can lie between any adjacent two of the roots of the equation
f' (x)= 0.
4. Establish the result of Art. 179 from the aspect of a
differential coefficient as a measurer of the rate of increase.
5. Show that no algebraic curve ever stops abruptly at a
point.
 TAYLOR'S SERIES. 225

Taylor's Series.

181. From the extreme generality of Taylor's Series

there is much difficulty in giving a rigorous direct
proof.

It is found best to consider what is left after taking

n terms of Taylor's series fromf(x + h). Iftheform ofthis
remainder be such that it can be made smaller than any
assignable quantity when sufficient terms of the series are
taken the difference between f(x + h) and Taylor's Series
for f(x + h) will be indefinitely small, and under these
circumstances we shall be able to assert the truth of the
Theorem.

182. Lagrange- Formula for the remainder

after the first ʼn terms have been taken from
Taylor's Series .

THEOREM.—Ifƒ(x + z) and all its differential coeffi-

cients, viz. f' (x + z), ƒ” (x + 2) , ......ƒn (x + z ), up to
the nth inclusive be finite and continuous between the
values z = 0 and z = h of the variable increment z then
will
h2 hn-1 fn- 1 hn
f(x + h) =f(x) + hf' (x) + 2!
,', ƒ'' (x) + ... + ·(n −- 1) [ƒn−1 (x) + n! fn(x + Oh)

where is some positive proper fraction .

Let
h2 hn-1 hn
f(x + h) =ƒ(x) + hf' (x) + 21ƒ” (x ) + ... + (n
(n −- 1)
1 ) 1ƒ^-1 + n! R... (1 ),
! ƒ^ -1 (x) +2,

R being some function of x and h, whose form remains

to be discovered.
E. D. C. 15
 226 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Consider the function

z2 2n-1 -1 zn
− (x) − zƒ' (x) −- 2!
ƒ(x + 2) −ƒ
-
21 ƒ″ (x) — ... ~ (n
( -~ 1)! fn-1(
1) !ƒ" ~¹ (x) - n!
2 R =4 (2), say ;
then differentiating n times with regard to z (keeping
x constant),
2n-2 n- 1 2n-1
f' (x +2) - ƒ' (x) - zƒ" (x) — ... (n −-2) 1ƒ^~¹ (x) · (n - 1)! R = p' (z),
2n-3 2n-2
f" (x +2) f" (x) -... (x) (n - 2)! R = p"(z),
(n - 3) !
etc. , etc. , etc.
fn-1 (2 + 2) fn - 1 (x ) – zR = 4"-1 (z),
f"(x + 2) - R= 4"(z).

All the functions (z), ' (z)..., pn (z) are finite and
continuous between the values 0 and h of the variable z,
and evidently ( 0), p′ (0), " (0) ..., "-1 (0) are all zero.
Also from equation (1 ) $ (h) = 0. Therefore by Art. 180,
p
' (z) = 0 for some value (h ) of z between 0 and h,
.. " (z) = 0 for some value (h ) of z between 0 and h₁ ,
.. "" (z ) = 0 for some value (h ) of z between 0 and h₂,
and so on ; and finally

p" (z) = 0 for some value (h ) of z between 0 and hn-1 •

Thus fn (x + hn) − R = 0.

Now since hn hn- 1 < hn-2 ... < h₂ < h₂ < h,

we may put hn
h₂ = Oh where 0 is some positive proper
fraction.

Thus R = ƒn (x + 0h).

Hence substituting in equation (1)

h2 hn-1 hn
ƒ(x + h) =ƒ(x) + hƒ
′ (x) + ½ƒ ' (x) + ... + (n −- 1 ) Į ƒn¯¹(x) + n
½  (x + 0h) …………….(2).
 TAYLOR'S SERIES. 227

This method of establishing the result is a modifica-

tion of one due to Mr Homersham Cox (Camb. and
Dublin Math. Journal).

183. If then the form of the function f(x) be such

that by making n sufficiently great the expression
hn
n! fn (x + Oh)

can be made less than any assignable quantity however

small , we can make the true series for f(x + h) differ by
as little as we please from Taylor's form
h2
f(x) + hf' (x) + 2
2+ƒ
! " (x) + ... to ∞ .
The above form of the remainder is due to Lagrange,
and the investigation is spoken of as Lagrange's Theorem
on the Limits of Taylor's Theorem.

184. The corresponding Lagrange- formula for the

remainder after n terms of Maclaurin's Series is ob-
Ꮳ and x for h and becomes
tained by writing 0 for x
xn
·ƒn (Ox),
n!
thus giving
x2 xn-1 xn
f(x) =ƒ(0) + xf
′ (0) + 22;!ƒ” (0 ) + ... + (n − 1){-ƒn−¹ fr (0x).
( 0 ) ++ ~~ ƒn (8x).
' -1 (0)
1) ! f

185. The student should notice the special cases of

equation (2), Art. 182, when n = 1 , 2, 3, etc. , viz.

f(x + h) =f(x) + hf' (x + 0¸h),

h2
2!
f( + h ) = f( ) + hf (c ) + 2f ( + 0 ,h ),
etc.;

all that is known with respect to the in each case

being that it is a positive proper fraction.
15-2
228 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

186. Geometrical Illustration .

It is easy to give a geometrical illustration of the

equation
f(x + h) =f(x) + hf' (x + Oh).
For let x, f(x), be the co-ordinates of a point P on the
curve y =f(x), and let x +h, f(x +h) be the co-ordinates
of another point Q, also on the curve. And suppose
the curve and the inclination of the tangent to the
curve to the axis of x to be continuous and finite
between P and Q ; draw PM, QN perpendicular to OX
and PL perpendicular to QN, then
-
f(x + h) −f(x) _ NQ - MP = LQ
= = tan LPQ.
h MN PL

M N

Also, x + Oh is the abscissa of some point R on the

curve between P and Q, and f' (x + Oh) is the tangent
of the angle which the tangent line to the curve at R
makes with the axis of x. Hence the assertion that
-
f(x + h) −f(x) =ƒ' (x + Oh)
h

is equivalent to the obvious geometrical fact that there

must be a point R somewhere between P and Q at which
the tangent to the curve is parallel to the chord PQ.
 TAYLOR'S SERIES. 229

187. Failure of Taylor's Theorem .

The cases in which Taylor's Theorem is said to fail
are those in which it happens
(1 ) That f(x), or one of its differential coefficients,
becomes infinite between the values of the
variable considered ;
(2) Or that f(x), or one of its differential co-
efficients, becomes discontinuous between
the same values ;
hn
(3) Or that the remainder n ! f (x + Oh) , cannot
be made to vanish in the limit when n is
taken sufficiently large, so that the series
does not approach a finite limit.
Ex. If f(x) =√x,
1
f(x + h) = √x + h, f' (x) = 2x " etc.
Hence Taylor's Theorem gives
1
f(x + h) = √√x + h = √x + ·h + ...
1
If, however, we put x = 0, becomes infinite, while √x + h
2√x
becomes /h.
Thus, as we might expect, we fail at the second term to expand
√hin a series of integral powers of h.

188. In Art. 70 the proof of Taylor's Theorem is

not general, the assumption being made that a con-
vergent expansion in ascending positive integral powers
of x is possible. The above article shews when this
assumption is legitimate.
For any continuous function f(x) in which the (p + 1 )th
differential coefficient is the first to become infinite or
discontinuous between the values x and x + h of the
variable, the theorem
hp
ƒ(x + h) =f(x) + hƒ' (x) + ... + 5 + ƒ³ (x + Oh) ,
230 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

which involves no differential coefficients of higher

order than the pth, is rigorously true, although Taylor's
Theorem,
hp hp+1
f(x+h) =f(x) +hf ' (x) + ...+ ~ ! ƒ³ (x) + (p + 1 ) !¡ƒp+¹
~ (x)+ ...

fails to furnish us with an intelligible result.

