activist

The

museum
Practice, theories
and actors

Edited by

LOUISE FABIAN
JULIE ROKKJÆR BIRCH
 Contents
5 Editorial Introduction -
Museum Activism in Theory and in Practice
LOUISE FABIAN & JULIE ROKKJÆR BIRCH

10 SECTION 1
Contributions on the subject of museum activism by researchers
and museumprofessionals in both Denmark and abroad

12 The History of the Activist Museum

LOUISE FABIAN

29 Dialogs on museum resilience

ANNESOFIE NORN, DIANE DRUBAY & SANDRO DEBONO

49 Labour Cultural Heritage as Social Innovation -

Two Canadian Studies
CHRISTOPHER GUNTER & JANELLE ANGLIN

61 Girl Museum - Activism Through Girl-Centered

Museum Practice
ASHLEY E. REMER

71 The Creation of FLUGT

STINA TROLDTOFT ANDRESEN, CLAUS KJELD JENSEN,
ANNE SOFIE VEMMELUND CHRISTENSEN, TRINE JUST HANSEN,
MALENE FROSCH LANGVAD, LOUISE THUESEN & HELLE ØLGAARD

87 The Activist Potential of Feminist Art - Artworks as

Agile Objects in Museum Communication
CAMILLA SKOVBJERG PALDAM

101 History of the Women s Museum - A Museum

Created by Women About Women
MERETE IPSEN
120 SECTION 2
Testimonies of people and activists involved in the work of
the museum across the years

136 SECTION 3
The toolkit of the activist museum

138 BODY and SEX in a Museum - Activist, Discussion-

based, Norm-critical Sex Education in a Museum
of Cultural History
ANNA KATHRINE SVENNING

152 They See Us Rollin’ –

Mobile Museum from Vision to Reality
SARAH BRADLEY

160 Everyday Life, Nuances and Representation - An

Exhibit About and By Muslim Women in Denmark
LOUISE ROGNLIEN

168 LITTERATURE
Editorial Introduction Museum

î
Activism in Theory and in Practice

LOUISE FABIAN & Museums are not merely disseminators of history. They
JULIE ROKKJÆR BIRCH can be and have been makers of history. A number of
special practices – making collections, preserving, arran-
ging, classifying, interpreting, curating, researching, en-
gaging audiences and exhibiting – have formed the cor-
nerstone of museums for centuries. The history of these
practices is in itself a rich source of knowledge about the
transformation of the cultural, social and scientific hi-
story of humans throughout history. Over the centuries,
the various related practices have been associated with
shifting scientific, cultural and political agendas in diver-
gent localities. The work of museums has been linked to
desires to display and demonstrate knowledge and pow-
er, to celebrate, preserve or challenge the existing, and
to spotlight and change understandings and power re-
lations, or to inscribe new actors or interpretations. The
cultural, social and political dimensions, and the tasks of
the museum institution have been debated for centuries
and, in recent decades, subject to radical rethinking. New
actors have taken over museum spaces, and new cura-
torial practices have been developed and put to the test.

This book delves into some of these museological prac-

tices and the ideas that drove and shaped museums, and
‘gives the floor’ to some of the actors – both professio-
nals and activists – who are helping to create and rethink
the work of museums. The book is interested not only in
the changing roles museums have played throughout hi-
story, but also in contextualizing and understanding the
ways in which the museum institution has been critical-

5
ly rethought in recent decades. In recent decades, an
ever-increasing number of museums have been expli-
citly engaged in a variety of current societal challenges.
What can cultural history, natural history, museum obje- In her article ‘The Ideological History of the Activist Mu-
cts and museum spaces do in terms of helping us under- seum’, Louise Fabian looks at the changing historical,
stand the past and its significance for the present, and in epistemological and political premises of the museum
terms of creating discussion about possible futures? institution, illustrating how the ideological history of mu-
seums reflects the development of capitalism, the global
This book aims to kindle reflection on, and promote expansions, colonializations and nationality constructs
further thoughts about how museums are part of, and of different epochs, and the changes in scholarly ideas
contribute to society and social change. The writers of and ambitions to communicate knowledge. The article
the articles in the book are all interested in the knowled- also explores some of the issues raised by attempts in
ge produced by museums, and the museums’ role in, and recent decades to critically rethink, decolonize and que-
responsibility for society. Genre-wise, the book’s contri- erize the museum tradition and establish new knowledge
butions reflect the different positions of the various con- paradigms and museological strategies.
tributors as stakeholders. There are contributions from
activists, museum employees and researchers from Ca- The text ‘Dialogs on Museum Resilience’ was stage ma-
nada, France, USA, Malta, Serbia, Colombia, Australia, naged by Diane Drubay, the founder of the We Are Muse-
UK, New Zealand and Denmark. ums’ think tank, in collaboration with Annesofie Norn of
the Museum for the United Nations – UN Live, and San-
The various contributions to the book feature a number dra Debono from the University of Malta.
of recurring themes. How do you run an activist muse- The participants in the four dialogs are: Milena Jokanović
um? What happens when you create a mobile museum from the University of Belgrade in Serbia; Julie Decker,
and meet people on streets and in different locations? Director of the Anchorage Museum in Alaska; Cristina
How can museums delegate curatorial authority? The Lleras, a freelance curator who works for the Museum of
book also explores more specific questions from the mu- Bogota in Colombia; Julie Rokkjaer Birch at the time the
seums’ curatorial toolbox. What special role does sound Director of what was then the Women’s Museum of Den-
play? What role do objects and touching objects play in mark; Kristin Alford, Director of the Museum of Discovery
public engagement and interpretation? What special op- in Australia; and Lindsey McEwen, head of the Centre for
portunities and challenges are involved in a virtual muse- Water, Communities and Resilience in the Department of
um, and can this boost the building of new communities? Geography and Environmental Management at the Uni-
Can we hand the microphone to marginalized citizens versity of the West of England. The contribution reflects
rather than speaking on their behalf? How can we involve the fact that it was written at the peak of the global CO-
citizens in museum work on an equal footing or make the VID-19 crisis but explores issues that are still current. In
museum space available to external actors who, on their the contribution, which comprises four conversations,
own initiative, want to disrupt and change its creation of the conversational partners aim to explore and identify
meaning? different forms of resilience that have matured and de-
veloped within what they call the ‘museum ecosystem’,
In recent years, the preoccupation with museums’ op- especially in the so-called ‘peripheries’ of global politics.
portunities to operate activistically has led to a number
of projects and publications, which in various ways con- The article by Christopher Gunter and Janelle Anglin of
sider some of the challenges and dilemmas that working Saint-Paul University is entitled ‘Labor History as Social
activistically can entail. This publication follows on from Innovation’. It explores examples of how the culture sec-
these. We would like to mention in particular the Danish tor and cultural heritage institutions can empower com-
Welfare Museum in Svendborg, which in a Danish context munities, criticize racist and discriminatory practices,
has been and exemplary and innovative pioneer. and give a voice to excluded and marginalized actors
and stories. It is based on two Canadian case studies: of
The book features three different types of contribution the Workers Arts and Heritage Centre, and the British
and is divided into three different sections. Columbia Labour Heritage Centre.

In addition to the Editorial Introduction, Section 1 consists In her article, ‘Girl Museum: Activism Th-
of a compilation of international dialogs and a number of rough Girl-Centered Museum Practice’,

6
academic articles. Ashley E. Remer of Girl Museum looks at
how, on the basis of research, exhibitions,
publications and other projects, Girl Mu-
seum has worked on finding ways to merge activism into reflection and dialog. For example, in his testimony, Elias
the structure of the museum institution. The article refle- Sadaq writes:
cts not only on the significance of the fact that Girl Mu-
seum is virtual, dedicated to girls and devoid of the usual Ever since I was a boy, I have always loved going to museums,
characteristics of a museum as a permanent collection loved walking around the rooms, losing myself in history. When
and a physical building, but also on how Girl Museum has I came to the museum for the first time, I did not regard it as my
been attacked and the financial realities in which muse- own, I entered as a visitor, as a stranger in a new home. That
ums work. was before I understood myself and understood how the muse-
um also told my story, my struggles and my victories. (…) The
In ‘The Creation of Flugt’, Stina Troldtoft Andresen, Anne exhibition made me view myself differently. I discovered that I
Sofie Vemmelund Christensen, Trine Just Hansen, Claus belonged to a special group of particularly alienated, particular-
Kjeld Jensen, Malene Frosch Langvad, Louise Thuesen ly marginalized individuals. A group of individuals who, in our
and Helle Ølgaard of Vardemuseerne reflect on the ideas own way, had broken with norms related to gender, sexuality and
behind, and the ambitions of developing the newly ope- identity across ethnicity, belief and class. I felt part of a commu-
ned museum FLUGT – Refugee Museum of Denmark. nity (…) Today, there is no doubt that the museum’s presenta-
They look particularly at how a museum tackles such a tion and treatment of my story, my life and struggle, helped give
highly political topic as flight, at dialog-based public en- me the courage to stand up for myself, and to use my voice to
gagement/interpretation, and at the importance of per- give visibility and role models to others in the same situation.
sonal testimony in the work of the museum.
In the article, ‘The Activist Potential of Feminist Art: Art- We would like to extend our special gratitude to the-
works as Agile Objects in Public Engagement and Inter- se contributors for so generously sharing some of their
pretation in Museums’, Camilla Skovbjerg Paldam of the thoughts and experiences.
Department of Art History at Aarhus University, looks
partly at the form and content of feminist art as a whole, The title of Section 3 is ‘The Toolkit of the Activist Mu-
and partly at the activist potential of art, particularly in a seum’. This article looks particular at the work of KØN –
museum context. Gender Museum Denmark.

In ‘The History of the Women’s Museum: A Museum In the article ‘BODY and SEX in a Museum: Activist,
Created by Women about Women’, which constitutes Discussion-based, Norm-critical Sex Education in a Mu-
the transition and prelude to the collection of testimoni- seum of Cultural History’, Anna Svenning, former Head
es in Section 2, the former Director of the then Women’s of Public Engagement and Interpretation at KØN – Gen-
Museum in Aarhus, Merete Ipsen looks back at the hi- der Museum Denmark, explores how the museum makes
story of the museum from its inception in the 1980s to use of its knowledge and objects in the context of sex
the change of its remit and name. She looks particularly education and contribute to the personal, social and de-
at the museum’s unique roots in women’s environments mocratic edification of children and young people. In this
across class, generation and sexual orientation that initi- context, the article explains how sex education at KØN
ally defined the Women’s Museum and its fundamental – Gender Museum Denmark is based on eight basic di-
purpose and principles, reflected in its executive mana- dactical and pedagogical principles.
gement and day-to-day management, working methods
and projects. She also takes a critical look at crucial mile- In her article, ‘They See Us Rollin’ – Mobile Museum from
stones when these principles were moderated. Vision to Reality’, Sarah Bradley, a former employee at
KØN - Gender Museum Denmark, focuses on the ideas
Section 2 features testimonies by people who have wor- that formed the basis for the museum’s mobile museum,
ked with the Women’s Museum/KØN – Gender Muse- and the interactions between museum educators and
um of Denmark over the years: a burlesque performer members of the public that the mobile pop-up museum
who calls herself “the librarian-stripper”, Muslim women fostered.
who curated a pop-up exhibition about Muslim women
in Denmark, and a self-identified Muslim In ‘Everyday Life, Nuances and Representation: An Exhi-
gay man. This section ‘gives the floor’ to bit About - and By - Muslim Women in Denmark’, Louise

7
some of the activists, with whom, first the Rognlien, PhD fellow on the research and interpretation/
Women’s Museum, later KØN – Gender public engagement project Gender Blender, introduces
Museum Denmark has created space for and analyses the work that went into the pop-up exhi-
bit ’Muslim Women in Denmark - Everyday Life, Nuan-
ces and Representation’. The exhibit deployed the mobi-
le presentation format that Sarah Bradley describes, so
the two articles complement each other. Louise Rognlien
coordinated the exhibit in collaboration with a working
group of five Muslim women who served as curators.
These women describe their experiences of curating in
the testimony section of this book. The basis of the pro-
ject was to investigate the self-presentation of Muslim
women, both as a methodological study of the negoti-
ation process involved in the co-creation of knowledge
production and as a political compensation for stereoty-
pical objectifications and simplifications.

This book arose out of the collaboration on the research

and interpretation/public engagement project Gender
Blender – Everyday Life, Activism and Diversity, and we
would like to take this opportunity to express our heart-
felt thanks to the VELUX Foundations and their staff for
their generous support of that project. We would also like
to thank the anonymous reviewer for their exemplary
work and Signe Uldbjerg for her excellent and thorough
editorial work. Finally, on behalf of the editorial team, we
would like to thank all the contributors for their willing-
ness to reflect on the process, and for their patience with
the fact that various circumstances, in particular CO-
VID-19, meant that producing the book took much longer
than expected.

8
Section
01

CONTRIBUTIONS ON THE SUBJECT OF

MUSEUM ACTIVISM BY RESEARCHERS
AND MUSEUM PROFESSIONALS IN
î

BOTH DENMARK AND ABROAD

î
The History of the Activist
Museum

LOUISE FABIAN INTRODUCTION

Louise Fabian, Associate Professor “That belongs in a museum,” says the leather-jacketed
History of Ideas, Aarhus University Indiana Jones in a mature, masculine voice, after repe-
atedly using tenacious smash-and-grab methods that
leave the archaeological sites in ruins and saving the
Cross of Coronado from suffering a dismal fate in the
hands of less well-meaning, profit-seeking private colle-
ctors. Today, a little over 40 years after the archeologist
adventurer in Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) had female
archeology students swooning in droves, as he brushed
off road dust and lectured ”Archeology = Facts”, it is no
longer clear whether artifacts belong in museums or, for
example, in the local communities from which they were
removed.

Museums are not just results of history, they have acti-

vely contributed to making history, and in ways that mu-
seum institutions in recent years are comprehending and
rethinking. Museums have always had to relate to the ch-
anging social, economic and geopolitical conditions of
which they are part. As the editorial introduction to this
book states, the practices and ideologies that form the
basis of museums have shifted over time. For centuries,
museums have been variously involved in managing and
constructing cultural heritage. Looking closely at the hi-
story of museum tradition leads us back to the sacrifici-
al offerings in temples, the relics of the monasteries, the
treasuries of kings, the cabinets of curiosities of physi-
cians, the collecting practices of the colo-
nial age and the post-colonial showdowns

12
and experiments in developing new forms
of knowledge production and museologi-
cal work. The history of museums is pa-
ved with violence, theft and conflict and with dreams of MUSEALIZATIONS AND COLLECTIONS
edification, visions and collaborations, and is thus closely The history of museums is also the history of how peop-
interwoven with the global history of the encounters bet- le have collected, classified and museumized objects,
ween different countries, continents and peoples. and how these museumization practices relate to other
In this article, I will first delve into and illustrate how the societal developments. People collect, treasure, exhi-
ideological history of museums reflects the evolution of bit, and preserve material objects, and there were large
capitalism, the global expansions of the changing epo- collections of cultural objects long before the existence
chs, colonization and nationality constructs, changing of museums in the modern sense. When we musealize
scholarly ideas and ambitions for disseminating know- objects, we remove them from their original context and
ledge. I will then explore some of the issues raised by the make them part of a collection. Broadly speaking, mu-
attempts in recent decades to rethink critically, decolo- seological practices are the ways in which people are
nize and queer the museum tradition and establish new dedicated to preserving, using and interpreting culturally
knowledge paradigms and museological strategies. valuable objects.
When we wish to explore the collections of the ancient
To varying degrees, museums have always had explicit or world, we encounter a methodological challenge, in that
implicit political agendas and both attested to and crea- we have very few written testimonies and limited archae-
ted history. In other words, historically, the fact that mu- ological finds. Nonetheless, there is a centuries’ long tra-
seums play a political role can be viewed as a rule rather dition of collecting, preserving and exhibiting objects.
than an exception. But the ways they do so change. Thus, The oldest known method of preserving organic matter
in principle there is nothing radically new in the fact that is mummification. Mummification involves dehydration.
in recent years we have increasingly seen a number of We know of mummification practices in Peru and Chile
museums defining themselves as critical agents of chan- almost 7,000 years ago, and in Egypt at least 4,000 years
ge that relate to ongoing societal challenges. Even when ago.
one of the inspirations for Indiana Jones, the American One of the earliest documented museum-like collections
historian Hiram Bingham, on the three Yale expeditions we know of is in the Sumerian city of Uruk, which was lo-
to Machu Pichu and Peru in 1912, 1914 and 1915 excavated cated in present-day Iraq. The actual collection has been
and brought back historical artifacts, human skeletons dated to 530 BCE, but it contained clay and stone obje-
and mummies from the Inca civilization, it was strongly cts that can be dated back to 2000-2500 BCE (Simmons
disputed whether this practice of scholarly discovery 2018). Archeological excavations in Uruk revealed ob-
legitimized a right to remove found artifacts. The Inca jects that testify to a comprehensive, widespread trade
civilization had been wiped out by the Spanish conqui- network involving ceramics, metalwork, jewels and wine.
stadors in the 16th century, and Bingham’s expeditions One of the most famous rulers of what was then Baby-
helped draw the world’s attention to and frame Machu lon, Nebuchadnezzar II, had a large private collection of
Picchu as the rediscovered, lost Inca civilization. Bing- both antiquities and natural history objects. The ancient
ham himself photographed his Yale expeditions using the Egyptian rulers were collectors. For example, Egyptian
latest camera technology from one of the expedition’s pharaoh Thutmose III had a large collection of antiquities,
sponsors, Kodak, and published his photos in National art, flora and fauna. We know that already in the Shang
Geographic Magazine. The anthropologist Amy Cox Hall dynasty, people collected gold and bronze artifacts, and
has shown how, in the early 20th century, the camera that many of the ruling elite in the Tang dynasty were also
played an essential role in anthropological fieldwork, hel- collectors. Of course, we have limited knowledge of how
ping legitimize both the anthropological practice and the these collections were incorporated into socio-econo-
authority and results of scholarly expeditions (Hall 2017: mic, cultural and religious contexts, but these are topics
71). The finds of the expedition were transferred to Yale that are still being researched intensively.
University, where Bingham was employed, and to the In ancient Greece it was especially art objects such as
private collections of the expedition’s sponsors. Already statues, paintings and vases that people collected. It is
in 1918, representatives of the Peruvian government be- also here we find the roots of the modern concept of a
gan to demand the return of artifacts. Again in 2008, the museum. The Latin word museum comes from the Greek
Peruvian government officially claimed word mouseion, which originally meant a ’shrine to the
about 40,000 illegally removed objects, muses’. According to Greek mythology, the nine omni-

13
and in 2012 Yale University began retur- scient Muses were the daughters of Zeus and Mnemo-
ning thousands of objects to Peru. syne, the goddess of memory. The Muses were goddes-
ses of inspiration, knowledge, and art, and sources and
guarantors of the knowledge found in poetry, mythology, octopuses have a tentacle that, when it reaches sexual
history, drama and science. Such a ’shrine to the Muses’ maturity, changes shape and turns into a sexual organ for
existed in the third century BC in the city of Alexandria. impregnating the female. The taxonomic system devel-
This was a place for storing papyrus scrolls with copies of oped by Aristotle in History of Animals became the do-
a large number of famous, important texts and cultural minant authority for two millennia, affecting both the hi-
artifacts. There was even a zoo. People gathered here to story of European ideas in a broader sense and the ways
practice and study music, poetry and thinking. In other in which exhibitions were organized in museums.
words, it was a kind of early hybrid, which eventually
evolved into the separate traditions of libraries, archives One of the earliest known advocates and creators of
and museums. public displays of art was the Roman general and archi-
tect Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (63-12 BCE), and there
The city of Alexandria was founded by Alexander the are several testimonies of the fact that collecting and
Great, whose ambition was for the city to be a new center displaying objects was a pronounced practice in the Ro-
of Greek culture. One of Alexander the Great’s generals man Empire. These collections had religious, cultural, po-
on the expedition, Ptolemy I Soter, became pharaoh of litical and aesthetic significance (Gahtan and Pegazzano
Egypt and played a central role in the founding of Alexan- 2014).
dria’s mouseion. The museum of Alexandria was a means
of state control, part of the ambition to make the area CRUSADERS, RELICS AND RELIGIOUS TREASURIES
an important part of the Hellenistic Empire. Although the As Christianity gained ground in Europe, there were also
mouseion of ancient Alexandria was one of the earliest new reasons for, and practices of making collections. The
known materializations of the idea of linking collections first monastic community was founded in the 2nd cen-
and learning, its collections were not open to the public. tury, as the Roman Catholic church was gaining domi-
In terms of operation, these temples were more akin to nance Western Europe and the Byzantine and Orthodox
today’s universities than to today’s museums. Churches in the East. The churches assumed a key role
in terms of framing and preserving knowledge and, to-
Inspired by his former tutor Aristotle’s interest in botany gether with the popes, were a major factor of power in
and zoology, Alexander took a number of botanists and the Middle Ages. The latter part of the Middle Ages was
zoologists with him on his travels, collecting and retur- marked by a series of military invasions - for example, of
ning home with abundant collections of various species Middle Eastern destinations - sanctioned and fueled by
and objects. According to Pliny the Elder, the informa- one Roman Catholic pope after another. These crusa-
tion and objects Aristotle received from Alexander the des combined military operations, religious pilgrimages
Great and other travelers formed part of the empirical and trade-oriented expeditions. The official goal was to
basis for his pioneering biological work, History of Ani- secure pilgrimage routes and liberate the so-called Holy
mals (Greek:Τῶν περὶ τὰ ζῷα ἱστοριῶν, Latin: Historia Land of Palestine from Islamic control. On November 27,
Animalium). Recent research has questioned to what 1095, Pope Urban II preached a sermon in Clermont, in-
extent Pliny was correct in stating that Aristotle received citing and urging the French nobility to come to the aid
material from Alexander’s travels, but there is no ques- of Christians in the East. With the blessing of the pope
tioning the fact that History of Animals is interesting in and regarded as pilgrims, the crusaders were granted
the context of studying the history of museums, because a number of privileges, their homes and property were
it became a highly influential work. Aristotle categorized protected while they were away, and any sins committed
all known animal species into a system of continuous on the journey would be granted absolution. In July 1099,
progression referred to as scalae naturae. He was fa- Jerusalem was conquered, and thousands of Muslims
scinated by universal principles and detailed eyewitness and Jews were slaughtered by the Christian crusaders.
observations and dissections. In particular, he studied in In many ways, the crusades during the next 200 years
great detail the natural history of the island of Lesbos and influenced the evolution of European societies and have
the marine life of the island’s lagoon at Pyrrha. Many of affected relations between Christians and Muslim parts
the observations of nature featured in History of Animals of the world to this day. The conquered land was not
are remarkably accurate. For example, he describes the merely plundered and occupied. It was
social organization of bees and the embryonic devel- also sacralized, and many of the objects

14
opment of a chicken, but also details, which for many that crusaders and pilgrims brought back
centuries were not taken seriously, until they were later from these destinations were musealized
rediscovered in the 19th century. For example, how male and included in the collections of mona-
steries, churches and private individuals. RENAISSANCE CABINETS OF CURIOSITIES
The end of the Middle Ages saw an increasing number of
In the Middle Ages, musealized objects were often asso- private collections in Europe, but only during the Renais-
ciated with religious notions that a physical object had sance did private collections become a widespread, fas-
some kind of supernatural power. These objects, which hionable social activity. Not only kings and princes, but
could allegedly bring about a special connection with also civilians built imposing collections, in which the idea
God, were hugely desirable commodities. Churches and was for the world and all its marvels to be assembled un-
monasteries could elevate their status by acquiring re- der one roof, thereby casting a spotlight on the collector
ligious objects such as body parts or remnants of clo- and providing insight into the wonder of the world. Bet-
thing from saints and biblical figures. It was claimed that ween 1400 and 1600, international trade and exchange
a number of the trophies brought back originated from reached an unprecedented level. Oceanic trade routes
biblical personages or things they had touched, and they between Europe and the Far East were established. With
ended up as treasured relics in European churches. For the support of the Spanish crown, Christopher Columbus
example, one church in the city of Durham in England, set out to find the maritime route to Asia. As we know,
exhibited parts of the tree under which Abraham was al- he never did find it, but he completed three voyages to
legedly visited by the three angels who announced the America in 1493, 1498 and 1502, from which he brought
pregnancy of his wife Sarah. The abbey of St Denis near back a number of objects that ended up in European ca-
Paris had a large collection of relics, including a drinking binets of curiosity.
cup believed to belong to Solomon, and the castle cha-
pel of Wittenberg had skeletal parts believed to originate The Renaissance in Europe involved a combination of
from the whale that swallowed Jonah. looking back and reinterpreting Latin and Greek writers,
often with the Arab world as a way station, looking out
The church’s treasuries contained not only relics and li- over Europe towards the countries with which they had
turgical objects, but also historical and natural history made contact, and looking forward, developing new
objects such as bones, skins, teeth or eggs from rare or ways of establishing and organizing knowledge about
exotic animals. The crusades also led to the establish- the world. This also made an impact on the way in which
ment and expansion of trading posts in the Middle East, knowledge about and the organization of collections
which in turn resulted in the expansion of European mar- were established. Whereas the medieval collections were
kets and the import of new objects such as silk and por- very much intended to reflect power and wealth, the
celain. Renaissance collections were often rooted in a notion of
the awesome wonders of the world, art and nature.
From 800 to 1300, following the fall of the Roman Empire, In Plato’s dialog, Theaitetos, Socrates says: ”Wonder is
the Muslim world experienced a flourishing period in the the beginning of wisdom,’ and Aristotle’s Metaphysics
fields of science, medicine and philosophy: for example, states: “For it is owing to their wonder that men both now
in the cities of Baghdad and Cordoba. The Koran, writ- begin and at first began to philosophize.”
ten down between 609 and 623, had a huge impact on The ”wonder” (Greek: thaumazein), with which Plato
Arab culture. As Islam spread, military conquests, trade and Aristotle are so preoccupied, refers particularly to
routes and missionary activities gave Muslim thinkers an admiring wonder at the beauty of the cosmos. As
and scientists access to libraries and books: for example, Lorraine Daston and Kathrine Park have shown in Won-
from the Byzantine Empire. In this context, many impor- ders and the Order of Nature 1150-1750 (1998), wonder
tant texts were translated from Greek, Latin, Persian and at and fascination with the object of study constitute a
Sanskrit into Arabic. In general, texts and writing play a key part of in the exploration of natural philosophy by
very important role in the Arab tradition. The major citi- Renaissance scholars. This is evident, for example, in the
es of the Islamic world such as Baghdad, Cairo, and Da- works of René Descartes and the English natural philo-
mascus all had libraries containing manuscripts, minia- sopher/chemist Robert Boyle (Daston and Park 1998:13).
ture paintings, drawings and objects from nature. Royal The scientific history of this period is linked to the idea of
collections - so-called dhakira (palace museums), also an objective, descriptive, systematic exploratory scien-
contained large collections of natural ce and the founding of modern experimental scientific
objects, rare and valuable gems, textiles, methodology. However, according to Daston and Parks,

15
glass art and miniature paintings. this is inextricably linked to the cultivation of subjective
sensibility.
THE CABINET OF CURIOSITIES AS A SCHOLARLY TOOL ascribed to them. Churches placed pieces of unicorn
The so-called ’cabinet of curiosities’ (German: Wunder- horn in their altar vessels and, until the revolution in 1789,
kammer) appeared in the 16th century, especially among the French king had a piece of unicorn horn dipped in his
wealthy members of the middle class. The idea of the glass to prevent poisoning. Ole Worm had closely stu-
cabinets of curiosities was that they should serve as a died a narwhal head and tusk and described how what
microcosm to reflect and demonstrate the wonderful di- was assumed to be a unicorn horn was actually a narwhal
versity of the world and the richness of divine creation: tusk (Grell 2022: 227). However, he continued to attribute
simultaneously the omnipotence of God, human prow- healing properties to the narwhal tusk. Worm also revea-
ess and the owner’s symbolic access to, understanding led that the so-called birds of paradise from South Afri-
of, and control over this rich world. The owners of the ca- ca, which Europe believed to be legless birds who lived in
binets of curiosities were royals, nobles, rich merchants, the air, actually were missing their legs because traders
apothecaries or natural scientists. had cut them off the stuffed birds, so there was room
for more birds in their crates. Worm made this discovery
One of the most famous cabinets of curiosities was that when he found a copy with legs.
of the classical civilization researcher and physician Ole
Worm, whose cabinet of curiosities went on to become The period also witnessed the emergence of a new li-
Denmark’s first museum. The objects in Ole Worm’s ca- terary genre – the catalogue. Collectors created the ca-
binet of curiosities included a number of natural artifacts talogues to showcase their collections and demonstra-
such as stuffed animals, stones, minerals, teeth, con- te their knowledge. The action of cataloguing an object
ches, metals and bones, alongside man-made artifacts, became a new way of musealizing it and categorizing it
antiquities, tools, weapons and jewelry. The objects were in a system of knowledge. In 1642 and 1645, Ole Worm
also for study and learning and often used in the context published some succinct records of the contents of his
of Ole Worm’s teaching at the University of Copenhagen, collection. One of the purposes was to use them in the
where he was professor of medicine from 1624. Worm context of barter deals with other European collectors
was also King Christian’s personal physician, and it is and scholars. Following Worm’s death from the plague
characteristic both of Worm’s and of many of the cabi- during the 1654 epidemic, in 1655 his son Willum Worm
nets of curiosities of the time - including those belonging published a comprehensive, illustrated catalogue en-
to the Italian physicists and natural philosophers who in- titled Museum Wormianum: seu historia rerum rariorum
spired Worm - that they served medical purposes. From (Worm’s Museum or a History of Rarities). The engraved
the end of the 16th century, natural history and natural illustrations of the catalogue in particular provide unique
philosophy were perceived as supporting disciplines for insight into the collection and categorization systems
Worm’s main field - medicine. Worm’s scientific method of the time. Worm’s polyhistoric collection was far from
was relatively far-sighted. He was a firm believer in dire- just a random collection of oddities. All the objects were
ct physical contact with, and examination of the objects organized on the basis of a material-governed princip-
and introduced illustrative object-based teaching at the le of order within the boundaries of subject. This meant
university. For Worm, who was a Lutheran natural phi- objects could belong to the mineral kingdom – to which
losopher, the book of nature reflected divine, wondrous Worm had initially devoted his passion for collection – the
creation. The study of the book of nature could teach us plant kingdom or the animal kingdom, or they could be
about God’s plan for the world. man-made. Willum Worm’s catalogue was also structu-
red in accordance with these four categories.
Some of the objects were kept for their medicinal qualiti-
es, but what they all had in common was that they should THE MUSEUM AND THE CONSTRUCT OF NATIONALITY
be special and possess unusual, surprising properties Especially since the French Revolution, when the state,
(Grell 2022: 201). For example, the collection featured a rather than the king, became the foundation of the na-
so-called ’unicorn’s horn’, at the time a treasured colle- tion-state, and the idea of the people as a democratic
ctible, and also used for medical purposes and to purify subject was established, museums have played a major
water. When conquering Greenland, the Vikings encoun- role in our constructs of nationality. In the wake of the
tered narwhals, and the Vikings and their descendants Napoleonic Wars, nation-states rearmed
sold their long, twisted tusks as coveted, extremely themselves ideologically. Together with