189. The remarks made with respect to the failure

of Taylor's Theorem obviously also apply to the par-
ticular form of it, Maclaurin's Theorem, so that Mac-
laurin's Theorem is said to fail when any of the
expressions f(0) , ƒ′ (0) , ƒ''(0 ) , ... become infinite, or if
there be a discontinuity in the function or any of its
differential coefficients as a passes through the value
zero and increases to the value x, or if the remainder
xcn
n! " (Ox) does not become infinitely small when ʼn becomes

infinitely large, for in this case the series is divergent

and does not tend to any finite limit.

EXAMPLES.

1. Prove that
x2 xn -1
a² = 1 + x log, a + 2 ! (log, a)² + ... + (loge a)n-1
(n - 1 )!
+ αθα (log, a)".
n!

[ Here f(x) = a*, fn (x) = a* (log, a)", ƒn (0) = (log, a)",

xn nxnaz (log, a)".
and fr (0x):
n!
Hence the result follows by Art. 184.
The student should notice that
xn az (log, a)n
n!
 EXAMPLES. 231

can be made smaller than any assignable quantity by sufficiently

increasing n. Hence the remainder after n terms of Maclaurin's
expansion have been taken ultimately vanishes when n is taken
very large. Therefore Maclaurin's Theorem is applicable and
gives
x2
a² = 1 + x loge a +2! (log, a)² + ... + to ∞ .]

2. Shew that
a3x3 ნენ anxn Nπ
sin ax = ax - + sin +
3! + 5! n! 2
and that the remainder after r terms may be expressed as
arx
sin ( a0x +
r! ( + 2) .
3. Shew that the remainder after r terms of eax cos bx have
been taken is

(a² +b²)²
xeaex cos (box+ r tan-1
-12).
r! (be a

4. Shew for what values of x and at what differential coeffi-

cient Taylor's Theorem will fail if

ƒ(x) = (x − a)¹º ( x − b) ¹ª (x − c) 3ª
(x- d)5
5. How does Maclaurin's Theorem fail to expand
1
log x, tan-1√x, or e x
1
in ascending positive integral powers of x ? Is e continuous
as x passes through zero ?
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES .

1. A circle is drawn with its centre on a given parabola and

touching its axis, shew that if the point of contact recede
with a constant velocity from the vertex, the rate of increase of
the area of the circle is also constant.
2. If V be the volume of a sphere of radius r and S its sur-
face, shew that
dV
S,
dr
and interpret this equation geometrically.
3. If V be the volume of a cube whose edge is x, and S its
surface, interpret geometrically the equations
dV ds
3x² ; 12x.
dx dx
4. If V be the volume of a rectangular parallelepiped of
edges x, y, z interpret the equations
av av av
дх =yz, მყ =ZX, Əz = xy.
5. Evaluate the limits :

(1) Ltz_x (≈tan 1)* .

a
(2) Lit =co 2 tang

d (ax²+ be +c).
(3) Liz- a dx
ไม่

cos πα π2
6. Prove that Ltx=
e2x - 2ex 2e
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 233

tan (a +x) -tan (a − x)

7. Evaluate Ltx-0 tan-1
- .x) *
−¹ (a +x) — tan− ¹ (a —
1 1 1
8. Prove that Itz-0 2x x
Lions (27-28 tana)-
9. Find the limiting values of the following functions
a sin - sin að
(i) when 0= 0.
(cos - cos α0)
π π
x sin x when x = •
2
(ii) COS X
(iii) (sin x)tanx when x = 0.
√x- √a + √x- a when x =
(iv) α.
x² -a²
πTX
10. Find the intercept made by the curve y = x cot 2α (The
Quadratrix) upon the y-axis.
11. If u= x√x² +a² + a² log (x + √√x² + a²),
du
shew that = 2√x² + α².
dx
a + √a² - y²
12. If x+ √a² - y² = a log
Y
dy y
shew that
dx √a² - y²
d 1, 1, 1, 1
13. Find
dx 1, x, 1, 1
1, 1, x, 1
1, 1, 1, x

14. If y= X, α, b, с
- α, X, C, b
-b, C, X, α
-c, b, α, X

shew that day -

dx2 − 12x² = 4 (a² + b² + c²).
234 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

15. If √1 − x² + √1 − y² =
— a (x − y),
prove that dy √1 - y²
dx √1 - x²
1 1 + x√√√2
XN + x2 1
16. If y= 4√2 log + tan-1 x√2
1 - x2
1 - x√√√2 + x² 2/2
dy = 1
prove that
dx 1 + x¹ ·
Hence expand y in powers of x.
17. If
α1 + aqX Az.x2 +.
y= 1 + +
x − α₁¹ (x − α₁ ) (x -
− α2) † (x − α₁) (x − α2) (x − α3)
to n + 1 terms,
shew that dy_y= a1 a2 ап
dx x α1 - x + a2 XC + ... + an -x

18. Differentiate (x- 1)4 twice with respect to x, and find

(x +2)3
the value of the result when x = 0.

19. If un = cosh” x and v„ = sinh" , prove that

d²un — n²u₂ -− n (n − 1) Un−2 ,
dx2
d2vn
and
dx2 '= n²v₂ + n (n − 1) Vn −2⋅

20. If x = cos logy, shew that ( 1 − x²) Y2 − xY1 = Y.

21. If y= (ax² +bx + c)/( 1 - x),
shew that -
(1 − x) y3 = 3y2
dn d n
22. Prove that dxn (eax . u) = eax (ax +a)" u
dx
dny wher 1
23. Find ey
dxn ´x²+ 6x + 8 *
dn px² +qx+r
24. Shew that
dx (x - a)(x - b)(x - c)
pa² +qa + r
= ( - 1)* η ! Σ
(a - b) (a - c) (x- a)n + 1 °
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 235

dry
25. If y = xm sin X, find dan

d \ " (1 + x)"
26. Shew that
dx) (1-2x)³
= 3n (n + 2) ! n (n − 1) 3n-2 n!
η . 3n -1 (n + 1 )!
2 (1-2x)n +3 (1 − 2x)n +2+
(1-2x) +2 2 (1-2x) +1
dm
27. Shew that dxm x- ¹ (x + 1 ) −¹ ( x + 2 ) -¹ ... (x +n)−¹

nC₁ nCa
= ( - 1)m m ! ( nCo
(x
(x+
n ! {xm +1 + 1)m + 1 +* (x + 2)m + 1¯
nCn
+( − 1 )" }
(x + n)m + 1)
28. If (x) = (1 - x) −1 (1 − cx) -1 (1 - c²x) -1
-¹ ...... to ∞ , where
c is less than unity, shew that
p" (0) = n !/(1 - c) ( 1 − c²) ...... ( 1 − c" ).
29. Prove that if ac >b²,
dn b + cx
dan a +2bx + cx²
n+1
2
= (- 1)" n! COS -1.Vac -b2
(a+ 2bx +cx²) {(n + 1) tan- b + cx
exte - x d2y dy
30. If y= - then x2 +4x +2y = x²y,
x2 dx2 dx
and if n be any even integer,
dn-2y
x2 dry·+ 2nx · an - ly + n (n − 1 )
dxn dxn-1 dxn -2 =x²y.