16
expensive so-called unicorn horns to the courts of Euro- libraries and archives, the foundation of
pe. The unicorn featured in the Bible and the so-called museums would come to play a signifi-
’bestiaries’ and magical and healing properties were cant role as different nations had to posi-
tion themselves in relation to other nations and were used the time, France was at war with Britain, so one of the
to form and legitimize national identity and state power. goals of the expeditions was to disrupt Britain’s access
With the formation of the nation-states, people were no and trade routes to India. France wanted hegemony over
longer merely the subjects of the king, but the ’owners’ Egypt and several territories in the East. The military
of the state. In the national museums, citizens could en- expeditions were accompanied by 167 scholars, includ-
counter stories about the history and values of the nation ing botanists, archeologists, historians and artists. The
and civilization. In many cases, the development of more brief French occupation of Egypt kindled great interest
specialized museums such as national heritage muse- in Egyptian culture and history in Europe. During Napole-
ums, cultural history museums, war museums, maritime on’s campaign in 1799, French soldiers found, for examp-
museums, archeological museums, ethnographic muse- le, the Rosetta Stone, which they later handed over to
ums, technological museums, art museums and colonial the British as part of the 1802 peace agreement. Today it
museums, also supported and reflected the pursuit of stands in the British Museum.
nationality. These museums often operate with narrati- In 1803, the Louvre changed its name to the ’Napoleon
ves of continuous civilizational progress with the nation Museum’. Napoleon’s conquests of art treasures were
as the focal point. A classic example is the national art actively used in the French politics of the time. In July
museums of the 19th century, where art and the natio- 1798, the Italian booty was displayed in parades through
nal narrative joined forces to create a formative, edifying the streets of Paris. People could see ancient marble
museum visit. statues, cartloads of imported living creatures - inclu-
ding ostriches, camels, lions and gazelles - rare books
Opened in 1759, the British Museum was the very first and manuscripts, and the greatest treasure of them all:
national museum. The Louvre is a particularly illustrative 4 copper-clad horses that had been removed from St
example of this development. The Louvre was originally Mark’s Basilica in Venice. These happened to be bronze
built in 1190 but was rebuilt in the 16th century to serve as horses, which the Venetians themselves had snatched
a royal palace. In 1682, when Louis XIV moved the royal from the Byzantine capital Constantinople 6 centuries
residence to Versailles, the Louvre was taken over by a earlier during the Crusades (Nayeri 2021).
number of art academies. After the French Revolution,
the Louvre was reorganized and the National Assembly REPATRIATION - A DIGRESSION
opened the Louvre as a museum in August 1793, at the In recent years, there has been a lot of discussion about
time with a collection of 537 paintings. In 1792, the then the return of cultural and art objects to the places from
French minister of foreign affairs, Jean-Marie Roland which they were originally removed. Some objects
wrote to the painter Jacques-Louis David: were removed by force, others were part of deals or gi-
France will extend its glory over all times and all the peoples ven as ‘gifts’ in the context of colonial practices, where
of the world; the national museum will comprise a total of the tombs, buildings, sculptures, beauty, handicrafts, furni-
most wonderful knowledge and will command the admiration ture, mummies, animals and human parts were removed
of the whole universe […]. It will have such an influence on the from their original contexts and stored, sold or exhibi-
mind, it will so elevate the soul, it will so excite the heart that ted in display cases far away from their places of origin.
it will be one of the most powerful ways of proclaiming the illu- As shown, for centuries there have been controversies
striousness of the French Republic (quoted in Meyer and about how museums appropriated their objects. Already
Savoy 2014). in the context of the defeat of Napoleon and the French
army by the British-German-Dutch army at the Battle
The Louvre would testify to the fact that France was the of Waterloo in June 1815, and the subsequent abdicati-
heir of classical civilization. In the early 19th century, the on of Napoleon, almost 5,000 objects were sent back to
Louvre was the largest museum in the world. It contai- their countries of origin, including half of the Italian pain-
ned former royal collections, treasures confiscated from tings. The negotiations and returns were a hot topic in the
the Church and various objects captured by the French newspapers of the time and were discussed by intelle-
army both within and outside Europe. A prime example ctual figures such as Goethe and Stendhal. Each state
was the Italian states that Napoleon had conquered, who had to fill out a separate request for the return of their
had been forced to pay him with around works of art. Today, France is looking back on this period,
600 paintings and sculptures. Between as the country resumes a more widespread practice of

17
1798 and 1810, led by Napoleon Bonapar- returning works to their countries of origin. In 2018, the
te, France conducted a whole series of French historian Bénédicte Savoy co-authored a report
military expeditions to conquer Egypt. At on repatriation, commissioned by the French President
Emmanuel Macron. ge parts of the architectural sculptures on the Parthen-
on Frieze were removed from the Parthenon Temple in
Egyptomania has been widespread for centuries. Already Athens and sailed to England at the behest of Thomas
during the Roman occupation of Egypt, it became fas- Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, who was British Ambassador to
hionable in Italy to incorporate statues of Egyptian gods the Ottoman Empire from 1799 to 1803. It was claimed
into Italian homes and sanctuaries. As already mentioned that Lord Elgin had obtained permission from the then
above, as a result of Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt in 1798, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire to remove the sculptures,
Egyptomania spread throughout Europe. During the ear- allegedly as a diplomatic gesture of gratitude for Bri-
ly 20th century, there was a resurgence of excavations of tain’s victory over the French in Egypt. However, neither
Egyptian tombs. Archeologists and frequently their pa- back then nor since then did Lord Elgin or anyone else
trons traveled to Egypt in large numbers in the hope of succeed in producing such a document. Lord Elgin had
bringing back valuables for museums and personal col- the sculptures shipped home for £70,000. They were
lections, and it became fashionable in both Europe and originally intended to decorate his Scottish home, but fi-
the United States to decorate one’s home in the ’Egyptian nancial difficulties forced the heavily indebted Lord Elgin
style’. The same period saw the development of modern to sell them to the British government for £35,000. The
conservation methods, and people gradually became sculptures were bought ”on behalf of the British nation”
more interested in exploring and preserving a not-infinite and exhibited in the British Museum. As we know, today
historical resource rather than bringing treasures home. Greece regards the sculptures as stolen and is deman-
Likewise, Egypt became increasingly preoccupied with ding them back. The jewel of the Acropolis Museum in
the right to manage their own history and its testimony. Athens is a gallery on the top floor, where space has been
For decades, Egypt has been demanding the return of made for the removed sculptures to return to their right-
a number of objects they believe are essential parts of ful place.
Egyptian cultural heritage. In 1930, for example, they de-
manded the return of the bust of Nefertiti from Germany. In 2002, the so-called Bizot group – consisting of 18 domi-
The bust, depicting the wife of the Pharaoh Akhenaten, nant, predominantly European museums – produced the
was sculpted around 1340 BCE, but in 1912 it was remo- document Declaration of the Value and Importance of
ved and shipped to Germany by the Prussian archeolo- Universal Museums. This document states, for example
gist Ludwig Borchardt. The Rosetta Stone, which helped that: ”museums serve not just the citizens of one nation,
the French linguist Jean-Francois Champollion decode but the people of every nation”. This document, which in
the Egyptian hieroglyphs, and which since 1802 has been practice can serve, and has served as an argument for
in the British Museum, is a particularly important point of not returning objects to the countries from which they
contention. were removed, has been accused of being an ”arrogant
imperialist project”: for example, by the Kenyan Muse-
Egypt has already recovered a number of treasures, in- um Director and ICOM member, George Abungu (Soares
cluding a mummy believed to be Ramses I, which was re- 2021: 443). The idea of ”the universal museum” is accu-
turned by the United States in 2003 and is now on display sed of being Eurocentric and colonialist and of serving to
at the Luxor Archaeological Museum. The US has been legitimize and preserve hierarchies and representations
more open to repatriation than European countries and that maintain the epistemological power of hegemonic
museums. The Rosetta Stone is still in the British Muse- museums located in the global North.
um and the bust of Queen Nefertiti is still in Berlin, but in
recent years Egypt has managed to retrieve thousands MUSEUMS, TECHNOLOGY AND THE MERCANTILE
of ancient artefacts from many different places in the Technical museums and museums of applied arts and
world. design have been important in countries where the idea
of scientific and technical progress played a central role
To date, the British have been remarkably reluctant to in national self-understanding, politics and economics.
return objects acquired in the context of their imperial In Britain, industrial development was particularly rapid,
history. A very large number of British cultural heritage and the belief in the central role of technical inventions
institutions evolved in an imperial context. One of the in the civilizational progress of history was
most politicized examples is the British Museum’s acqu- widespread. From May 1 to October 18,

18
isition of what the British refer to as ’the Elgin Marbles’. 1851, the citizens of London could visit the
For the Greeks it is the Parthenon frieze, and its acquisiti- so-called ‘Crystal Palace Exhibition’. The
on by Britain was highly controversial from the start. Lar- exhibition was organized by Prince Albert,
Sir Henry Cole and several members of The Royal So- the Swedish Röhsska Museum in 1904. The Danish mu-
ciety for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and seum was founded on the initiative of, among others, the
Commerce (RSA), which had been founded in 1754. The forerunner of Danish Industry – Industriforeningen. Like
organization encouraged exports and the development the world exhibitions and the related applied arts muse-
of domestic industries to replace imported goods, on ums, it was intended to serve the development of design
the basis of the mercantile idea that the most important and crafts and support industry and trade by stimula-
thing for the nation’s economy was the amount of gold ting the development and promotion of design of high
and silver that could be acquired from other nations th- aesthetic and technical level and encouraging the public
rough the sale of its own goods (Howes 2020: 123). Over to acquire the products (Falch 2004).
the centuries, the British state had acquired colonies that
supplied the nation with raw materials, taxes levied on The Deutsches Museum von Meisterwerken der Na-
imported goods, and gave selected merchants and insti- turwissenschaft und Technik was founded in Munich in
tutions such as the East India Company a monopoly on 1903, partly supported by the Verein Deutscher Inge-
trade (Howes 2020: 123). nieure on the initiative of Oskar von Miller, who in 1881 as a
young man had visited the International Electronics Exhi-
Henry Cole was concerned with the importance of con- bition in Paris with great enthusiasm and been thrilled by
necting art and industry and of spreading knowledge to it. The Technical Museum of Denmark was founded in
the people (Howes 2020: 173). In 1848, Cole came up with Copenhagen in 1911 by Industriforeningen and Haand-
the idea of ‘The Great Exhibition of the Works of Indu- værkerforeningen.
stry for All Nations’. A royal commission, chaired by Prin-
ce Albert, planned the exhibition and selected a building The displays at World’s Fairs of national triumphs were
design by the greenhouse builder and landscape garde- largely sponsored by private companies, and in several
ner, Joseph Paxton. Paxton’s pioneering building design, countries, technological exhibitions and museums had
consisting of iron and prefabricated glass elements, was close ties to companies that produced the technologies
5 times the size of St Peter’s Basilica in Rome, and so on display. Even today, we often see exhibitions sponso-
spectacular that Paxton was subsequently knighted for red by companies, sometimes in formats where it seems
his achievement. The world’s first producer of bottled soft as if the museums have become uncritical showcases for
drinks, Schweppes, was the official sponsor of the event, the companies’ PR projects. Historically, technology and
which was intended as a celebration of modern industrial science museums have typically focused on technology
technology and design. The Great Exhibition was part- as something good and, in terms of function, closely
ly a response to, and an attempt to surpass the French connected to the notion of continuous human progress.
’Exposition des produits de l’industrie française’, which There are far fewer exhibitions that explore the darker
had been held in a temporary structure on the Champs- chapters of technology. As we shall see in the section on
Élysées in Paris in 1844 – the tenth in a series of national science museums, however, these too have increasingly
industrial exhibitions held in France since 1798. begun to tackle more politically controversial topics such
as climate crises and the ethics associated with techno-
Although the Crystal Palace Exhibition was intended as logical development.
a setting for countries from all over the world to exhibit
their industrial creations, it was mainly intended to de- MUSEUMS AND PUBLIC INFORMATION
monstrate the superiority of British civilization. After the Over the centuries, the relations between museums and
exhibition was over, much of its inventory was displayed visitors have changed. In general terms, there has been a
in South Kensington, in a purpose-built museum called development from the specially invited, exclusive audience
The Museum for Manufactures, which opened in 1857. and the paternalistic, educational, civilizing concept aimed
The museum later evolved into the Victoria & Albert Mu- at a broader spectrum of citizens – although still primarily
seum and the Science Museum respectively. well-to-do, male, white citizens – to the more participato-
ry, interactive, mediating and ideally inclusive paradigm. In
In the second half of the 19th century, similar museums the 19th century, the museums’ dominant audience was
of applied arts opened in a number of still the cultural elite, but ambitions to expand the audience
countries. In Scandinavia, the Kunstin- base and the tasks of museums were gradually growing.

19
dustrimuseet opened in 1876, the Vester- Especially from 1850 onwards, the idea grew that muse-
landske Kunstindustrimuseet in 1870, the ums should edify, educate and instruct, providing visitors
Danish Kunstindustrimuseet in 1890 and not only with knowledge, but also taste and morals. The
National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen was one of acquired very special status at the end of the 19th century.
the first collections in the world to be made publicly avai- This was also reflected in the development of natural scien-
lable in its entirety. This happened in 1819, when what was ce museums. The Muséum national d’historie naturelle had
then called ‘The Royal Museum for Nordic Antiquities’1 , been established in Paris back in 1635 - the first museum in
was opened to the public. On June 5, 1849, the Constitu- the world with a format reminiscent of what we would iden-
tion of the Kingdom of Denmark was introduced. Signed tify today as a natural history museum. The forerunners of
by King Frederik VII, it marked the transition of Denmark natural history museums were the cabinets of curiosities.
from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy. As I have described, a large number of the earliest muse-
The collections were passed to the state and shortly after, ums also had natural objects as part of their encyclopedic
in 1853, the collections were united in the Prince’s Palace. collections. During the 19th century, museums focusing
In Denmark, the local cultural history museums created more exclusively on exhibiting objects from nature, viewed
in the period from 1850 to 1950 functioned as part of the through a scientific prism, flourished and increased in num-
decentralization process that also followed in the wake ber as part of the natural sciences, and their role evolved.
of the June Constitution (Rathjen 2020: 98). In the 1850s, Natural science museums have collections that historical-
there was a major cultural policy debate about the royal ly played and continue to play a central role as sources of
cultural institutions such as the Royal Theater, the Royal biological data to serve research, teaching and wider inter-
Museum for Nordic Antiquities, the Royal Painting Collec- pretation/public engagement, and several branches of the
tion and the Academy in Sorø (Rathjen 2020). It was hotly sciences evolved in close interaction with museum collec-
debated whether these institutions were outmoded insti- tions.
tutions that simply existed for the betterment of Copen-
hagen’s middle classes, or whether they could be opened At an early stage, natural science museums kindled great
up and made available to the entire population, including debate about an appropriate approach to interpretation
the general public. There were ambitions to renew, popula- and public engagement. 1869 saw the opening of the Ame-
rize and geographically relocate these cultural institutions. rican Museum of Natural History in New York, and in the
The provinces began to claim cultural relevance and, from 1920s the museum opened the exhibit The Hall of the Age
1850 onwards, a number of provincial museums, theaters of Man, presenting the contemporary perception of the
and libraries began to emerge. The so-called stiftsmuseer history of evolution. The exhibition provoked heated deba-
(diocesan museums – a common term for the first Danish te and opposition among the religious, who believed it led
provincial museums) were founded in Viborg, Odense, Ma- thousands of school children away from the teachings of
ribo, Aarhus and Aalborg. the Bible and its account of creation.