31. If y = (x - 1 )" , prove

(a) (x² - 1 ) y₁ = 2nxy,
+ 2 + 2xYn + 1 -− n ( n + 1 ) = 0.
(b) (x² - 1 )
dn
Hence if P₁ = A·dxn (x² - 1)", shew that

d dPn
-
dx {(1. x²) dx · + n (n + 1 ) P₂ = 0.
236 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

32. Prove that ea + bx + cx² + dx³ + •••

b2+2c b3 +6bc + 6d
= ea x²+ x3 +
{1+bx + 2! 3! + ...} .

33. If u =ƒ(x), shew that

20 x du 1 2 d2u 1 3 d³u
= u- +
f da 21 ()
2 dx dx2 3! (2 ) dx3 ......

34. If exsin x = Σax , shew that

ПП
sin
dn-3+ 2
an - an-1+ an - 2- [I. c. s.]
1! 2! 3! n!

35. If ex = log (α + α₁x + ¤²x² + ... + anx² + ….. ), prove that

an-1 An- 2 an-3
(n + 1 ) an + 1 = an +- 1! + 2 ! + 3! + + do
n !'

36. If A , A1 , etc. be the successive coefficients in the ex-

pansion of y =ecos mx+sinmx, prove
m n mr Υπ
An +1 = An + An-r COS sin Υπ
n + 1 {An 1r ! 2) } . [I. c. 8. ]

37. Given that

A3
sin log (1 +x):= x + A2 x²+ 23+...
2! 3!

2 ! x² + Bias+
cos log (1 + 2) = 1 + 1 ! x + 3; 3! ...

calculate the first eight coefficients of each expansion.

[M. TRIPOS. ]
38. From the expansion of sin-¹x/√√ 1 x², deduce
/1 −
2 2.4 x2 2
tan-1 = 1 +x2 ( 31 +x² 3.5 ( 4
1 +++
{1 + ) + ...)
Also establish the series
π 1 1.2 1.2 . 3
(a) = 1 + + 3. 5 + 3.5.7 +

2π 1.2 2 1.2 . 3 3
(b) 1+ + 5 + ......
3/3 3.² (1)²++ 3.5 . 7 ( )
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 237

39. Establish the expansions

1 1 1 1.2 11.2.3
= 1+ + + ......
(a) 23 3 3.5 + 43.5.7
-2
π 11 11.2 /1\2 11.2 . 3 3
(b) 9 = 1+ 23 2 + 33. 5 + 43.5.7 +

4π 3 3.6 3.6.9
40. Prove that =1+ + + .....
3/3 6 6.10 6.10.14 + ..
41. Shew that if ƒ(x +h) be expanded by Taylor's Theorem
and then h be put equal to -x, the sum of the first n + 1 terms
may be expressed as
xn +1 dn [ƒ(x)
( −1 )n: n ! đơn
[f(x)].
x3 уз
42. In the curve + ==xy, find the points at which the
α b
tangent is parallel to one of the co-ordinate axes.

43. Find at what angle the circle x² +y² = a (x − y) cuts the

co-ordinate axes.
X ds
44. In the curve y = log coth shew that dx= = coth x.

45. In any curve prove that

r²de
(a) p = ds
rdr
(b) √r² -p² - ds •

46. Find the sine of the angle of intersection of the rect-

angular hyperbola x² - y² = a2 and the circle x² +y² = 4a².
a²x
47. Shew that the points of inflexion on the cubic y = a² +x²
are given by x = 0 and x = ± a√3.
Shew that these three points of inflexion lie on the straight
line x = 4y.
48. If a line be drawn through any point of a given curve
at right angles to the radius vector (and therefore touching the
first negative pedal), then the portion of it intercepted between
the two curves is equal to the polar subnormal of the point on
the original curve through which it is drawn.
dr
What is the geometrical meaning of ?
do
238 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

49. In any curve the radius of curvature of the evolute at a

point corresponding to the point p, r on the original curve is
d dr
√r²- p² 2dp (rar)
dp, .
50. If ρ and p' be the radii of curvature at corresponding
points of a curve and its evolute, and p, q, r are the first, second
and third differential coefficients of y with respect to x, prove
that
p'/p = {3pq² - r (1 +p²)}/q².

51. If p, p' be the radii of curvature at the extremities of

two conjugate diameters of an ellipse, then

(p³ + p'¾) (ab)} = a² +b².

52. The projections on the x-axis of the radii of curvature

at corresponding points of y = log secx and its evolute are equal.
53. In the curve for which
2
(dy = a2m — y2m,
y2m dx =

prove that the normal is m times the radius of curvature.

54. Shewthat there is an infinite series of parallel asymptotes

to the curve (r - b) 0 = a cosec 0, whose distances from the pole
are in Harmonical Progression. Find also the circular asymptote.

55. Shew that the asymptotes of the curve

4 (x++ y¹) -
— 17x²y² — 4x (4y² -
— x²) +2 (x² − 2) = 0
cut the curve in eight points lying upon an ellipse whose eccen-
tricity = √3/2.
56. In the curve 7' COS Va² - b2·0= √ a² - b²,
α
ar
shew that p=
√62+ 2
57. Find the asymptotes of the curves
(1) x4 - y = a²xy.
(2) (x² - 2ax) (x² + y²) = b²x².
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 239

58. Find the asymptotes of the curve

(x − y)² (x − 2y) (x -
− 3y) – 2a (x³ — y³) — 2a² (x +y) (x − 2y) = 0.
59. Determine from the equation
(x - a)3 + 7 (y - b)³ = (x + y - a - b)3,
dy
the values of when x = a, y = b.
dx

60. Find that point on the curve

n
=
α
where the angle which the tangent makes with a radius vector
from the origin has a maximum or minimum value.
61. Find the area and position of the maximum triangle
having a given angle which can be inscribed in a given circle
and prove that the area cannot have a minimum value.
62. If four straight rods be freely hinged at their extremities,
the greatest quadrilateral they can form is inscribable in a circle.
63. Find the triangle of minimum area which can be de-
scribed about a given ellipse, having a side parallel to the major
axis of the ellipse.
Also shew that the triangle formed by joining the points of
contact is an inscribed triangle of maximum area.
64. A tree in the form of a frustum of a cone is n feet long
and the greater and less diameters are a and b feet respectively,
shew that the greatest beam of square section that can be cut
na
out of it is feet long.
3(a - b)

65. Find the maximum radius vector of the spiral

r cosh 0 = α.

66. Investigate the maximum value of cos m.r.cosmx.

67. Investigate the maxima and minima of

cos x +cos 2x + cos 3x.

68. Find the maximum and minimum values of ex cos x and

trace the curve y = ex cos x.
240 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

69. The corner of a leaf is turned down, so as just to reach

the other edge of the page ; find when the length of the crease
is a minimum ; also when the part turned down is a minimum.

70. If the angle C of a triangle ABC be acute and constant,

prove that sin² A +sin² B is a maximum and cos²A +cos2B a
minimum, when A = B.
71. Shew that the shortest normal chord of the parabola
y2 =4ax is 6a /3 and its inclination to the axis is tan-¹√2.
72. Find the maximum value of
((1) when a >b,
(x− α)² (x -− b),
((2) when a < b.
What happens if a =b ? Illustrate your answers by diagrams
of the curve
-α)² (x —b)
y= (x −
in the three different cases. [ I. c. 8.]
73. Prove that the pedal equation of the envelope of the
4
line x cos 20+y sin 20 =2a cos 0 is p2 = (r² -
— a²).

74. A square slides with two of its adjacent sides passing

through two fixed points. Shew that its remaining sides touch
a pair of fixed circles, one diagonal passes through a fixed point,
and that the envelope of the other is a circle.

75. The tangent at any point P of a parabola meets the

tangent at the vertex in Q, and the normal at P meets the axis
in R: find the envelope of QR.

76. Ellipses of given eccentricity e, have for their major

axes parallel chords of a circle of radius c. Shew that their
- e2
envelope is an ellipse whose eccentricity is 2 - e2 *
x ex + 1
77. Shew that the expansion of 2 ex 1 is

x2 X6
1+ B B + B 6! B +
1 1 1
where BB
B3 30BB
, 42 , 30', etc.
[These numbers are called Bernoulli's numbers.]
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 241

78. Shew that if

X3 x5
tan x = S₁ + S 5! ......
1! + S3 3!

22n (22n − 1) .
then San- 1 =
-Ban - 1 2n

79. Shew that

x2 24 2.6
secx= 1 + S₂ 2 ! + SA4! + S6 6! +

where S = 1, .S = 5, S - 61, etc.

[These numbers are called Euler's numbers. ]

X x2 x3
80. If secx + tan x = 1 + S₁ 1! + S₂ 2! + S3 3! +

prove
p (p - 1) Sp - 2S2
(a) Sp+ 1 = Sp + 1.2
+P (p - 1) (p - 2) (p - 3) ,Sp-4S₁ + ....
1.2.3.4
(which when p is even expresses any Bernoulli's number in terms
of lower order Euler's numbers).

P (p- 1) p (p - 1) (p - 2) (p - 3)
(b) Sp - 1.2 Sp- 2 + 1.2.3.4 Sp-4

π n T
+ cosP = si P
2 2

(c) S₁ = 1, S1, S = 2, S4 = 5, S = 16, S - 61,

S = 272, S = 1385, S = 7936, etc.
2p+2p ! p+1 p+1
.
Sp==
(d) 8, -2x+15 ! {( 1)*** + ( -3)**' + (†)***
p +1 p+1
+ +

E. D. C. 16
242 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

(e) Deduce the several results

1 1 1 π
1 + - +
3 5 7
1 1 1
1+ + + +
32 52 72
1 1 - 1 П3
1
33 + 53 73 32
1 1 1
1+ + +
34 54 74 + 96
1 1 1 Επό
1 -~ + - +
35 55 75 1536
etc.
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES.

CHAPTER I.

PAGE 5.

1. (a) ∞
co , (b) 21/2, ((c) ∞ . 2. (i) (ii) %.
b α
3. 3a², 4a³, 5a³/2. 4. 5. – 1.
d" с
3
7. ∞ , 0, 0, -1, -∞ , ∞ , 0, ∞ . 8.
2' 2'

PAGE 11.
m
1. logьa. 2. 3. 5. 4.
ྃ་ n n
312

6. 4. 7. 2. 8. 1. 9. 10.
183

2
1
11. 12. 13. 1. 14. 1. 15.
3 6 15
11 13 2 1
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 1.
6' 60 3 2
21. ∞ . 22. 1. 23. e- 24. 0. 25. e-¹. 26. ež.

CHAPTER II.
PAGE 16.
1. Y - y =3x² (X- x). 2. Y- y =4x³ (X - x).
3. 2√ (Y- y) = X - x. 4. Y - y = (2x + 3x²) (X - x).
5. Y − y = cosx (X − x ). 6. Y - y = e* (X − x).
7. (Y- y) = X - x. 8. Y- y =sec² x (X − x) .
9. Xx + Yy = c². 10. Xx/a² + Yy/b² = 1.
16-2
244 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

PAGE 17.
1. 2. 2. 1. 3. 3. 4. 6.x. 5. -1/x².
6. -1/x². 7. -2/x3. 8. a/2√√x. 9. x/ √x² + a².
10. e√12 √√√x. 11. esin x COS X. 12. tan x.
13. sin x + x cos x. 14. (x cos x - sin x)/x². 15. x* (log x + 1).

CHAPTER III.

PAGE 27.
1. x² (3 sin x +x cos x) ; (3 + x) x²e¤ ; x² (3 log。x + 1) ;
x² (3 tan x +x sec² x) ; x² (3 log, sin x + x cot x).
2. x³ (4 - x cot x) cosec x ; (x cos x - 4 sin x)/x5; (cos x - sin x)/ex;
ex (sin x - cos x) cosec² x.
ex ( log. + 1) ;; sin x (2 +tan² x) .
3. sec² x log, sin x + 1 ; e²
4. xe* sin (3 ++ cotx) ; tan a logea + x sec x loge + tan .
5. x²e-* { (3 - x) sin x +x cos x} ; x²e-* cosec x { 3 - x - x cotx} ;
- (3 + x + x cotx)/x¹ex sin x.
6. (sin x + 2x cos x) / √x; 3 (2x sec²x -tanx)/ 2x³ ; 2e¤ (2x -− 1)/x‡.
7. e* (2x + 6x + 2x + 1) /2x ; e≈ log, x (x² + 5x³ + 3x²) + ex (x³ + x²).

PAGE 30.
COS X 1
1. 3e³x ; -e-* ; 3 sin² x cos x; ;
2 N sin x 2x√√loge x
sec² x cos√√x
;
2 N tan x 2 √x
2. esinxcos x ; e tan x sec²x ; 3x²ex³ ; e√≈12√x ; 1.
1 3
3. cot x; 2 cosec 2x ; 20 x
2 ;
cos (log x) sec² (logex) cos (log.x)
x ; x 2x √sin ( logex)
cotx
Cos√√x
;
X
4 √ √sin √x' 2√x
√ez 1
5. cot√ē ; sec² log, sin eV.cote .e •
2√√√
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 245

CHAPTER IV .
PAGE 32.
1. 1 ; 10x9 ; -x-2 ; -10x-11 ;
1
; ; x - x-
2x2 3x3
1 1 1 1
2. n (x + a)x−¹ ; nx™-¹ ; 2+ ;
2 x 2 (x + a) } *
(x+ a)²;
3. na (ax + b)n−¹ ; naxn−1 ; na²x²- 1 ; na (x + b)n−1 ; an .
x2 x3 x4
4. 1 + x + + + +
3 ! 4!
5. - (15a +11b x)/12c √x ; √al√x (√a - √x)² ;
2 Ja/3 Jx² (Ja - x)² ; a/(a− x)‡ (a + x)¹ ; 2a/3 (a − x)³ (a + x)³.
6. (a − c) { bx² + 2 (a + c) x + b} ;;
(cx² + bx + a)3
(x + a)p−¹ (x + b)q−¹ { (p + q) x + pb + qa} ;
(x+ a)p-1
(x+b)q+1° {(p - q) x + pb - qa}.

PAGE 34.
cosh x ; 3e3x
1. 22 ; -e-* ; nent ; sinh ;
1 1 a 2ax + b 2 4x (logxa)2
2.
2x ' x+ a ' ax+b ; ax² + bx + c² с 1 - x² ; 1 - x4 ; x log, a
1 1 ' (x)
3. ex p' (ex) ; x p' (log x) ; ;
2√√√ (x)
n[ (a +x)] -1 ' (a + x) ; n (a + x) " ¹ p' [(a + x)"].
4. log (x + a) + x 1 a ] ;
ex [108
xn- ¹ ex (x + n) ; ( 1+ log a) ax . ex ; 2* log, 2 ; 1º.
1 + ex 1 ex -
5. ex
x+ex ; <+ x= )² (x log x − 1 ).
( logg x)²
/; x (lo
x+ 1
6. ex log.log ex ;
X ; log ex.