However, the ambition to propagate knowledge to the Over the years, natural science museums have responded
wider population dates further back. Between 1751 and to and been part of various agendas of nature conservati-
1772, Denis Diderot published the 28-volume work Ency- on. Several have been engaged in collecting and recording
clopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts biological data characteristic of the areas in which they
et des métiers - until 1759 together with Jean le Rond were located. Several natural history museums such as the
d’Alembert. The vision of the encyclopedia was to make Natural History Museum in London, the American Museum
the accumulated knowledge of mankind accessible to the of Natural History in New York and the Smithsonian Insti-
ordinary man and woman in the street. Public information tution’s National Museum of Natural History in Washington,
developed in tandem with the development of democracy. with their vast exhibits and collections, have served as in-
From around 1800, the British physicist, philanthropist and ternational centers for comparative taxonomic work and
groundbreaking pioneer of adult education George Birk- research into evolutionary biology and biodiversity.
beck gave free scientific lectures on mechanics to mem-
bers of the working class. In Denmark, the popular spread Natural history collections have proved extremely useful
of natural science emerged especially from 1850 to 1920. for reasons and purposes that could not have been fore-
In 1844, masterminded by Grundtvig, the first Danish folk seen when they were founded. Recently, natural histo-
high school, Rødding Højskole, was founded. From 1849 ry collections have begun to play a central role in relation
onwards, a number of civil society-based organizations to the dissemination of knowledge about
and associations developed. biodiversity, pollution, climate change and

20
threatened or extinct species. For example,
NATURAL HISTORY AND NATURAL SCIENCE MUSEUMS research using old collected eggs revealed
Natural science – and the idea of knowledge in general – how the insecticide DDT has affected the
reproduction of bird species, which in turn helped influence communities. In 1972, a round table discussion in Chile
legislation to protect ecosystems. Studies of ancient North organized by ICOM and UNESCO resulted in the follow-
Atlantic seabirds helped demonstrate an increasing con- ing definition of a museum:
tent of mercury over the past century (Winker 2009: 456-
457). Natural science collections have thereby contributed The museum is an institution in the service of society of which
to the monitoring and documenting of biological responses it forms an inseparable part and, of its very nature, contains the
to changes in ecosystems, populations and species. elements which enable it to help in moulding the consciousness
of the communities it serves, through which it can stimulate
Dippy, the long-extinct diplodocus dinosaur, was given to those communities to action by projecting forward its historical
the Natural History Museum in London in 1905 by the Scot- activities so that they culminate in the presentation of contem-
tish-American tycoon Andrew Carnegie. Dippy’s fossilized porary problems; that is to say, by linking together past and pre-
bones were found by railroad workers in Wyoming in 1898. sent, identifying itself with indispensable structural changes and
Dippy was the very first dinosaur in the world to be exhibi- calling forth others appropriate to its particular national context.
ted. Monumental and 26 metres high, Dippy was allocated (UNESCO 1973,199)
the place of honor in the prestigious Hintze Hall in the wor-
ld-famous museum and, as the first exhibited dinosaur in The idea of the so-called ‘integral museum’ reflected in
the world, quickly became a star. From 2018 to 2021, Dippy the Chile manifesto had flourished since the 1960s in the
was sent on a tour of the UK as a testament to the changing form of ”ecomuseums” in France, the social museum in
state of nature in the UK and the rapidly declining biodiver- Latin America, US museums that focused on integrati-
sity. The skeleton of a female blue whale by the name of on with local communities, and for an even longer time in
Hope was given Dippy’s former place of honor. According the Nordic countries and the tradition open-air and folk
to the museum, the idea was for the blue whale to remind museums2.
visitors of humanity’s responsibility for the protection of our The French archaeologist/historian Hugues de Vari-
planet. Blue whales were hunted until they were on the brink ne-Bohan has been a central player in relation to the de-
of extinction but were also one of the first animal species velopment of socially conscious museology. From 1965
that massive global efforts went into saving. The hunting of to 1974 he was the Director of the International Council
blue whales was banned in 1966. The fact that such an old, of Museums (ICOM) and requested, for example, a more
major museum institution as the Natural History Museum participatory approach to museums. Museums should
chooses to give such coverage to a tale of marine ecology exist for people, not for exhibited objects (Hugues de Va-
and endangered species, and sends Dippy on tour, also te- rine-Bohan 2014). de Varine-Bohan was partly inspired by
stifies to some of the ways in which museums are beginning the French museologist Georges-Henri Rivière, who had
to rethink their role. The natural history museums of the 21st developed nouvelle muséologie and so-called ecomuse-
century are confronted with global concern about escala- ums (French: écomusée). The idea of ecomuseums was
ting climate change, and themes such as biodiversity, sus- to showcase civilizations in their natural environments,
tainability and nature protection play a central role in many based on and integrated into the local communities and
natural science museums today. contributing to local development.

THE MUSEUM AND THE LOCAL COMMUNITY The so-called ‘new museology’ argues that museums are
During the 1970s, the debate about museums being too social institutions with political agendas. However, as can
elitist, closed in on themselves and controlled by too be seen from the above outline of the ideological history
narrow population groups raised its head again (McCall of museums, this movement is not entirely radically new,
and Gray 2014). In this case, the discussion is linked to and it has also been criticized, for example, for giving too
the idea that museums should not only base their pra- little credit to its French and South and Central American
ctices on collections, and to the idea of redistributing forerunners (Lorente 2022:11). Particularly in Mexico, lo-
power and curatorial authority. In this context, the debt cal community museums and their museological theory
of museums to local communities are still up for debate: are still flourishing (Lorente 2022:14).
for example, within the socio-museological tradition de-
veloped particularly in Latin America and THE ACTIVIST MUSEUM
Portugal, which is concerned with how In other words, over the past 50 years, museums have

21
cultural heritage, commemorative culture increasingly begun to see themselves not just as show-
and museums can be used in relation to cases for the past or the present, but as actors who have
the challenges and development of local special opportunities and responsibilities in terms of re-
sponding to societal issues. Since the 1960s, museums out above, much of the cultural heritage stored and disse-
have increasingly addressed and engaged with a number minated in Europe’s museums relates to a past, in which the
of issues such as climate change, racial inequality, deco- majority of European countries were colonial powers. Great
lonization, migration, gender and sexuality. Britain, Portugal, France, Spain and the Netherlands were
particularly major imperial powers, but Russia, Germany,
Today, there are so many different ways to acquire much Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Belgium and Italy also had co-
of the knowledge we used to have to go to museums for. lonies and trading posts around the world. This colonial past
Today’s museums administer their curatorial authority in has had a great influence both on which art, cultural and
markedly different ways than in previous eras in history. natural objects these countries’ museums contain, and on
More than ever before, museums are increasingly invit- which stories these objects have been used to tell.
ing the public in as co-creators of exhibits and suppor-
ting and fostering dialog. No longer do museums aim However, the relationship between museums and states
simply to enlighten and edify the masses. In many places has proven to be unstable. Empires have been continuously
we see an attempt to rethink/think about the relationship dissolved and restructured, and the relationship between
between the museum and visitors on the basis of critical the former colonizing and colonized nations has changed
dialog. We are seeing an increasing number of examples significantly. Many states had to reconsider their narrative
of citizen science, in which citizens contribute, and col- identities after new borders were drawn and new states for-
laborate with museums to develop science. Several art med. During the 20th century, the more problematic cul-
museums work to co-create artworks with different local tural heritage of nation-states, state-induced violent pasts
population groups. In a Danish context, Trapholt Museum and human rights have increasingly been thematized in
is a particularly excellent example. museums. For example, after World War II, and especially
from the 1980s onwards, we have seen the establishment
The changing expectations of how museums should re- of a number of memorial museums commemorating the
late to the surrounding society place new demands on victims of the war (Grafenstein 2020).
museum staff, who must now not only have the knowled-
ge and ability to manage, interpret and engage audien- This development towards increased attention to ”decolo-
ces in their collections, but must also be able to deal with nizing the museum” relates to a far more comprehensive
visitors in new participatory, involving ways. In this con- development in society, where a number of actors in for-
text, the museums have a responsibility that is no longer mer colonial centers and formerly colonized countries are
about civilizing, edifying and educating the masses, but working to put paid to the colonial and imperial past and
about redefining the relationship with the audience in its continuing influence on the knowledge and cultural pro-
an empowering way that incorporates themes such as duction of a number of institutions. Museums can no longer
inequality and social justice. simply be viewed unproblematically as national educational
institutions for imaginary homogeneous publics. A number
A break with the museum’s colonial past concerns not of groups that were previously marginalized or objectified
only the possible return of objects and the right of coun- in museums have demanded the right of recognition and
tries to manage their own cultural heritage, but also a expression.
reconsideration of what we mean by museological pra-
ctices and knowledge production. Currently, a number Not all groups have equal access to visit, let alone construct,
of different strategies are being developed to tackle the cultural heritage narratives. Various marginalized and su-
colonial past and heritage of museums. One of them in- baltern groups have increasingly – sometimes on their own
volves exhibiting to a much greater extent the museum’s initiative, sometimes invited by museums – used the muse-
objects in ways that allow members of the cultures from um institution to negotiate and challenge hegemonic narra-
which the objects originate to contribute to the process tives. Collections, exhibitions and collection practices have
of creating and shaping the exhibits. been utilized to engage local communities and address va-
rious societal issues. Ethnic, sexual and religious minorities,
THE DECOLONIZATION OF THE MUSEUM women, indigenous peoples and other groups, which for
Museums and other institutions dedicated to cultural heri- various reasons are marginalized in relation
tage and knowledge – including libraries, archives, galleries to the power centers of nation-states, have

22
and educational institutions – help to create and maintain used museums in various political, cultural
hierarchies in relation to who produces knowledge and and social contexts. A number of museums,
about whom and what knowledge is produced. As pointed both large and small, have experimented
with letting these different groups and local communities ments and a rise in populism, identity politics and the idoli-
influence and negotiate representations of their history and zation of nationality.
culture. New exhibition formats have been developed with
new consignors, and existing collections have been viewed INDIGENOUS MUSEUMS
with new, critical eyes. Many cultural history museums have The idea of the museum as a particularly modern, We-
applied new practices to outsource the authority, in terms stern phenomenon is strongly rooted in museological
of documenting and interpreting cultural heritage, to the tradition (Kreps 2006: 476). However, in recent decades –
people affected by that cultural heritage. for example, in the traditions of comparative museology,
critical museum theory and critical museology – there
A number of European museums have accepted the con- has been an increasing interest in rewriting the history of
sequence of the increasing attention to the interweaving of museums in ways that value non-Western museum mo-
museums and objects in a colonial history, and in their exhi- dels and curatorial practices and broaden the spectrum
bition practice explicitly draw attention to the movement of of what we recognize as and call a ‘museum’.
the objects and the implications of this movement. Accor- In 1983, the New Zealand anthropologist Sidney Hirini
ding to this way of thinking, museums should include infor- Moko Mead published the article ’Indigenous Models of
mation about the objects’ origins, how they were acquired, Museums in Oceania’. According to Mead, the Western
and how they are connected to other cultures. Since 2015, museum is a ”highly specialized organization that has
certain museums in the Netherlands – for example, the Tro- become integrated into the socio-economic, technolo-
penmuseum – have made a strong mark within this trend. gical, philosophical and artistic contexts of Western na-
The current Tropenmuseum, today located in Amster- tions” (Mead 1983: 98). According to Mead, the equiva-
dam, opened in Haarlem in 1871 as ’the colonial museum’ lent of a museum in Maori society is the whare-whakairo
(Kolonial Museum) with an explicit agenda to convince the meeting house. Mead believes that what he calls ”the
Dutch people of the excellence of colonial trade (van Huis indigenous museum” is akin to a cultural center run by
2019:222). After Indonesia gained independence in 1949, local communities and integrated into people’s everyday
the museum changed its name to Tropenmuseum. Consi- life in a very different way than is the case with what he
stently, but especially since 2015, the Tropenmuseum has calls ”the western museum” (Mead 1983: 101). Like We-
worked in a number of ways to develop the representation stern museums, these cultural centers are repositories
of the Netherlands’ colonial past. The changes at Tropen- for culturally and historically valued artefacts, but they
museum have involved external actors with backgrounds in are also places for the ceremonial, religious and cultural
the countries of origin whose cultural artefacts have been practices of local communities. Another difference is
exhibited at the museum. Before, people with backgrounds the fact that the cultural centers do not have the same
in these locations, had no opportunity to influence the nar- professional managers but are run on the basis of local
ratives that had been constructed as prisms for interpreta- knowledge and expertise. Mead points out that similar
tion and representation. In the context of revising the mu- structures exist in other parts of Oceania. The discussi-
seum’s exhibits, these actors were invited to take a critical on about the so-called ’indigenous museum’ has, among
look at and rethink the museum. other things, dealt with the role that museums play, have
played and can play in areas of the world where there is
They identified how the museum, in its current form, re- still intense negotiation and sometimes conflict between
mained silent about the actual colonial violence, and re- indigenous populations and newly added population
produced colonial, racist hierarchies, in which the agency groups: for example, New Zealand, Australia, the United
and perspectives of non-Western actors were non-exi- States, Canada, Hawaii and those parts of Polynesia un-
stent, and precedence given to stories of white colonizers. der French rule.
Colonialism was overwhelmingly glorified as a mission that In countries that still today have groups of indigenous
brought civilization, science and progress to non-Western, populations, the confrontation with the colonial past and
‘uncivilized’ peoples (Huis 2019). themes such as recognition, representation and repatri-
ation raise special issues and are given special expres-
However, recent years have also shown examples of re- sions. In 1978, there was a UNESCO seminar on ’the role
newed extreme nationalism in some mu- of museums in preserving Indigenous Culture’ in the
seums: for example, in Eastern Europe. This Australian city of Adelaide. As a result of this seminar,

23
development is flanked by the fact that museums in the region have become much more con-
today we are witnessing an increase in the scious about employing members of the indigenous po-
number of transnational and global move-
pulation and giving them seats on boards, representing accessible to more diverse groups of users, projects
them in collections and recognizing them as actors who have also been developed that focus on opportunities
can convey their own history. The British colonization of and rights for people with physical or mental disabiliti-
Australia from 1788 onwards had disastrous consequen- es. The UK-based Curating for Change project (https://
ces for the indigenous population. Aborigines were first curatingforchange.org) works for example to tackle the
officially recognized by the Australian government and underrepresentation in museums of people who are deaf
counted in censuses in 1967. Up until then, they were not or neurodivergent or have physical and mental disabili-
regarded as Australian citizens and did not have the right ties. This underrepresentation is evident among emplo-
to vote, labor law protection or the right to social bene- yees and visitors, and in the stories told in the museums.
fits. Not until 1993 were they given the right to fight for In 2017, the theme for the American Alliance of Museums
ownership of additional land. (AAM) annual meeting was ‘Gateways for Understanding
In Canada and the United States too, this problem has Diversity, Equity, Accessibility, and Inclusion in Museums.’
received a great deal of coverage. For example, the Today, an increasing number of museums have speci-
Abbe Museum in Maine, founded in 1926 on the basis a al exhibits and/or exhibit formats for people with visual
collection of artifacts related and belonging to the Na- impairment. As early as 1886, a small museum called Le
tive American population, for example, has the following Musée Valentin Haüy opened in Paris. It was founded by
vision, which explicitly expresses an ambition to reflect Maurice de La Sizranne and exhibits objects designed for
on and realize ’decolonizing practices’: the blind. However, it is unlike later museums created to
The Abbe Museum will reflect and realize the values of decolo- be experienced by the blind. But the Museo Tiflológico
nization in all of its practices, working with the Wakanabe Na- (Museum of the Blind), opened in Madrid in 1992, is. Crea-
tions to share their stories, history and culture with a broader ted by the Spanish blind organization ONCE, the muse-
audience. (from the museum’s webpage). um gives blind and partially sighted visitors the opportu-
nity to use touch to familiarize themselves with famous
1989 saw the creation of the National Museum of the buildings, the history of braille and tactile works of art
American Indian, and in 1990, the United States Con- created by blind and partially sighted people. Since 1985,
gress passed the Native American Graves Protection The Victoria & Albert Museum in London has staged se-
and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA). NAGPRA requires all veral annual events with a special focus on the tactile,
state-supported institutions to register and publish lists aimed at people with visual impairment, and provides a
of objects related to burials, religious practices and mor- sensory backpack for children and families with visual
tal remains originating from indigenous peoples. impairment. Since 2002, the V&A has had Barry Ginley,
who is blind himself, as its Disability and Access Officer.
Various museum associations have also begun to ad- The Louvre and The Smithsonian, for example, hold inte-
dress the racist and imperialist implications of the past ractive ’InSight tours’ for small groups of blind and visu-
collection practices and curation of museums (Cahan ally impaired visitors, and in Athens you can touch copies
2016). Museum Detox is a network of people of color of original Greek works at the Tactual Museum.
known as BAME (Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic) who
work in museums, galleries and the heritage sector in the One hallmark of these initiatives is their conviction that
UK. The association’s mission is as follows: the sense of sight as just one of several senses – touch,
Museum Detoxers empower and support each other to heal, to hearing or smell – that you can use when visiting a muse-
be ourselves and to reclaim our history. We collectively learn um. From a purely curatorial point of view, rethinking mu-
ways to practice self and community care, collective action and seums and making them more accessible and inclusive
solidarity. Through our self-actualisation we will inspire more also involves thinking ‘outside the display case’, so that a
equitable museums and cultural heritage sector. (from the museum’s objects become more physically and tactilely
association’s webpage). accessible, enabling visitors to interact with them more
directly. It is highly likely that in the coming years we will
Museum Detox works to achieve greater equality for pe- see more and more museums co-creating with people
ople of color in the heritage sector by implementing pra- with different disabilities in order to include experiences
ctices that create more inclusion, equity and justice. and representations of disability and vari-
ous perspectives on it.