PAGE 35.
COS √√x
1. 2 cos 2x ; n cos nx ; n sin^-1 x cos x ; n cos x² ..x
: n−1 ;
2√x
246 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

cos x 1 sin x cos xevssinx

2. ; cotx ; cot √x ; cos xe ;
4√x√sin 2√x 2 /sin x
sinm-1 x
3. sinm-1 x cos”−1 x (m cos² x − n sin² x) ; Cogn+1 x (mcos2x + n sin²x);
n³xn−1 sin^-1 (nx²) cos (nx²) ; eªx (a sin bx + b cos bx).
4.
2 (cos 2x + 2 cos 4x – 3 cos 6x) ; sin x (sin 3x + 3 sin x) /sin² 3x.

5. (sin 2x + 2 sin 4x +3 sin 6x) ;

- cos² ax . cos¹ bx . cost cx (ap tan ax + bq tan bx + cr tan cx).

PAGE 38.

2
1. 2x sec x² . tan x² ; 2x sec² x²;
x x4-1
2x
1 +24 2x sin x² ;
√2-x2
1 1
2. ; ex sec2 e*; 2 cosec 2x ; ; - 2 cosec 2x.
2 cosh x (1 +x2) tan-1x
1 1 a 2
3.
2ax - x² ' √a (2− a ) + 2x (1 -
− a) – x² ' a² + x² 1 + x2 *

4. - cos x/2 √covers x ; pqx²-¹ tan x-1 xª . sec² x² ;

x
pqxr-1 (tan-1 x²) −¹/(1 + x² ) ; log tan-¹x+
(1 +x²) tan− ¹ x
tan x 1
5. sec²x.sin-¹x +
√1 -x2 sin x sin2x - cos² x
sin x 1
ex sin-1x +
1+ cos² x (sin-1

PAGE 42 (first set).

sin x
1. xsinx
x + cosr.log );
x
(sin−¹ x) * (log sin−¹ x+ ; xx²+1 log ex² ; 2x2x log ex.
sin-1x . 1 - x2/
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 247
cos2 x
2. (sin x)cos x ( sin x sin x log sin x)
x

х cos x log cos x- sin2 x

+ (cos x)sinx (co Cos x
1
(tan x)x (log tan x + 2x cosec 2x) + xtan x sec² x log x + x tan x).
x
1
3. tan x.logx.ex.xx. √x ( 2 cosec 2x + + 2 + log x + 2.x
x log x

PAGE 42 (second set).

3 1 1 1 1
1. 2. 3.
1 + x2' 1 + x² * 21 + x2 *
2 x 2
5. 1. 6. 7. 8. -
√1 -x²* √1+22° 1 + x² *
3 x²- 2x - 2x + 1 2 x² - 1
9. 10. · 11. 12.
- 2x¹ (1 + x) (1 + x²) 1 - x2

PAGE 46.
22
1. - 2. - xn-1 3. y
y2 . yn-1 x (y - 1)
y 2x2-1 x2log · 6. yxv-1 + yx log y
4. 5. y2 log
x 2y2-1 ' xyx −1+ x* log

PAGE 47.
1-n 1-n
x² + 2x - 2 n 2x n
"
1. 2. (a + x)
(a- 3. a²
·(a² + x²)
(x + 1)2 n
1 3x + x³ x4-2a2x²+ 4a¹
5. 6.
(1 − x) ³ (1 + x) ³ (1+ x²) (x² — a²)† (x² — 4a²) ¹´
2 + 2x - x2 2 (1 - x2)
7. 8.
1 + x² + x* *
2 (1 − x) ³ (1 + x + x²)‡
1 π
9. 10. cos xo.
{1+(logx) } * 180
sin ex log√cot x 2tan-1 ex
11. cos ex.ex. log x + 12. cosh x
x sin 2x
248 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
sinh t 2 cosec 2x
13. co i.e. tanh x. 14.
sh x /2log cot x -− (log cot x)²°
COS X 1 1
15. 16. 17.
1 + sin² x

18. (sin-1x)m-1 (cos-¹ x)^-1 (m cos-¹ x − n sin−¹ x).

√1 - x2
19. cos (ex log x) ex log (xe*) √1− (log x)² 1
log xx
- sin (ex log x)
√1- (log x)²
nx ex
20.
() { nlog
(108 ) +1}.
ab x ах
21. tan-1
a² + x2
a2 +x2 (tan-12)
( tan-1 *

cos -1 x - -1
22. 23. a sin (a cosec x) · 24. √62- a2
X x² - 1 b + a cos x
(1- z2) 》
25. 2e tan -1x flog sec x³ + 3x2 tan12087.
1 + x2
b
26. eax
** fa cos (b (ò tan~* x)
;) - 1__
+ x2 sin (b tan¹ )) .

27. xa** (2+ cx loge a) 28. x loga e sin (loga √a² +x²)
1 + x4a2cx (a² + x²) cos² (loga √a² +x²)
29 . 2 1 1
30. • 31.
1 − x4 ° x log x x log x log² x log³ x ……. log²-¹ x'
1 1 1
32 . 33. 34. 10.1010* (loge 10)2.
a +bcos x 1 - x2 2 X-
1
35. ex . eex. 36. exx.xx.log (ex). દ
37. x* . *log( xe).
2 x
38. xx* . xx • 39. xx log (ex) - x log
· {(log x)² + log x ++} .
40. - (cotx) cotx cosec² x log (e cot x) + (cosh x) cosh≈ sinh x log (e cosh x).
sin x
ই acxxsinx 2
41. g (aacx cos xe
e
1 + x 1 + a2cx x2 sin x lo (
1-2x+
+tan-1 (acxxsinx)
2x (1 + x )²
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 249

1e tan - 1x
42.
√1-2tan x 1 + x2
m m m
(ain +oos ) (1 - sin +c ) x²
43.
m m
cos
21 + 008 )(1 - sin x

44. √1- x2-2 √x

4 √√√x √1 -− x² √ √x + cos−¹x ( 1+ √x + cos−¹ x)
1+√√√x sin ex²
45. y 2xex cos ex² log
y [ aze 1 + 2√√√x 2√x (1+ √x) (1 + 2 √x).
46. -y cot x (1 + 2 cosec² x log cos x).
flog cot-¹x 1
47. -y x2 x (1 +x2) cot-1 x

48. x+1 11 +
log I
( 1 + 1)* {10g {x +1 - log x}.
x+ 1/
49. x² +y2 - ay
a 50. cosx . cos 2x . cos2y . e cos² x.
(x² +y²) sec² 3 − bx

51. ax +hy • n a ytan x + log sin y •

52. 53.
hx + by 2x a +bxn log cos x − x coty
54. 55. yx- y · 56. y2
x (3 +2tan log x +tan² log x).
xx+y x - xy log x
57. y log y 1 +x log x log y 58. y {(a + bx) y - bx2}
x log x 1 - x log y x (y - x) (a + bx)
59. ax + hy + g
• 60. y.
hx +by +f X
61. 6x² (1+ y²) tan x³ etan¯¹y 63. log10 e
1+ y² - log sec²x³ etan¯¹ y • 2x2
64. - (1 + a² cos² bx) (x² + ax + a²)n−1
x
ab sin bx.
[n (2x + a) log cot- cosec x (x² +ax + a²)] /a
112

xsin-1 x 66.
65. zeta- * (log = + √1- sin -¹z).
12

1 √1 + x² + N 1 - x2
67. 68. 69. 70. 1.
- х
250 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

2n +3
n (1 +x2) tan-¹ x log tan-¹ x +x
71. 2 х 2
(1 + x²) tan-¹x (√√x cos √x- 3 sin √x)
e-x3 824 + 5x5
80.
4z³ +x² 2xz x2z - 1 − ( 5z¹ + 4x³) sec−¹ x 2

85. 1 - 2 [Deduce from first result of 83 by putting ex

log x x² - 1' for x, then using exponential values and writing
z for e*, or otherwise . ]
x +2 (y - 2) + y +2 (z -
− x) + z +² (x − y) and then
86. (b) Prove H₂ -
x2 (y - 2) +y2 (z - x) +22 (xy) differentiate.

CHAPTER V.
PAGE 55.
(-1)nann! n! bn.n!
1. 2. 3.
(ax+ b)n+1 ° (a− x)n+1 ° (a −- bx)n+1 •
(-1)n-1abn-¹n!
4. 5. (-1)n (bc - ad) cn-¹n !
(a + bx)n+1 (cx + d)n+1
(-1)"a²n!
6. (n> 1) . 7. ( −1)n(n + 3) !
(x − a)n+1 3! (x + a) +
1.3.5... (2n - 3) 1
8. ( -1) -1 2n 2n - 1
(x+ a) 2
3.8.13.18 ...(5n - 2) (-1)n
9.
5n 5n+3 . 10. ( -1) -1.pan (n − 1) !
(ax + b)n
(x + a) 5
11. COS x+ cos
{008 ( + 2 ) - 3 - c08 ( 3x + 2 ) } .
ex n n
12. 22 cos
(2008 ( + 4 ) - 10 coa (3x + n tan-¹3)}
tan−13) .
n
13. {1-52cos (2x +n tan-¹2)} .
ea x n
14.
{a² +(a² + 489)³ coa ( 26x +n tan - 12 )}.
2 {an.
пп
2n sin ( 2x + 6x
15. 4 (2 sin ( 22 + ) + 4" sin (4+ 2 ) - 6n sin (6+ 2 )} .
e3x n n
16. пп
16 ( 2. (10 ) com ( 2 + 1 tan- 1 ) - ( 18 ) cos (3r + 4 )
n
- (34) cos (5x +ntan-1
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 251

17. 4x
{21 sin ( 22+ ) - 4-1 sin · ( 42 + "2 )} .·
n
18. 52 sin (2x + n tan-12) – ( 17 ) sin (4x + ntan-
4 an -14)} .

PAGE 57.

1 1
1. (-1) 2-1n !
( (2x − 1)n+1 ¯¯ (2x + 1)n+¹]
1
2. ( -1)" . 2″n ! sin (n + 1) @ sinn+10, where tan 0:= 2x ·
- 1
3. ( -1 )n-1 (n − 1) ! ( 1
2 (x + a)" (x - a)"[
1 1 2
4. (-1)"n!
4a³ − a)n+i (x + a)n+1 ~ an+1 sin (n +1 ) sin"+¹0
_(x - 可
where xa cot 0.
(-1)"n! 1 1
a² - b2 2a (x - a)n +1 (x + a) n+1 n
1
2b {(x- bjn+ 1 (x + bjn+1} ].
(-1)^n ! [sin (n + 1) p sin²+1 sin (n + 1 ) 0 sin”+1 f″
6.
a² -b2 bn+2 an+2 7,
where x=a cot 0 = b cot p.
7. 2 ( -1 )n-1 (n -
− 1) ! sin në sin^ e , where x = cot 0.
π
COS
(-1)n . 2n+2n ! 008 (8 + 6
1)
8. n+2 sin (n + 1) 0 sin"+¹ 0, where x = sin
32
( -1 )n2n+1n !
9. n+2 { sin (n + 1) 0 sin²+¹ @ -− sin (n + 1) ø sin”+¹µ} ,
32
π
COS COS
0 ( 0-5 ) =000 (1 (中++ 5 ))
where x=
sin sin

10. ( -1)" n ! sin (n + 1 ) 0 sin²+¹0 -

– sec²+2 — sin (n + 1) ø sin²+1,

COS
008 ( +1)
where x=cot 0 = sin
252 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

PAGE 60.

1. ex(x + n). 2. an-2eax {a²x² + 2nax + n (n − 1)} .

3. 2 (-1) n-1(n - 3)!
x -2
пп
4.
2²ain (2 + ) + 2wzsin (z + 21 ) ++ n ( - 1) sin¤((xx +¹-2 + 1 ″).
)
5. eax (Psin bx + cos bx), where P+ iQ = (a + b)n.
n!
6.
(x + 1)n+1 ·
7. ( -1)n-1 (n - 2) ! sin"-10 cos e cos no { n tan - tan no} , where
x= cot 0.
-
8. ( -1)n-1 (n − 3) ! sin^-20 { (n - − 1) (n -
− 2) sin në cos²0
– 2n (n -
− 2) sin (n − 1 ) 0 cos 0 + n (n − 1) sin (n - 2) 0 } , where x = cot 0.

PAGE 63.
1. y = (16x4 - 12) sin x² - 48x2 cos x².
2. y =x sin x - 4 cos x. 3. Y = -8ex cos x.
4. Yn = an¬³¸ax { a³x³ + 3na²x² + 3n (n − 1) ax + n (n − 1) (n − 2) } .
(-1) n ! ((c - a) (c - b) - (d - a) (db))
10. Yn = c - d
(x − c)n+1 (x - d)n+1
(n + 2 ) (n + 1)
11. Yn = ( - 1) −¹n ! + (n+ 1)
2 (x − 1)n+3 (x - 1)n+2
1 1
+
(x − 1)n+¹ ¯¯¯ (x -
− 2)n+¹f
1
12. y3 = n (n - 1) (n - − 2) xn−3 log x + n + n- 1 + 1 )
n- 2
1 1
{log = + + 2+ + ... + ገ
8Yn = n !! {log.x.
n !
Yn+1 = X

(-1)nn! sinn+10 cosecn

14. Yn n+3 { COSOC +1 (0 + 1 )
32

+ 2n+2
+ 2× 13 sin ( n + 18 − ) } , where z + 1 = √3 sin ( +7) / sin 0.
15. Yn = ( - 1 )" n ! sinn+¹0 { sin (n + 1) 0 -
− cos (n + 1) 0
+ (sino + cos 0) -n-1} , where = cot-¹x.
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 253

(-1 ) n! ((n + 1) (n + 2) , 3 (n + 1)
16. Yn = + -
(x- 1)n+3 (x − 1)n+2
1
+
1 1 -1
2 (x - 1)n+1 2 (x + 1)n+1)

CHAPTER VI.

PAGE 68.
8. ³+
x3 +24+
+ 2 ....

9. (a) tan-1P − qx tan-1? - tan-1x- etc.

q + px q
3x - x3
(b) tan-1 1-3x2 = 3 tan-1x = etc.
2x
(c) sin -1 1+x2=2 tan-¹x = etc.
x- x-1
(d) cos-1 x +x-1 = 2 cot- ¹x = π- 2 tan -¹x = etc.

CHAPTER VII.

PAGE 89.
8. 0027 of an inch.

CHAPTER VIII.

PAGE 95.

Tangents.
1. (1) Xx + Yy = c². (2) Yy = 2a (X + x).
X Y
(3) 2 = 2. (4) Y −y = sinh- (X − a ).
x + y1 = 2
(5) X (2xy + y²) + Y (x² + 2xy) = 3a³ .
(6) Y- y = cotx (X - x).
− ay) + Y (y² -
(7) X (x² - − ax) = axy.
(8) X {2x (x² +y²) - a²x} + Y {2y (x² + y²) + a²y} = a²(x² - y³) .
Normals.
X -x
(1) =Y (2)
Y - Y - 0 , etc.
2a y
254 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Tangents are Y= ± 3√3

³¹8 -a
8
2.
Normals are Y ==·8√√3 X + 41 a.
9 36

4. (a) ĮParallel at points of intersection with ax + hy = 0 .