24
THE INCLUSIVE MUSEUM
Concomitant with the increased focus of recent deca- LGBTQ+ ACTIVISM AND QUEERATION
des on how museums can be made more inclusive and Another area where there has been in-
creasing concern about how museums produce know- In 2016, the Leslie Lohman Museum of Art opened in New
ledge, and how they include or exclude different actors York, a platform for artistic exploration on the basis of
in their knowledge production, is the effort to rethink and queer perspectives, with the goal of using art to explo-
expand the ways in which museums produce ideas about re, support and inspire the understanding of LGBTQIA+
gender and sexuality. Museums help shape cultural experiences. The history of the museum dates back to
norms and values and historically have been remarkably 1969, when the couple Charles Leslie and Fritz Lohman –
silent about the history, lives, experiences and struggles the same year as the Stonewall Riots and at a time when
of lesbian, gay, transgender and queer people. Since the that type of art was controversial – opened an exhibit in
1960s, there has been increasing LGBTQI+ activism in the their attic apartment in the South Village, featuring art
public space. Sexual and gender minorities have deman- that thematized homosexuality. Over the following years,
ded equal rights, visibility and social, cultural and political the couple went on to collect large amounts of homo-
representation. In recent decades, in many countries, this erotic, homoromantic and homopolitical art from various
development has also caught on in the museum world: places in the world: an art form that in many places is se-
both through attempts to integrate sexual minorities into cret and frowned upon.
existing museums – for example by exhibiting the muse-
ums’ already existing collections with special attention The documentation and dissemination of LGBTQI+ hi-
to sexual minorities and their history, and on the basis of story has given rise to a number of different curatorial
new, more autonomous initiatives that operate on their strategies. Since 2008, a Swedish NGO, The Unstraight
own terms outside the existing institutions and power Museum (UM) has collaborated with LGBTQI+ NGOs
structures (Chantraine and Soaeres 2021). around the world to collect, disseminate and make histo-
ry available from a non-normative perspective. In 2022,
The advent of LGBTQ+ activism in museums is also con- Norsk Museumstidsskrift marked the 50th anniversary
cerned with showing how museums reproduce hetero- of the decriminalization of sex between men in Norway
and cis-normative representations. In 1981, the first wo- with the theme issue Queive blikk på museene. In the in-
men’s museum in the world was established in Bonn, and troduction, the editors treated the issue in the light of
since then women’s and gender museums have been international focus on queering the museum, pointing
established in a large number of countries. Some of the- out that, by virtue of their knowledge of history, muse-
se have their own physical spaces, others are purely vir- ums are particularly well equipped to make history more
tual, and some – for example, Kvinnohistoriskt Museum in diverse and connect past and present, and that a queer
Stockholm - does not have a fixed location, but mounts approach to collections of museums has helped develop
exhibitions and events in various locations. The general the museums’ knowledge development (Walle, Fojuth,
ambition of these museums and exhibits is to disrupt Jernsletten and Koren 2022).
and change existing, dominant gender representations,
compensate for epistemic injustice (Fricker 2017) and There are only a few LGBTQI+ museums in the world. On
develop a feminist reading of culture and history (Clover the other hand, interesting formats have been developed
2022). to occupy existing museums. We find not only positions
that work to expand the palette of which genders and
Schwules Museum opened in Berlin in 1985 – the first mu- sexualities can find themselves presented in museum
seum in the world dedicated to gay history. Since 2009 spaces, but also more radical voices that want to queer
it has increasingly expanded its remit to include other the museums (Sullivan and Middleton 2019; Walle, Fo-
sexual minorities too. 1985 also saw the opening of the juth, Jernsletten and Koren 2022). Queer theory insists
Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Historical Socie- on not simply accepting a narrative to expand the palette
ty Museum in San Francisco. of representation, but on destabilizing the interpretation/
public engagement situation itself and the understan-
The Museu da Divesidade Sexual in São Paulo opened ding of gender. Developments in LGBTQi+ museology
in 2012 in memory of victims of the AIDS epidemic. The reflect developments in LGBTQI+ activism. Just as more
museum’s mission is to preserve the social and political traditional, identity-based, lesbian and gay activism of-
cultural heritage of the Brazilian LGBT ten acts politically on the basis of an understanding of
community, contribute to the visibility gender and sexuality, in which the political action is based

25
and appreciation of diversity and fight for on a solidary identification with a special group, museo-
citizenship and human rights. It is the first logical strategies also exist that are about making visible
museum in Latin America with this focus. and fighting for the history, cultural heritage and rights of
a particular group. Queer political activism works more mony and a stabilization of power that inevitably involves
radically to reject heteronormative logics and systems forms of exclusion. According to Mouffe, a successful
rather than to achieve tolerance within the heteronorma- democratic order is not one that removes differences, di-
tive system. (Munuz 2009, Halberstam 2013, Sedgwick visions and conflicts, but one that reduces antagonisms
2013, Fabian 2023). In tandem with this, museological and manages conflicts in ways that recognize contra-
strategies exist that are about destabilizing and disrup- sting differences as legitimate but still oppositional. In her
ting the normative knowledge production of museums. radical concept of democracy, Mouffe is more concer-
The anthology Queering the Museum (ed. Nikki Sullivan ned with conflict and disagreement than with consensus
and Craig Middleton) develops a queer-theoretical ana- as the necessary virtue of democracy. Nora Sternfeld
lysis of how museums constitute their own knowledge transfers this radical democratic view of the necessity of
production. conflict and Mouffe’s idea of radical democratic citizens-
hip and the necessary antagonistic pluralism and plural
THE RADICAL DEMOCRATIC MUSEUM antagonism of democracy to the museum; for examp-
In summary, we can conclude that in the context of spe- le, in her work Das radikaldemokratische Museum (2018),
cifically rethinking the museum institution, it is essenti- which has made a great impact – particularly on Ger-
al to make it clear how one understands and works with man museum theory. According to Sternfeld, the idea of
concepts such as inclusion, diversity, representation, ju- being a neutral moderator is a post-democratic fantasy.
stice and equality and particular the tools and opportuni- The radical democratic museum must therefore be an
ties for action these understandings facilitate. emancipatory space for self-reflexive criticism, allowing
itself to be changed and challenged by external voices,
“The master’s tools will never dismantle the master’s house. making conflicts clear and acknowledging the strugg-
They may allow us to temporarily beat him at his own game, les against inclusion in ways that do not pretend that the
but they will never enable us to bring about genuine chan- conflict has been resolved, or remain silent about exclu-
ge.”(Lorde 2007). sions (Sternfeld 2018).
Thus wrote the self-identified lesbian feminist Audre
Lorde in 1978. The question remains as to what extent it Nick Stanley, editor of the anthology The Future of Indi-
is possible to decolonize and queer the museum, becau- genous Museums: Perspectives from the South Pacific
se historically there is no denying that it was one of (2007), proposed that we stop regarding the Western
“the master’s tools”. One of those who have expressed museum as a stable entity and instead view it as a dyna-
skepticism about this possibility is the British indepen- mic institution that is constantly in the process of consi-
dent researcher Sumaya Kassim. Kassim was part of a dering its own legitimacy in relation to changing publics
group of co-curators invited in 2017 to create the exhi- (Stanley 2007:7). In a museum context, the discussion
bition ’#ThePastIsNow’ at Birmingham Museum and Art about justice relates partly to the question of how the in-
Gallery. “Decolonising is deeper than just being repre- dividual actors and museums recognize their own positi-
sented,” (Kassim 2017) wrote Kassim in the article ’The on vis-à-vis privileges, access, class, power and money.
Museum will not be decolonized’, in which she reflects Museum-wise, this work is also about identifying how,
on whether in such projects one can move beyond toke- throughout history, museums have functioned and con-
nism. Kassim raises the question of how we can prevent tinue to function in ways that prioritize and strengthen
decolonization from becoming just another part of the particular forms of knowledge and knowledge-creating
imperial museum’s collection: actors.

“I do not want to see decolonisation become part of Britain’s In summary, one can conclude that museums have al-
national narrative as a pretty curio with no substance – or, ways been political, but that to a great extent their autho-
worse, for decoloniality to be claimed as yet another great Bri- rity and curatorial practices are being deconstructed
tish accomplishment: the railways, two world wars, one world and rethought. Museums and museological practices are
cup, and decolonisation.” (Kassim 2017). also concerned with social and epistemological justice.
But how do we progress beyond tokenism? Queer theory
In Hegemony and Radical Democracy (written with Erne- insists on not simply accepting a narrative
sto Laclau) and The Democratic Paradox (2000), the Bel- to expand the palette of representation,

26
gian philosopher Chantal Mouffe sets out to reformulate but to destabilize the interpretation/pub-
radical democracy as agonistic politics. According to lic engagement situation itself. In parallel,
Mouffe, any consensus is the result of temporary hege- the decolonization will not only politely
accept the invitation to co-curate, but instead decon-
struct the museum’s inherited narratives.

Museums connect past, present and future and are in-

creasingly preoccupied with the double whammy of si-
multaneously acknowledging how history lives on today,
while at the same time experimenting with handing over
the microphone and curatorial narrative authority to
new actors who can help museums become democratic
spaces in radically new ways. For any readers who might
want to participate in this further rethinking and who seek
inspiration, this book’s bibliography features a number of
references to a wide variety of websites from museum
networks or museums that have made their experiences
available to the general public.

1
When Christian Jürgen Thomsen was
given responsibility for the storage of
ancient antiquities, he also decided
that they should be registered, sorted
and classified according to the ca-
tegories Stone Age, Bronze Age and
Iron Age. This categorization went on
to become fundamental in terms of

27
archeological research in Europe.

2
The first people’s museum was built in
Christiania (present-day Oslo) in 1881.
DIALOGS ON MUSEUM
RESILIENCE

ANNESOFIE NORN INTRODUCTION

Curator at the Museum for the United Nations - UN Live Genuinely pivotal moments are rare.
(Denmark)
The COVID-19 pandemic has led humanity to experien-
DIANE DRUBAY ce an unprecedented sense of collective grief across the
Founder of We Are Museums (France) world. The vulnerability of our bodies and of our econo-
mic and social systems were then exposed and tested to
SANDRO DEBONO the core. But, as the world was then closing down, we also
Academic at the University of Malta (Malta) got the chance to prepare for what would come next. As
Alessandra Morelli, the UNHCR Representative in Niger
Bidragydere: noted back then: “It may feel like our lives are on hold right now. But
MILENA JOKANOVIĆ with resilience we can start building for the future.” (Morreli 2023)
Research-associate at the University of Belgrade, and
associate of the Museum of Yugoslavia (Serbia) We know that museums are coming to terms with their
pivotal role in this new decade, shifting their mission tow-
JULIE DECKER ards their social and cultural responsibility, understan-
Director/CEO of the Anchorage Museum in Alaska (Uni- ding their impact on local communities and engaging in
ted States) key social debates. This type of leadership requires sub-
stantial innovation, boldness, honesty and, as Robert R.
CRISTINA LLERAS Janes (founder of the Coalition of Museums for Clima-
Independent curator currently working for the Museum te Justice) adds, “unprecedented cooperation” (Janes
of Bogotá (Colombia) 2019). We also know that many voices are still left out of
mainstream networks. This is one good reason for ral-
JULIE ROKKJÆR BIRCH lying and synergizing the global museum community to
Former director of KØN - Gender Museum Denmark come together in new conversations, and set the examp-
le of a new solidarity model of exchange within the global
DOCTOR KRISTIN ALFORD museum sector that can contribute towards the 2030
Director of MOD. at the University of South Australia Sustainable Development Goals.
(Australia)
We need to understand what actions our institutions can
PROFESSOR LINDSEY MCEWEN and should take to help communities rise stronger and
Director of the Centre for Water, Communities and become more resilient. This is not just necessary for the
Resilience, University of the West of England (United post-COVID-19 world, but also, and even more so, in the
Kingdom) face of the much bigger planetary emergency we are
also facing.

One thing the year 2020 taught us is how we are all intrin-
sically connected.

From May 2020 to February 2021, We Are Museums and

29
the Museum for the United Nations – UN Live convened
an ongoing conversation on the basis of online dialogs
between networks of museums for the purpose of fo-
stering collective wisdom and strategic know-how. Mu- foster. Peripheries could be the places where post-CO-
seums with recent experience of rebuilding and trans- VID-19 museums can understand and assimilate resilien-
forming collective stories of trauma through cultural ce.
programs can help us all find our way in this changing
world. The seeds of resilience can also be found in activism,
particularly when directed towards rethinking narratives
Through this series we wanted to find a form of conver- informed by anticipated futures. Experiences of museum
sation and dialog that could illustrate our connectedness: activism presented during these encounters came from
how one insight, shared with one person, will have a ripp- Bogotá in Colombia and the city of Aarhus in Denmark.
le effect on conversations happening in 2nd, 3rd and 4th When a museum chooses to become an activist, resili-
degrees. Like a relay race, the conversation was set bet- ence becomes a necessary skill. The greater the chal-
ween two people, representing different points of view on lenge, the greater the need to persevere and the more
the subject of resilience and supporting a great variety of that need increases over time. Resilience is certainly re-
perspectives. Each participant joined conversations, first quired to navigate the uncertainties of the present, but
as the interviewee and then as the interviewer. the desired ambition that these conversations explore is
much more about the long-term. The pivotal role muse-
This series of online dialogs took place on the We Are ums have today involves envisaging the future and re-
Museums online community, a global neutral space that flecting on the past, constructing alternative narratives
rethinks and reshapes museums. In parallel, the guests of the future and offering possibilities, not just visions of
have been contributing to this collaborative reflection in- catastrophes. Regardless of its collections, themes, size
spired and influenced by their online interactions.3 and place, no museum can ignore the upheaval we are
living through. The call to activism has never been so
OVERVIEW pronounced. It is up to museums to incubate that spark
This series of conversations may hopefully serve the to become something bigger over the long term. This is
purpose of a compass with which museums can take the a time when much can be questioned. That too is what
bearings of resilience. From Alaska to Aarhus, Belgrade resilience stands for.
to Bogotá, participants sought to discover the meaning
of resilience for museums through stories told and expe- In their call to activism, museums can also become
riences lived within the global museum ecosystem. One the voice of their communities. Our conversations also
guiding question keeps all conversations in focus: how tracked a community-driven type of resilience, which
can we build new habits of resilience as the museum may also rethink the use of museum collections as testi-
ecosystem equips and prepares itself for a post-CO- mony to the past and tools for the future. When collective
VID-19 world? The resilience presented in these conver- action is required in the face of crisis, museums can be-
sations is elastic and agile, creative and active. Here, we come beacons of hope. Resilience may be about having
explore museum thinking that does not emerge from the the courage to change course and lead that change on
stereotypical but comes from beyond. behalf of communities. Museums are certainly not neu-
tral, and in times of crisis the call to action is akin to an
The conversations started by exploring how the politics obligation. It is naive to think that we can proceed in this
of post-war territories can incubate meaningful resili- complex world doing business as usual. Resilience can
ence. The practice of collecting by artists active in the empower museums with the courage to move forward.
former Republic of Yugoslavia brought into focus a par-
ticular type of resilience informed by alternative narrati- Nevertheless, when all is said and done, resilience can
ves. By collecting disowned and rejected objects, acti- best be learned through first-hand experiences. We
ons and stories, these artists sought to inspire the world might consider that to be a learning-by-doing approach
around us. These conversations also presented new ways too. Taking the plunge may not be an option for some
of remapping our perspective and thinking. What we re- museums but these case studies can certainly provide
gard as the peripheries of our world, society and culture the missing spark to set things in motion, hopefully for
can be seen as resourceful places where we can learn the long-term ambition of fostering better futures.
resilience. The challenges may be much bigger and more

30
complex for the Anchorage Museum in Alaska, but the
lack of an institutionalized tradition or established mu-
seological practice made meaningful changes easier to
 Dialog #1
BUILD COLLECTIVE CULTURAL
RESILIENCE THROUGH CREATIVE
COLLECTING
Dialog between Milena Jokanović (MJ), research-associate at the University of
Belgrade, and associate of the Museum of Yugoslavia (Serbia) and Annesofie Norn
(AN), Lead curator at the Museum for the United Nations – UN Live (Denmark)

The recorded version of this dialog was broadcast on the We Are Museums online
platform on May 27, 2020.

AN Heritage values can create a strong sensation of a shared “we”, provi-

de support and help communities build resilience to absorb disturban-
ces. At the same time, the sensation of shared identity has also featu-
red prominently in national campaigns to “take back control” of Britain
through Brexit and “America first” with Donald Trump.

I enter these dialogs in the hope that we can use the global crisis we are
facing to move beyond national identity paradigms and instead build
new collective understandings and resources informing heritage values
based on the ideals of a “global we”.

Never before have we been so globally connected. Never before have

we experienced a global crisis on such a scale. By bringing different
voices together in dialog on the topic of resilience, we will explore the
tensions, synergies and creative opportunities from past, present and
future experiences of the crisis.

The first dialog with Milena Jokanović will explore the lessons we can
learn from memories and archives from the dissolution of Yugoslavia in
the 1990s.

MJ Quite a few terms come to my mind when reflecting on the museum

and arts sector in general during the current pandemic. Resilience,
solidarity, creativity and collecting processes are some of those I choo-
se when contemplating potential strategies to overcome this turbulent
period. Very important, I believe, is the process of creative collecting as
a response to the crisis. Moreover, COLLECTION (collecting process)
and CREATIVITY (art), make us RESILIENT. These three words frame
my thoughts and reflections.

The International Committee of Museums’ report on COVID-19 pub-

lished in April 2020 a list of steps for museums to address resilience.
 “3D Wallpaper for Children’s Room:
Mickey Mouse Pattern” and “Tricolor
(Flag of Yugoslavia)” by Vladimir
Perić. Property of the Museum of
Childhood Art Project.

The sixth step is particularly telling: “Consider the possibility of rapid

response collecting and documenting the crisis and its impact, and
promise to come back to it afterwards.” (ICOM 2020).
Equally important to collecting is, as I argued, creativity, so we could
turn to UNESCO’s action: “RESILIART Artists and Creativity beyond
Crisis, with a subtitle: “Because art and creativity make us resilient.”
(UNESCO 2020).

One has to keep in mind that: “The system of art is resilient and art is
now responsible for change. Artists are the people who provide mate-
rial for imagining a different future.” (Eno & Varoufakis 2020). Coming
from Serbia, and researching contemporary art practice that often
uses memory as raw material for further work, I recognized powerful
personal memories represented with objects and strong emotional
responses being built in artworks.

The 1990s were very turbulent times for the Balkans. The dissolution of
Yugoslavia was followed by socio-economic instabilities and shifts in
political ideology, cultural policy and public memory. A thriving cultural
sector was one of the victims. The museum institutions of the region
failed to agree on how best to communicate the crisis and how to re-
present the (lost) identity, including individual destinies. Artists stepped
in spontaneously and took on the role of preservers of memories. Their
activities resulted in a parallel, independent art scene. Finally, they
created not only ready-made installations, but also entire artists’ mu-
seums, such as the Museum of Childhood as well as The Inner Museum
(Museum of Kitsch).

Walking through bankrupted factories, abandoned houses and flea

markets, artists picked up the material culture of Yugoslavia’s socialist
times, using it as raw material to reinterpret and transform into works of
art. Trash was the material to use in an economic crisis, but it also ser-
ved as a social critique by preserving individual memories and conse-
quently stimulating discussion. The flea market from which artists pick-
ed their material culture, can be understood as a symbolical, valueless
and timeless limbo, from which chosen objects were recontextualized
and transformed into important carriers of memories. The above-men-
tioned artists’ museums, therefore, captured collective memories, even
including public monuments, which were frequently removed or even
cut in times of crisis. Some of these collections were later acquired by
museum institutions.
AN It is, indeed, fascinating how the most mundane objects and personal
stories became a material culture for artists’ collections during the
dissolution of Yugoslavia. At a historic time when museums were clo-
sed and collections no longer accessible, discarded property, objects
and personal memories came to represent the (hi)story. Today these
collections have an essential role to play in supporting a new collective
identity and shared heritage values for the region. In Serbia, these re-
sponses helped communities see the world from a different angle and
to look forward.

In a sense, today we are in a similar interim period, in the midst of a

crisis, with our institutions closed. Milena sees this as an opportunity to
build new collections of “micro-memories” to be used as raw material
for re-imagining who we are. These creative responses to turbulence
are important strategies with which to build resilience. By collecting a
diversity of personal testimonies, we can help give our communities
more solidarity and inclusiveness.

AUDIENCE REACTION
The first phase of this dialog created strong emotions within the audi-
ence and many participants could relate to what Milena shared, even if
the context, time or causes were fundamentally different. Very quickly,
the question of relevance became central in the discussion.

Afterwards, it broached the lack of distance to history that might

distort our choice of collecting and the fact that collectors need to
be conscious of biases towards one story more than others. Today, as
during the dissolution, we need to create inclusive collections aimed at
a shared issue, acknowledging deviant viewpoints and experiences.

These comments highlighted vulnerable communities as they often

lack the capacity to collect their memories. If we want to create colle-
ctions that build inclusiveness, then we need to be aware of the inequ-
alities that make some people’s memories less resilient. Although we
are now in a moment where we all have shared memory, we will see it
presented very differently in the future, depending on who is the owner
of the (hi)story and their agency of building resilience.

MJ I argue that collecting and creativity as an immediate response to the

crisis are strategies for resilience. Moreover, these processes give us
the potential for imagining the world and all of us in this world different-
ly. So, maybe the crisis of this scale, when every individual, as well as
all humankind, is vulnerable, is the right moment to rethink that “global
identity” with all the new, real and virtual, spaces of its embodiment.

It is invaluable when people get inspired with the crisis and have a
strong creative response to the state of fear, loneliness due to isolation
and sadness or rage. This is why I think that museums, artists and cul-
tural workers should use this momentum to create comfort and conne-
ction through culture.
In the next dialog with Julie Decker I want to explore further how one
museum institution succeeds in constantly evolving and engaging the
community, tending to finally construct the image of a more positive
world in the future.

34
 Dialog #2
CREATIVITY BEYOND CRISIS -
EXPANDING PERSPECTIVES AND
ENCOURAGING GLOBAL Dialog

Dialog between Julie Decker (JD), Director/CEO of the Anchorage Museum in Alaska
(United States) and Milena Jokanović (MJ), research-associate at the University of
Belgrade and associate of the Museum of Yugoslavia (Serbia)

The recorded version of this dialog was broadcast on the We Are Museums online
platform on July 9, 2020.

MJ How can a museum serve its community? What is the social role of
this institution? How are we engaging audiences, listening to different
voices, representing a variety of cultures? How are we interpreting and
extending museum collections to make them stay relevant? Finally,
what are the steps museums can take to stay resilient in a time of crisis
and how can it help us transcend the trauma?

Just as turbulent circumstances are the result of different factors such

as economy, health issues, conflicts, climate change and many more,
there are also many different examples of museum resilience. However,
the common ground for each initiative is creativity. Not just the arti-
stic creativity, which is enabling us to envisage the image of the world
and new horizons in it, but also the creativity of a museum as a social
institution.

Preparing for the conversation with Julie Decker and researching the
activities of the Anchorage Museum of which she is director, I was
stunned by how optimistic museological theory is coming to life in this
institution. Our dialog is based on the idea of a museum as a chan-
ging, engaging, constantly learning and open institution that is using
its important resources smartly and that is created to see, act and be
beyond crisis.

JD The Anchorage Museum exists in a Northern place long colonized by European

explorers and, like many museums, in conception was a symbol of colonial Euro-
pean colonization. It is from here that we think about the ways climate change
colonizes and how we need to decolonize to respond.

In 2015, we installed ‘Chin’an Gu Ninyu’ on our façade – or “Welcome, You Came

Here” in the language of the Dena’ina, the Indigenous people of Anchorage.
The most common map views of the world feature the Mediterranean at the
center. Alaska is at the edge, squished out of scale and at the periphery. Maps
of the United States show Alaska decapitated, floating around by the equa-
tor with Hawaii. But we suggest that periphery and center are relative to your
point of view.

The Arctic has long been considered remote, vast, empty, white and unpopu-
lated. Pristine and now precarious. Colonizers brought disease, religion and
rape. Alaska was sold from Russia to the United States, and referred to as a
folly. President Trump wants Greenland. A decolonized view suggests a story
of Indigenous people who have survived for millennia in the place. The reality
television series that portrays Alaska resists decolonization. It places ideas of
the periphery – people at the edge of both place and norms.

Today’s global climate crisis affects the most vulnerable people and places.
The coastline of Alaska is eroding. Our edges are crumbling, but our edge is
that we have been responding and adapting first. Being an ally and forming
alliances require a deep understanding of deep time and a deep connection
between people and landscape – at the core of Indigenous knowledge.

Climate change has brought new economies, curiosity seekers and art, scien-
ce and environment tourists – a sort of last-chance tourism – and tourism has
long colonized Northern places and other places considered peripheral. We
need a radical shift in thinking.

The sustainable architecture, design and technology of the North can be

found in everyday Indigenous knowledge. The periphery is not simply a place
of catastrophe, disconnected from its future. Perhaps our centers are behind.

The periphery is the front line of colonization, extraction and climate – and as
a result, it is a place of activism, of strong Indigenous voices, who react, and
respond, who remind us of our nature and our human nature, and who ask
us to listen in new ways. We are interested not in a frontier past or a wild west,
but an acknowledgement of language and values, of people and landscape
in a reciprocal relationship. We are marked by our histories. We search for a
collective way forward. People of peripheries are not silent, but visible. In our
urban places, we need to recognize the places and people beyond, who are
witnessing change.

Climate change is one of the most pressing social and environmental issues
and will require radical, innovative thinking to understand its complexity, and
to respond. Climate knowledge is distributed differently and has been consi-
stently negotiated at the edges – in places considered peripheral. The power
to respond to the greatest global experiment is in knowledge centers rather
than economic centers. Knowledge exists in the places that have responded
for millennia, that have not lost connection to the natural world. Peripheries
are created through geographies, economies and politics. These places have
been forced to exhibit a different kind of resilience and invention than is found
at our global cores.
 Anchorage Museum.
Tilhører Anchorage Museum.

At the Anchorage Museum, we seek radically new modes of thinking and

responding. We develop projects that are about invention and iteration, about
response and overreaction. We explore action beyond social action and
beyond current academic definitions, proposing a new kind of discipline in
response. The North is a compelling place to explore these ideas, as the North
is changing more rapidly than any other place on Earth and must respond first
– making it a place of radical invention. To grasp a global response, we have to
put the peripheries at the center.

MJ Julie’s inspiring attitude teaches us that resilience is based on the point

of view of the world and in the language we use to name the things
around us. Having a vision of a more positive future and finding ways to
look forward constitute a strategy to overcome the crisis.

As she argues, we should not see our world through economic centers,
but rather through learning centers. With this attitude, we could be ca-
pable of inventing a new kind of resilience that is on our global course,
to be more connected to the natural world, to involve and represent a
variety of voices, and to rethink our identity with all its alternatives and
differences.

To base response over reaction, action beyond the social action and
current academic disciplines. To build a new discipline in response!
AUDIENCE REACTION
Julie’s presentation inspired a very dynamic conversation, in which par-
ticipants were intrigued by the idea of flipping the standard map and
thinking of a place as an important point of departure for the function
of a museum. It was also seen as a strategy for rethinking traditional
models of a museum institution: exhibition-making, image building and
knowledge perception. So, Julie explained how the Anchorage Museum
is, on the one hand, training its staff to use new media for expression
and move out of museum buildings and, on the other, inviting Indi-
genous people to raise their voices and artists to work long term within
the institution to tackle relevant problems.

Questioning the role of the museum in the context of local as well as

global identity-building led the discussion further to broach the issues
of a particular museum’s uniqueness and response to the needs of the
multicultural local community on one hand, and relevance on a global
scale, on the other. We stressed the potential of a pandemic situation in
creating a sense of togetherness in solving a global problem.

Finally, the discussion turned to the issue of the sustainability of the

museum, which is changing and moving beyond traditional frames.
Concluding that the Anchorage Museum used the opportunity of not
being the most popular institution considering its location and colle-
ction to experiment with programs and formats, we could understand
how the relevance is based on the idea, responsibility and social role of
the museum, but also how this approach eventually proves to be trans-
formative for the economic state as well.

JD Museums need radical change and need to be part of that change. They
need to move from theory to practice.

As museums, the imperative is to play a role in finding new ways of telling the
story of our place, and what our place might mean for the rest of the world.
As the world faces the unprecedented climate crisis and pandemics, muse-
ums are more important than ever for facilitating essential human connec-
tion and making meaning. As a result of these crises, human ways of life and
ecosystems will be changed, and the impacts will vary over time and with the
ability of different societal and environmental systems to mitigate or adapt.
Museums have a role to play in helping people imagine and contemplate that
future.

38
 DIALOG #3
SHIFTED NARRATIVES
THE RELEVANCE OF PAST AND
FUTURE
Dialog between Cristina Lleras (CL), independent curator currently working for the
Museum of Bogotá (Colombia) and Julie Decker (JD), Director/CEO of the Anchorage
Museum in Alaska (United States).

The recorded version of this dialog was broadcast on the We Are Museums online
platform on August 11, 2020.

JD Museums have often thought about permanent galleries, permanent

histories and linear historical narratives. They have often looked to the
past. We examine the ideas of permanence and relevance, suggesting
that the most pivotal role of museums may be to envisage the future
in addition to reflecting on the past. We must learn to complexify the
narratives, include multiple perspectives and forums, and move away
from the idea of the authoritative voice and the known. We should be
part of telling stories of lived experience and part of imagining a better
future for all.

CL The COVID-19 pandemic is yet another sign of the need to change

gear and transform our relationships with the human and non-human
world. The coronavirus can be understood as a big red sign alerting
us to take the climate and social crises seriously. Museums have an
important role to play in stepping up to the challenges societies face all
around the globe.

During the lockdown of early 2020, the team at the Museo de Bogotá
–a small scale museum in Colombia´s capital – developed a collabora-
tive digital exhibition on Instagram (@museodebogota) to reflect upon
the local impact of the 1918 influenza epidemic. This experiment – a
means of responding quickly to the changing context – enabled us to
think about relevance as museum professionals and what the Museum
could offer its audiences amidst such uncertainty. From the engage-
ments and what users shared with us, we learned that the past, the
traumatic events of 1918, can not only shed light on the possibility of
overcoming present-day circumstances, but also highlight the challen-
ges that remain.