(Perpendicular at points of intersection with ha + by = 0.
(Parallel at a 3a 3/2
(8) (
- 3/2' 2
(Perpendicular where x = = 0.
4a
α
(7) (Parallel at (4ª3 , 2№4a).
3
(Perpendicular at (0, 0), (2a , 0).
X y
Tangent, - a cos 0+ sin 0 =1.
5. (a)
Normal, ax sec - by cosec = a² — b².
0 0 0
Tangent, x sin 2 - y cos 2
al sin
2
(8) 0 0
Normal, x cos 2 +y sin 2 = al cos 2 + 2a sin 2'
A +B A+B A- B
Tangent, x sin 2B 0 - y cos 2B 0= (A + B) sin 2B -0.
(7) A +B A+B A- B
Normal, x cos 2B 0+y sin 2B 0= (A - B) cos 2B -0.

6. For an ellipse, r² = a2 cos² 0 + b² sin²0.

For a rectangular hyperbola, r² = a² cos 20.
1-1- 1 - 1
7.
α b a' b' 9 i.e. they must be confocal.
9. The axes are tangents at the origin. Also at the point (2³a, 2¾a)
the tangents to the parabolas make angles tan-123, tan-12-3
respectively with the tangent to the Folium.
PAGE 96.
2. (a) ax = ± by, (B) x = 0 and y = 0, (y) ax = ±y √b²- a².
PAGE 101 .

1. c4√√x + y6. 8. area =

9. n= - 2 ; n = 1.
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 255

PAGE 110.
1 a
1. At x = 2 ± 6. Where x = ±
√3
12. If normal =y3/b2, subtangent = b²y/ √y* — b*,
subnormal =y √yª — bª/b².
π π
19. 20.
4

CHAPTER IX.

PAGE 117.
1. y= x; y = 2x ; y = 3x. 2. y = x ; y = ± (2x − 1).
3. y + x = 0; y + 1 = ± x√3.
4. y = x ; y + x + 1 = 0 ; y + 2x + 2 = 0 ; y + 3x + 3 = 0.
5. 2x + 3y + 1 = 0 ; 3x + 4y + 1 = 0 ; 4x + 5y + 1 = 0.

PAGE 118.
1. y + x = 0 ; y −x = 0 ; y - x = 1 .
2. y + x = 0 ; y - x = 0 ; y - x = 1 ; y − x = 2. 3. y ±x = ± 1.

PAGE 125.
2a
1. x +y = 3 ་ 2. x + y = 0. 3. x + y = 0.
4. y = 0. 5. x=0. 6. x = 2a.
7. x + y + a = 0. 8. x = 0 ; y = 0 ; x + y = 0. 9. y = 0.
10. x= ± α. 11. x = a; y = a ; x = y. 12. x= ± α.
13. x = 0. 14. x = a . 15. x = ± 1 ; y = x.
m
16. x =0 ; y = ± x + · 17. x + 2y = 0 ; x + y = 1 ; x − y = − 1.
2
18. x =0 ; x - y = 0 ; x − y + 1 = 0. 19. y = 0 ; x = y ; x = y ± 1.
20. x - 2y = 0; x + 2y = ± 2 . 21. x + y = ± 2√2 ; x + 2y + 2 = 0.
22. y = 3x - 2a ; x + 3y = ± a.

PAGE 126.
x2 y2 = 1.
1. x³ − 6x²y + 11xy² — 6y³ = x. 3.
a2 b2
256 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

PAGE 129.
1. 0=0. 2. r sin 0 =a.
3. nr sin = a sec kπ, where k is any integer.
(0 - km):
4. r sin @ = a. 5. r cos 0 =2a.
π
6. r sin @ =
0=2,2' 2

7. r sin ( 0 - b " where k is any integer.

(0- km) n
8. no kπ, where k is any integer.

PAGE 130.
a a
1. x=y . 2. x-y = 5 3. x − y = 5
°
4. x= ± 1, y = x. 5. x= a. 6. x = 1, x = 2, y = 0.
7. x = 2, y = 1, y = x + 1. 8. y = 0, y = 2x.
9. x +y = ± √√√a² - 6²/2. 10. x= ± α.
11. y - x + a = 0, y + x - a = 0. 12. x= y + 2.

13. x = 2, y - x = 0. 14. x + 2y = ± 120100

b b
15. x = 0, y --xx.√a =- 9 y + x√a =
2 Ja 2√a
16. 3x +4y = 0, y -2x = 0, y -2x + 3 = 0.
17. 3x +4y = 0, y −2x + 1 = 0, y −2x + 2 = 0.
18. y = x, y -2x + 1 = 0, y - 2x + 2 = 0.
π b π
19. r sin (2k + 1 ) ;
2a o} =-cosec
a (2k + 1) 2' where k is any integer.
{(2k.
20. r sin 0 = 2a, r = a. 21. r sin (1 ± 0) + 2 =0, r = a.
a
22. r cos 0=a. 23. cos e sin 0.
2r

CHAPTER X.

PAGE 141.
1. p = a ; p = a cos y; p = 3a sec¹ sin ; p = a sec y.
X
2. p = (1 + 9x4)³/6x ; p = y²/c ; p = a sec a. 3. p = a.
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 257

PAGE 150.
1. p= 2r |a¹ ; p = a/2 ; p = am/ (m + 1) pm–1¸
2. p = a (0² + 1)¾/04 ; p = a (0² + 1 )³ /( 0² + 2) ; p = a/2.

PAGE 158.

1. (a) p = 5√5/6. (b) p = 5 /5/22.

(c) p = - √2/2 and p = 5√5/18.
3a√√√2
(d) p = 15a√√5/14 and p= 2
11. x= 7 and x = 1.

CHAPTER XI.

PAGE 165.
2. 256y3 + 27x¹ = 0. 3. a4/x² + b+/y² = c4/a².
1 x2 u2 5. (i) 4x³ + 27ay2 = 0 ;
4. y +29 u2 = 2g
(ii) y² = 4h (a + h − x) .
6. y² +4a (x - 2a) = 0. 7. Two straight lines.
8. A parabola touching the axes.

PAGE 168.
1. 27ay2 = 4 (x -
– 2a)³. 2. (ax)³ + (by)³ = (a² -
— b²)‡.
3. (a) x² +4ay = 0, (8) 4x³ + 27ay2 = 0, (y) (p - − 1) -¹x² + рPayp―1 = 0.
2 2 2
+ y²²n_
4. (n) x² +y2- ' ; (a) , (B) , (y), etc. being special cases, their
answers may be at once tested by this result.
n n n
5. (7) rm-n.= am-n cos m - n 0; and the results of (a) and (8) may be
verified by this result.
6. (a) r² = a² cos² 0 + b² sin²0 ; (B) r cos 0+ a sin20 = 0 ;
(y) x + a= 0 ; (8) r+ = (2a) ³ cos ;
(e) The auxiliary circle ; (5) r² = a² cos 20;
2 n n
(n) rª = a³ cos²10 ; (0) rn+1 = an+1 cos +160.
' 3 &; n+1
7. Similar loci to the results of 6 but of twice the linear dimensions.
E. D. C. 17
258 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

8. (a) a parabola; (B) a point ;

(y) a conic with focus at the pole and of which the given circle
is the auxiliary circle ;
(8) a circle through the pole ; (e) a circle ;
(S) a rectangular hyperbola ; (n) an equiangular spiral ;
n n n
(0) rl = _al cos 1120.
-n

9. (a) √x + √ÿ = √c; (8) x + y = ci ;

(m + n)m+n xmyn = cm+n¸
(7) mm.nn
2n 2n 2n
10. (a) x + y = ± c ; (B) xn+2 + yn+2 = cn+2 ;
(m + n)m+n · c2m y2n = c2m+2n
(2) mmnn
n n n
11. (a) x³ + y³ = c³ ; =
(8) x² +1 +ya +1_c2n+1 ;
(m + n)2(m+n)-xmyn = cm+n¸
(2)m2m.n²n
mp mp mp
12. xm+p +ym+p = cM+P. 15. A circle.

CHAPTER XII.
PAGE 182.
1. A parabola with focus at the origin.
2. A conic with focus at the origin. 3. A circle.
n
1 n k2n +1 n
4. r - k2 \ sec Ꮎ. 5. pn+l. sec 0.
2a 3 a n+1
n
'k2\ m +n mmnn n (k² \ n-
6. xmyn = (122)
a
7. + y' = a
(m + n)m+n
m M 2m
8. (ax)m-1 + (by)m—1 — = km−1¸

CHAPTER XIII.

PAGE 196 .
14. Area = 2ab. 15. a³/27. 16. abc/3 /3.
17. 4a³/27. 18. pºq⁹a +q/(p + q)p+q. 20. 3/3/8.
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 259

21. If a > b Max. = a, Min. = b)

If a < b Max. = b. Min. = a) '
1
24. If a and b are the sides the maximum area == 2 (a + b)².

25. SA Max. when chords coincide with Transverse Axis and Lat. Rect.
A Min. when chords are equally inclined to Transverse Axis.

PAGE 204.
5. Max. value = 34, Min. = 33.
8. x = −2, −1, 1 , 2 give Max. and Min. alternately.
9. At x = 1, y = Max.; x = 3, y = Min.
At x = 2 and x =4 there are points of contrary flexure.
4
10. At x = 2, y = Min. At x = y =Max.

PAGE 206.
1
1. (a) Max. for x = 2-- ; Min. for x = 2 +
3
(b) x = 1 , 2, 3 give respectively a Minimum, a Max. , and a Min.
26+a
(c) If a > b x = a gives a Min.; x = 3 gives a Max.
2b +a
If a <b xa gives a Max.; x = gives a Min.
3
(d) If a > b, the positive value of y is a Max. when x = (a + 4b)/5.
The negative value is a minimum. Also when x = a, y = 0
and there is a maximum ordinate for the portion of the curve
beneath the x-axis, and a minimum ordinate for the portion
above the axis.
If abthe point (a, 0) is an isolated point upon the curve.
2. (a) The greatest and least values are respectively ± √a² +b².
( Max. = a , If a < b (Max. = b,
(b) If a>b
Min . = b. |Min. = a.
a+ b
(c) r2:- 2 ± √√(a - b)² +4h² .
c2
(d) Max .:= a+b when tan = ±
√.
(e) Min. = a + b.
260 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

π 3 3п
(ƒ) 0 = tan-1 2 π - tan-1 √3 T+tan-1 N
2 2 2 2'

2π - tan-1 √3 give maxima and minima alternately.

3. (a) x = 1 gives a minimum, x = ( + √17 − 1)/8 gives a maximum and

x= ( - √17-1)/8 a minimum.
(b) x = 0 gives a minimum, x = ± √√3 give maxima.
π 5п
(c) x = nπ + 6 give maxima, x = nπ + 6 give minima.
(d) xe gives a maximum.
Επ
(e) The solutions of x= n + 1 ' where k is any integer, give maxima
and minima alternately, beginning with k = 1 ; omitting when
n is even those solutions for which k is zero or a multiple of
n + 1.

4. (a) The roots of (a− 1 ) (0 - 22 = h².

1 )==

(b) Min. value = 2c /ab.

α
(c) Max. and Min. values respectively = ± 2 sin 2

(d) Max. and Min. values respectively = 1 ± cos a.

5. 1P- p. 6. ар " aq
p +q ' p + q
7. A Max. when the segment is a semicircle.
A Min. when the radius is infinite.
14. If height of cone be h and semivertical angle = a, Max. Volume
4
of Cylinder := Th3 tan2 a.
27
20. Half the triangle formed by the chord and the tangents at its
extremities, or three-fourths of the area of the segment.

CHAPTER XIV.

PAGE 212 .
112
21

a 3
1. loga. 2. 3. • 4. 5. 1.
2
2
6. 7. 4. 8. 9. 10.
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 261

PAGE 217.
1 3
1. a. 2. 3. 0; 00 . 4. 1. 5.
3'

PAGE 219 .

1. 2. 2. 3. 2. 5.
a
4m³ 1
6. 4. 7. m - 8. 9. e. 10. 1.
3
11. If n > m, ∞o ; n = m, ; n < m, 0. 12. 1. 13. 1 .

1
14. Ja. 15. 16. α==-2 ; Limit = -1 .
6
17. а₁ = −4; α = 5 ; Limit = 1 . 18. a₁ = -4; a = 3 ; Limit = 8.
1 1 4
19. a1 = - a2 = 2; a = 0; Limit = - 3' 21.
15
22. et. 23. e20. 24. (a) e¹ ; (b) e¹³½ ; (c) ešð .

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.

a 1+ a2
5. (1) es ; (2) a ; (3) 2. 7. Cos
²a
a 1 2a
9. (i) ;; (ii) −1 ; (iii) 1 ; (iv) 10.
2a π

13. 3 (x - 1)². 18. 108 (x - 1)2 ; 27 •

(x + 2)5 8
(-1)nn! 1 1
23.
2 ((x + 2)n +1 ¯¯¯ (x + 4)n+¹[
пп
25. x+ Q cos x+
Pain (2 + ) - 900s ( 2+ ).
where P = xm- nС¸m (m − 1 ) xm−2' .+ " С¸m (m − 1 ) (m − 2) (m − 3) xm—
and Q = ”C¸mx™−¹ – " C¸m (m - − 1 ) (m − 2) xm−3 + ...
3 26
42. At the origin and at the points of intersection with y = x
3 b
and y = x
2a

43. Half a right angle. 46. √15

262 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

57. (i) x + y = 0 ; (ii) x = 0, x = 2a.

58. x -2y - 14a, x = 3y + 13a, x - y = a, x - y = 2a.
59. 0, 1, -1 . 60. When y = ± x √ñ.
61. Maximum area = 4r2 sin a cos³a, where r is the radius of the circle
and 2a the given angle.
63. The Centroid is at the centre. 65. a.
66. If m be even x =- Kπ and x== (2λ + 1) П where κ and λ are in-
m+1 2'
tegers. If the several angles be arranged in order of magnitude
we have Max. and Min. alternately, beginning with x= = 0.
If m be odd the solutions which give Max. and Min. are those of
Kπ
x= and we have Max. and Min. alternately, beginning
m + 1'
with x = 0.
67. x = 0 gives a maximum. Then the series of angles (arranged in
√√7-1
order of magnitude) defined by sin x = 0 and by cos x = 6
give alternate maxima and minima.
π
68. Alternate Max. and Min. are given by x = kπ + • k = 0 gives
a max.

69. If the breadth be 2a the minimum length of crease is 3a√√√3 and

2
8a2
minimum area = •
3/3
6
> b Max. if x = a+2
3
72.
a <b Max. if x = a,
(a = b gives a point of inflexion.

75. y² (x + 16a)² +4 { 6y² — (2a − x)²º} {y² – 3a (2a -

− x) } = 0.

CAMBRIDGE : PRINTED BY J. & C. F, CLAY, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.