Elaine Heumann Gurian calls this “timeliness”, a means to describe

rapid responses to the unpredictable and unexpected (Gurian 2003).
 Being relevant and responsive is not only about choosing exhibition
topics but also being able to offer services to affected communities
that might not fit the museological canon. Giving up programming to
become a space for solace, for instance.

How do we collectively overcome the impact of a pandemic? The virus

and its consequences have locked us not only in our homes (if we have
the privilege), but also in time. Suddenly every day was Groundhog
Day. Daily tasks and screens became the measure of our days. After
looking at the past, my proposal is that we suspend this present, as
overwhelming as it is, to be able to imagine a future that is not “normal”
(in the sense of going back to where we were before), but where we can
redefine notions of care and solidarity. This does not mean ignoring the
crisis, but putting it on hold in our minds.

In this scenario, museums can construct alternative narratives of

the future that offer possibilities – not only catastrophes. No muse-
um, regardless of its collections, themes, size or place, can ignore the
upheaval we are living through. Even if they are not in the realm of the
natural sciences, museums can learn from science to find pathways
of dialog and change. We need transformations, not only in terms of
how we engage with audiences in debates about the future, but also in
terms of how museums see themselves and their role in the capitalistic
system.

At first, I resisted the idea of reopening the physical space of the Museo
de Bogotá, because I did not find that the permanent exhibition (inau-
gurated in June 2019) responded coherently to the present. I found my-
self wanting to suspend the exhibition to create projects outside of the
building, going out to communities and providing opportunities for pe-
ople to connect. Making the museum a platform. This was a chance to
rethink the museum, once again, in terms of what it can do for others,
as opposed to creating exhibitions as final products for consumption.

JD Museums have long been about their buildings, exhibitions and colle-
ctions. But what if those “assets” prevent museums from truly serving
audiences and from being relevant? How do we break away from co-
lonial ideas of collecting and representation and embrace more nimble
and agile ideas and definitions of what a museum is? Collections should
be about storytelling – relevant to now and the future, to the broadest
range of audiences. If the stories are not relevant, neither are we.

CL These are some of the ideas that I take away from the conversation.

These times of crisis provide an opportunity to rethink our practice. We

can question everything: collecting, exhibitions, buildings and commu-
nities. We can also reconsider the time about which we are able to tell
stories: the past, the present, the future.

The past is meaningless if the museum’s collections are not read in the
light of the needs of the present and future. It becomes a burden if it
is fetishized and if all resources are put into this exercise. We briefly
mentioned the museum as a hoarder, much in tune with the capitalist
logic of accumulation, as a practice that needs to be transformed. As
an alternative, we can think about learning a language rather than an
object-based practice.

Museums also need to think about the narratives we believe will be of

use to future generations. Can we create a language that accurately
reflects the lessons we derive from the pandemic? Can we collect the
future to transform present-day practices?

What effective role can museums play in this crisis? Can museums be
sites for transformation? We don’t need to think about the climate and
social crisis in the same way, but we do need to think about them at the
same time.

Even though as professionals we have been talking about community

participation for decades, the notion of the museum as a listener to
experiences of resilience rather than as a talker still a practice needs to
be further developed. Can we create new methodologies?

What does it mean to be a museum professional during the pre-

sent-day social and climate crisis? There is no easy or single answer to
this question. I think its importance implies that we continue to debate
the possibilities.

41
 Dialog #4
TAKING A STAND POLITICS,
RESILIENCE AND SOCIAL CHANGE
Dialog between Julie Rokkjaer Birch (JRB), former Director of KØN - Gender Museum
Denmark and Cristina Lleras (CL), independent curator currently working for the
Museum of Bogotá (Colombia)

The recorded version of this dialog was broadcast on the We Are Museums online
platform on September 22, 2020

CL Museums have been thought of (and some still are) as “neutral” and
objective, interpreted by some as disengaged from the political and
social upheavals of our time. Museums take different stands towards
the changing world. One way we have approached this role of muse-
ums in societies is through the term “activism”. What does it mean to
be an “activist” museum? There is not one sole definition. One way is by
looking at the past and the material collections that testify to the past
and read, talk and share them in light of urgent, present-day issues. In
this context, resilience is the result of collective action in the face of
social and climate crises. A collective project involving resilience and
survival is the result of the museum workers who make this possible.
When we talk about activism, transformations and resilience, it is the
people who believe in such things as possible that have to be touched
and transformed first.

JRB In times of crisis – museums are more relevant than ever. Having a
big mission and being unafraid to be political (not party-political) can
transform not only you as a museum worker but also the audience.

Museums are the most trustworthy institutions in society. Much more

than the media and politicians (perhaps not surprisingly). Maybe this
trust is rooted in a conception of museums as neutral, objective institu-
tions. But nothing is neutral – not even museums. Museums should be
very much aware and explicit about that, and about their beliefs and
mission in society.

The reaction of the Gender Museum to the lockdown was very imme-
diate. How could we be a museum with neither a building nor physical
objects? The notion of a museum as a public media platform for dialog
was enhanced by Corona.

An activist museum is an agile museum. During the spring lockdown in

2020, the Gender Museum collected stories about lockdown-related
gender issues. For instance, we collected reports of gender-based
violence, a gender-divided workforce, gender differences related to
 COVID-19 casualties. The museum organized a “Museum Takeaway”,
which brought history and knowledge to the people and started a de-
bate on the street.

For the Gender Museum, resilience is always about trying to push the
limits of concepts – to try to be more than a museum. It is not naive to
want to change the world. It is naive to think that we can go on in this
complex world doing business as usual.

CL Julie highlighted how the COVID-19 experience was transformative

in itself for museums, because it forced these institutions to push the
needs it had previously identified and to question their boundaries. This
poses an interesting challenge. When does a museum stop being a mu-
seum to become something else – for example, an advocacy group or
an NGO? The nexus with the past, its collections and the women’s mo-
vement in the 1980s makes up the structure for the museum´s present.
What does such a museum look like in the present and future? Should
it be renamed to speak a language that is understood by present-day
generations? Should it honor its foundation? All these questions are
relevant because they speak to the museum´s capacity to question its
very being in response to society’s needs. Museums are more relevant
than ever because they are our common homes, and how we interact
with others in such spaces or programs can determine how we find
togetherness. Taking Julie´s words, we need more organisms and fewer
organizations.

43
DOCTOR KRISTIN ALFORD CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
Director of MOD. at the University of South Australia Community resilience as a capability to be nurtured is
(Australia) embedded where I live in Adelaide, South Australia, and
provides a useful framework for museums and their
communities.

In late 2000, South Australia launched an initiative known

as Thinkers-in-Residence . International experts were in-
vited to spend extended periods of time applying their
domains of knowledge to big questions in the hope of
creating local innovation and social change.

In 2012-2013, the Thinker-in-Residence5 was Professor

Martin Seligman, known for founding the positive psy-
chology movement. His project saw partnerships from
industry, education and the health sector come together
in pursuit of a “State of Wellbeing”: that is, how might we
enable wellbeing at scale? Out of his residency, the Wel-
lbeing and Resilience Centre was established to develop
these strategies and interventions further, including the
championing of PERMA+6 .

PERMA+ outlines components that support mental and

physical wellbeing, which in turn provide the foundation
for being able to bounce back; to be resilient to challen-
ging events. The components of PERMA+ are Positive
Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and Ac-
complishment plus Physical Activity, Nutrition, Sleep and
Optimism.

I share this, as museums are well-positioned to provide

wellbeing at scale for their communities. In examining
the components for PERMA+ museums provide Positi-
ve Emotion through visitor experience and Engagement
with multitudes of stories through collections, artworks
and immersive experiences. The stories
museums share provide a sense of Mea-

44
ning and even Optimism to the commu-
nity as they negotiate histories, perspe-
ctives and hopes. In the pursuit of more
 Foto from “Seahabilitation”, which was part
of the exhibition “IT’S COMPLICATED” at
Museum of Discovery - MOD.
© Sia Duff / MOD.

participatory experiences through co-design, museums respond effectively, hopefully, “bouncing back”. Though
also provide support for the aspects of Relationships and also, sometimes the way we respond to crisis enables us
Accomplishment. to “bounce forward”, being strengthened by the challen-
ge to ultimately thrive.
In the current context, museum professionals under
stress may also find the pursuit of these aspects of PER-
MA+ useful for their own personal wellbeing and source
of resilience, in undertaking activities that build commu-
nity wellbeing, but also in being supported to find ave-
nues for Physical Activity, Nutrition and Sleep to ensure
physical wellbeing.

The useful thing about this model is that

it recognizes that wellbeing and resilien-

45
ce are not necessarily about avoiding cri-
sis, hardship or trauma. It enables us to
build support structures so that we can
PROFESSOR LINDSEY MCEWEN CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
Director of the Centre for Water, Communities and On reflecting upon the foregoing stimulating dialog, and
Resilience, University of the West of England (England) after personally mulling over how museums might play
a distinctive ‘building’ role in long-term resilience in civil
society, I ask a few questions and share some thoughts.
As a precursor point, “community” and “resilience” are
well-recognized “weasel words”. Practitioners in risk
and resilience are asking how communities can extend
beyond the local for social learning in developing their
capital for resilience and solidarity. They are also ques-
tioning how local resilience thinking can shift from engi-
neering ideas of resistance or rhetoric of “bounce back”
to more fluid, evolutionary adaptation and transforma-
tion for more resilient states. Understanding the va-
ried dimensions of both concepts is critical in exploring
the territory and opportunities for how museums and
communities might interact for mutual resilience. What
struck me in engaging with the dialog so far is how your
conversations form a mirror to those that are already
taking place within the research and practice of “devel-
oping community resilience” around the roles of the arts
and humanities as disciplines and GLAM (Galleries, Li-
braries, Museums and Archives) as a professional sector.
How can local museums and other creative organizati-
ons work together with their communities for synergetic
local resilience? What characteristics, values and wor-
ldviews are needed in both? What understanding of self
as an individual or organization, and relationships with
others in a place and beyond place?

In my contribution to “Dialogs on Museum Resilience”, I

mooted possibilities – characteristics of an embedded
museum that has a synergetic relationship with its com-
munities – for mutual resilience. This involves imagining
a museum that is engaged and aware of the compound,
overlaid or cascading risks – extreme weather, civil, te-
chnological – within its locale. That is a learning and
knowledge institution that is community-embedded, in-
clusive in the voices it captures and brokers A museum
that is well networked, collaborative and creative, inven-
tive and resourceful. To be resilient in a socio-ecologi-
cal sense involves being flexible, flippable and adaptable
within the resilience cycle, with evolving practices and
connections. It requires thinking creatively within and
outside the intensity of actual events and social stresses,
and the sensitivities of their recovery. Learning for resili-
ence at levels scaling upwards from the individual muse-
um professional or community member
predicates ways of working that require

46
awareness of self and others in emotive
learning domains. Managing uncertain-
ty and working within complexity require
creative thinking and envisaging with room for dreams Such reflections on the distinctiveness of the museum
and fears. sector as a setting for future thinking through creati-
ve solidarity are timely and potentially transformative.
The climate crisis provides opportunities to reconstruct Making space and time for ongoing international dialog
resilience-building far beyond traditional agencies with between museums and communities for intercultural
statutory responsibility for dealing with risk and resi- ‘learning for resilience’ is a key part of the weave. Inter-
lience. However, this requires more oblique and emer- national dialog initiatives like this one – that explore mu-
gent thinking about which and how other organizations seum-community symbiosis across climatic zones and
could contribute to developing community resilience as demographic settings – are potentially in a unique posi-
an evolving creative space. In Dialog #1, we explore how tion in sharing embedded practices for resilience within
museums, through their creative collecting, can facilitate and beyond place. This increases the likelihood that mu-
connection with past lessons from memories and archi- seums can co-create a crucible for the exploration of
ves. Here the museum is a creative collector supporting dreams and fears about possible futures within and out-
the local building of “collective cultural resilience”. Dia- side their distinctive communities. As a researcher wor-
log #2 considers the idea of the museum as “changing, king in “community resilience”, I encourage you to open
engaging, open and always learning”, integrated with up this reflective dialog as an ongoing practice for mutu-
valuable collective learning from those already living at al capacity building across the museum sector. There are
the edge or margins. Connecting with such places in glo- also important opportunities for explorations with other
bal dialog for mutual learning about living at the margins sectors navigating the challenging territory of how to
provides unique opportunities. In Dialog #3, we reflect co-create future resilience with civil society.
on the unique potential of a museum as a pivot between
the past and the creative imagining of possible futures,
while in Dialog #4, we capture the potential value of the
museum and society in activist space. While these dia-
logs provoke thought as individual entities, collectively
they articulate the (re)inventive opportunities of an agile
positioning of the museum sector in the ferment of pre-
sent and future cultures of resilience as creativity. This is
a particular opportunity in pandemic recovery and nar-
ratives of reset.

As we see from the preceding dialogs, such engage-

ments require “higher rung” participation with a strong
sense of co-creation, and attention to engaging and va-
luing hidden, marginal and multiple voices. This is aligned
with agendas of environmental and social justice within
the climate crisis. Such an approach fuels a sharing of
diverse capital for new cross-cultural behavioral insights 3
The full-length conversations can be
and solidarity. This work involves grit, persistence and seen at https://wearemuseums.com/
risk-taking – a willingness to work at the edges or boun- dialoguesonmuseumresilience

daries, in liminal spaces and zones of transition. It requi- 4

res strong attention to “local”, but within a multi-web of “Culture in Urgency”, www.culturei-
nurgency.com [March 29th 2021]
global connections. In their creative collecting and cura-
5
tion of artefacts, and their ability to pivot thinking about Thinkers in Residence is a program in
past and future resilience, museums have distinctive op- Adelaide, South Australia, designed
to bring leaders in their fields to work
portunities to contribute. This is in the way they collabo- with the South Australian community
rate, what and how they value, and in their development and government in developing new
ideas and approaches to pro-
of cultural networks within the global mu- blem-solving, and to promote South
seum sector, building out from the local Australia.

47
6
places and relationships. PERMA+: Positive emotion, Enga-
gement, Relationships, Meaning and
Accomplishment +Optimism, Physical
Activity, Nutrition and Sleep.
Labour Cultural Heritage as
Social Innovation
Two Canadian Studies

CHRISTOPHER GUNTER INTRODUCTION

Assistant professor at The Élisabeth Bruyère School of In the 2019 federal plan for history and commemorati-
Social Innovation, Saint-Paul University, Canada on in Canada, the Minister responsible for Parks Canada,
Catherine McKenna, emphasized the important tempo-
JANELLE ANGLIN ral connection people make by linking with sites of heri-
Janelle Anglin, researcher at The School of Counselling, tage by stating:
Psychotherapy and Spirituality, Saint-Paul University
Canda This plan represents a new way of sharing history at Parks
Canada’s heritage places - one which includes diverse voices,
presents multiple perspectives and inspires conversations about
Canada’s past, present and future.
(Parks Canada 2019, 5).

Undoubtedly, heritage sites link people in time and spa-

ce. But this statement represents a progressive ethos
that commits to “diverse voices” and “multiple perspe-
ctives”. Why is the government mobilizing a department
like Parks Canada to take on socio-political issues?
Parks Canada is a curious institutional choice for “pro-
gress”, given that its charter was last updated in 2002.
Worse, the 2002 Parks Canada charter does not mention
the words equity, diversity or inclusion. Instead, the four
operative commitments listed publicly are: “to protect, to
present, to celebrate and to serve”. Regarding the third
commitment, the charter ambiguously states: “...To ce-
lebrate the legacy of visionary Canadians whose passion
and knowledge have inspired the character and values of
our country” (Parks Canada 2002). Presenting the idea
of celebrating the legacy of “visionary Canadians” with
the aforementioned qualities is not only ambiguous, but

49
also opens the door for severe criticism if the definition
of “visionary” does not correspond with the public identi-
ty, and if the citizenry – particularly Canada’s Indigenous
people – genuinely feels omitted, ignored or misrepresen- and other Crown corporations in the cultural sector are
ted in the selection process. More importantly, given the tasked with ensuring that only authorized heritage nar-
many major and micro cultural transgressions that have ratives are produced, reproduced and institutionalized.
persisted throughout Canada’s history, and the govern- In fact, large public museums have been “civilizing” and
ment’s historical authority in determining the authorized “educating” people with government-sanctioned narra-
heritage canon and overarching cultural discourse, these tives for decades (Hooper-Greenhill 1992; Bennett 1995,
problems lead to two questions. Why would the govern- 2003). So, how do ignored and excluded people resist
ment – and Parks Canada, mainly – make a serious com- these reproduced and institutionalized narratives? One
mitment to the public at this time, and why through heri- way to resist is interstitially through their own community
tage? Given Canada’s dominant historical control, this heritage institutions. By exploiting spaces and cracks in
action presents a discontinuity. Is this a genuine bridge the cultural sector with little oversight by the government
for public participation or another tokenistic effort? (i.e., the dominant structure of power) and establishing a
separate institution with its practices and strategies (i.e.,
By connecting past narratives to specific spaces and an interstitial strategy), a public can begin to mount their
times, heritage, a subsector of culture, instils the public cultural resistance (Wright 2010). An interstitial approach
(i.e., an institutionally constructed imaginary collective is desirable to groups (i.e., people held together by sha-
of people, like the nation state) with a temporal identi- red values, norms and objectives) with activist inclina-
ty. Western governments, like the United Kingdom or tions and a desire for a long-term trajectory of cultural
France, have developed strong establishments that are change. By circumventing the official cultural narrative
able to maintain a cultural hegemony – a dominant over- espoused by the government, these public groups crea-
arching discourse that seamlessly dictates the cultural te exhibits and initiatives that progressively broaden the
and social orientation and practices – within its borders. cultural sector’s narrow spaces of representation. Of
In Canada, the government uses its power and authority course, this is not to say that all new cultural projects that
as elected representatives to authorize and sponsor out- seek to establish a more prominent identity and cultural
side official cultural narratives on behalf of its construc- presence for its public cannot, or do not, use some form
ted public (the nation state and international audience). of state support in the pursuance of their own goals and
More importantly, by creating public policies (e.g., the initiatives. Simply put, by claiming a space for themsel-
Historic Sites and Monuments Act, Canadian Museums ves, an interstitial approach allows the otherwise ignored
Policy, Federal Cultural Policy Review Committee) and and excluded public to effectively resist without direct vi-
cultural institutions (e.g., the Canada Art Council, Natio- olent confrontation in what was once a government-do-
nal Museums of Canada, Canadian Radio-television and minated ceremonial and heritage landscape. In this con-
Telecommunications Commission), the government di- text and given Parks Canada’s proclamation of “diverse”
rectly constructs and homogenizes its cultural discourse recognition, the next question that emerges is: why are
by empowering those who conform with its authorized this commitment and new ways of cultural resistance
narrative and editing out of competing cultural discour- necessary?
ses. In this way, these public institutions work within their
public to inform and shape their shared histories and cul- In Canada, the government has made attempts to sup-
tures, while actively seeking to facilitate the existence of port issues regarding diversity. Institutionalizing Indi-
activists (or counterpublics) that feel excluded or ignored genous land acknowledgements, for instance, helps
in these narratives (Warner 2002). recognize the environment and land ownership issues
– whether there exists a treaty or it is unceded and in
More interestingly, when curated by a local institution – dispute – and showcases another attempt to recognize
like community museums – heritage can offer an authen- the diversity of cultural spaces in Canada. Similar efforts
tic sense of place and a heightened sense of environ- have been made through internal museum reviews “to
mental awareness, while building a firmer connection to address institutional bias and discrimination” (Canadian
a location (Barlett, 2002). Given their unique identities, Museum for Human Rights 2021), and to create new obje-
local community museums are simultaneously created ctives promoting the cultural diversity of their collections
by their public (inheriting their values, norms, objectives, and publics. However, systematic racism
etc.), while also creating their public. The same could be and discrimination against vulnerable pe-

50
said of a government department, like Parks Canada, oples and multicultural publics are regular
with a mission, commitments and an operational plan. occurrences in Canada. For example, in
Together, Parks Canada – as a government institution – the city of Hamilton Ontario, systematic
discrimination emerges in several forms, including crea- METHOD
ting a culture of discrimination through police presence in This research is rooted in the discourse analysis traditi-
public schools (Hewitt 2020; Mitchell 2020), when public on of qualitative research inspired by Michel Foucault’s
educators or officials openly express racist opinions (Hri- (1969) archaeology of knowledge. The concept of
stova 2021; Rankin 2019), when peaceful celebrations like discourse can be conceived to understand the historical
Pride or protests against hate groups and politicians are evolution of a society by examining its practices, strate-
violently resisted (Mowat 2019; Craggs 2019), or simply gies, and effects (implications). Through this lens, discou-
by excluding groups from using public space for cultural rses explain the order of how things function in our world,
events (Craggs 2018). Similarly, in the Metro Vancouver including how some ideas or phenomena connect, why
District in the province of British Columbia, racism and some concepts are important, and others marginalized
other forms of discrimination are not uncommon due to or excluded. Of course, some discourses become hege-
the largely multicultural public (Statistics Canada 2017). monic in status, and in the case of a discursive struggle
Whether it is due to a lack of direction, priority, or effort between a hegemonic and activist discourse, it is im-
to address racism and discrimination beyond mentioning portant to see how the challenging discourse looks to
“commitments” to “fairness” in their citywide objectives combat the dominant ‘reality’ through the production of
(McElroy 2020), the district has been plagued with pro- their discursive practices and meaning making (Laclau
blems. For instance, Metro Vancouver has excluded pe- and Mouffe 1985). Without any objective laws to fix or
oples and fomented a culture of ignorance due, in part, eternally ground society, groups like labor museums are
to an overabundance of white representation in local po- always in a process of challenging the formation of cer-
litics (McElroy & Joseph 2018). As a result, the interests of tain discourses. Thus, the aim of discourse analysis is to
vulnerable peoples are unrepresented, and consequent- discover how power relations are created and normali-
ly their policies and initiatives do not materialize. Thus, zed through discursive productions of meaning in speci-
we begin to see the rise of racist attacks on vulnerable fic times and places.
peoples, especially the large Asian population, including
anything from slurs and physical attacks (Takeuchi 2020) As a research method, discourse analysis allows us to
to cultural property defacement (Woodward, 2020). In make a detailed description of the different narratives
response, the community, not-for-profit organizations, emerging from institutional practices and strategies and
and networks have offered their local support (Tanner possibly offers insights into their influences and connec-
2021) and space for discussion (Johnson 2020). tions. In this research, we focus on describing the strate-
gies and practices of cultural actors (exhibitions, stories,
This research examines how heritage institutions resist objects, collaborations, etc.) and the effects that follow
the government-sponsored narrative and the numerous as they attempt to circumvent the cultural mandates and
resulting racist and discriminatory consequences. More restrictions imposed by the government. The objective
specifically, we examine two case studies, the Workers is to highlight and understand these activities and their
Arts and Heritage Centre (WAHC) and the British Colum- implications, not to evaluate or defend their strategic
bia Labour Heritage Centre (BC Labour), to understand choices. More specifically, we act as observers exami-
how their projects connect the discriminatory plight and ning claims to explore how these labor cultural projects
hidden and excluded contributions of vulnerable publics use their practices and strategies to socially innovate
to the cultural sector. While this article does not evaluate and enhance their communities.
the effectiveness of these interstitial practices and stra-
tegies, it is interested in understanding how the alterna- We chose to analyze two case studies in two Canadian
tive community projects (such as WAHC and BC Labour) provinces: WAHC in Hamilton, Ontario, and BC Labour in
in the cultural sector can potentially help socially enhan- Burnaby, British Columbia. Both are autonomous cultural
ce communities and peoples. We found that these case institutions situated in areas that vary in population, spa-
studies, through activist practices, reappropriate long ce, and demographics. However, they were chosen for
lost or ignored cultural stories and repopulate them back their relative importance in each province as labour heri-
in the community. More interestingly, their practices of tage hubs. WAHC (2022) receives the majority of its fun-
creating new narratives showcase a local ding from labor organizations with smaller amounts from
resistance against the government-spon- public and community sponsors. Similarly, BC Labour

51
sored narrative that has historically com- (2022) receives its funding and support comes from la-
pounded into contemporary racist and bor organizations (district trade councils, unions, worker
discriminatory consequences. associations). Given their activist mandates that differ
from traditional cultural institutions (e.g., natural histo- the contributions and struggles of working people, but
ry museums, art galleries, performing art centers, etc.), also to learn from these experiences while “challenging
we aimed to examine the potential impact of each case the future – for future generations” (WAHC 2021a, 2).
study’s non-traditional activities in the cultural sector for
its public. Therefore, we examined the practices and ini- Located in one of Canada’s oldest “federal” public buil-
tiatives of these groups to identify how these activities dings (the Custom House), WAHC purchased the for-
work and their general implications for social innovati- merly-government-owned property and renovated it to
on for each case. After identifying certain practices, we handle exhibits that are self-described as “contemporary
inventoried publicly accessible materials, both physical and interdisciplinary art” (WAHC). According to the board
and digital. In some cases, we collected email exchan- of directors, with such a storied history of different uses
ges, public documents (official memos, annual reports, – a hub for trade and exchange, schoolhouse, temporary
bylaws, personal accounts, minutes, archives, etc.), press residence and manufacturing production – the Custom
releases, personal notes from public meetings, and email House was thought to be an ideal location because of its
exchanges with key informants. industrial history, while also being situated within a wor-
king-class neighborhood (WAHC 2021b). More than this,
CASE STUDIES the city of Hamilton has a long labor history that inclu-
Established in the late 1980s by a group of labor histori- des many working-class groups fighting for unions and
ans, artists, and local activists who recognized the need labor rights. Consequently, Hamilton is a heavily studied
for a place to celebrate workers’ history, WAHC (Workers community in North America due to its industrialization
Arts and Heritage Centre) is a labor history museum in transformation from handicraft production to modern
Hamilton, Ontario. Built on the mission of “bringing to- industry, where “class polarization and struggle were es-
gether ALL working people (paid and unpaid) through sential features” (Palmer 1979, p.xii). For instance, the hi-
art, history, and culture, enabling a stronger, more con- story of the labor movement started in the middle of the
nected community” (WAHC 2021a, 5), the Centre show- 19th century during Canada’s Industrial Revolution when
cases the contributions of working people through art, Hamilton was home to multiple large factories that for-
exhibits and performances. Moreover, WAHC presents a ced skilled craftsmen out of their small workshops and
socially transformative vision: “a society where all labor into these factories. In the end, these actions “broke down
matters” (6). Buttressing this vision and mission are three their [craftsmen] skills and cheapened their craft” (Mc-
core values: Master University n.d.). These factory workers formed
craft unions that gave them more control over their labor
Solidarity: We believe that we can accomplish conditions. Together, these narrative elements form the
more when we work together and support com- basis of labor heritage in Hamilton, from which WAHC
mon struggles. draws and creates exhibitions with the aim of addres-
sing contemporary issues that are relevant to workers
Equity + Inclusion: We commit to ensuring that and labor, as well as historical topics, while also engaging
we engage and promote the voices of ALL wor- different communities and unions to develop projects.
king people, recognizing all forms of work and
labor (paid and unpaid). In a similar vein, BC Labour (British Columbia La-
bour Heritage Centre) is a labor museum run by
Dignity: We respect the inherent right of ALL a non-profit organization located in Burnaby, Bri-
people to be valued and accepted without jud- tish Columbia (BC). Initially founded by Jack Mun-
gement. ro in 2004, the Society aimed to “honour the memory
(WAHC 2021a, 7) of the working people” (Novakowski 2019,1). Although
no formal mission or set of values are stated publi-
cly, the membership application affirms its priorities:
In line with their transformative vision, these values reflect ...I agree to support the vision, purpose and principles of the
an activist ethos and discourse that allege an alternative BC Labour Heritage Centre Society. Specifically, I com-
form of public empowerment through inclusive and equi- mit to the work of the Society to preserve, docu-
table treatment and representation. More than an alter- ment and present the rich history of working pe-

52
native discourse, these values represent and imply a cul- ople in British Columbia. I further support its
tural challenge by using the government-ignored history
of Canadian labor (discontinuities) to not only recognize
 engagement in partnerships and projects that help define days and worker’s compensation around this time, which
and express the role that work and workers have played in led to the development of a Worker’s Compensation
the evolution of social policy and its impact on the pre- Board in 1916 and a minimum wage for women (Sinclair
sent and future shaping of the province. (BC Labour 2021c). 2011).

From this membership commitment statement, we can Both Hamilton and Burnaby have unique and impact-
see how devoted BC Labour is to union values like equa- ful histories within the larger Canadian commemorative
lity and respect, as well as its drive to connect its public narrative. More specifically, these cities grew and devel-
with diverse local partners, while pushing forward sha- oped with the influence and labor of the working class,
red community goals. More interestingly, there is a clear who, over decades, fought for labor rights, unions, and a
objective to “define” and “express” the traditionally ex- better future. WAHC and the BC Labour both reflect the
cluded role of labor in developing social policy and the importance of the working public, and their practices
province’s future. BC Labour (2021b) has carried out this commemorate their labor heritage.
vision through various socially engaging projects (e.g.,
how it preserves and shares the history of workers who CANADIAN CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS: A HISTORICAL
helped build BC social policies, or the movements for INSTRUMENT TO OPPRESS?
unionized work). BC Labour also commissioned a book The power of institutions is undeniable. Yet, like any tool
titled On the Line by Rid Mickleburgh that tells both the or instrument, the implication of its use is primarily dire-
ugly and the inspiring past of BC labor movements, inclu- cted and determined by its handler. When examining its
ding excluded or ignored parts of this history. Moreover, relationship with its public, an institution can either em-
this book shares various experiences of the racism and power or limit the identity, values and norms of an indi-
discrimination woven into these essential movements, vidual or public, and thus the ability to make decisions
including the positive impact these marginalized groups and act through “formal and informal rules, monitoring
had on the advancement of unions (Killan 2018). and enforcement mechanisms, and systems of mea-
ning that define the context within which individuals […]
Within the Metro Vancouver regional district where BC interact with each other” (Campbell 2004, 1). To better
labour is located – and the greater provincial area – la- understand the alleged potential of an institution’s inhe-
bor sites exist ubiquitously. Consequently, BC Labour has rent activist ability – to use these rules and enforcement
populated and commemorated over 190 of these igno- mechanisms to contribute to the development and sta-
red sites with plaques that hold significance to diverse bilization of citizen preferences by making them trans-
working people for public viewing (BC Labour 2021c). parent, coherent, rational, and reasonable – we reviewed
For example, the history of BC Labour is marked by the the literature concerning the historically dominant and
construction of two transcontinental railways, as well as oppressive cultural institutions, their ethos, practices,
the development of the mining industry and the fore- and public impacts. In doing so, we uncovered three ap-
stry sector (Sinclair 2011). The location of Fort Langley, proaches aiming to further the hegemonic system and
for instance, represents a fur trade struggle, as it was the the status of its benefactors. This first is an “iron fist” ap-
former trade post of the Hudson’s Bay Company and proach whereby reaped colonial spoils were prominently
the fur trade economy that operated through the tran- and proudly displayed in large private institutions. These
scontinental railway (City of Burnaby 2021). Burnaby and cultural institutions were privileged repositories exclusi-
railway construction attracted many migrants, includ- ve to the elite and represented immense wealth, status,
ing a large population of workers from China. However, and power. The second symbolizes a “velvet glove” ap-
this allure included discriminatory restrictions for Asian proach. To culminate mass appeal, cultural institutions
Canadians purchasing land (Burnaby Village Museum, opened, democratized, and decentralized. Instead of an
2021, p.5). For example, Japanese Canadians worked in overt show of power, national governments commonly
Burnaby’s sawmill, as well as the Nichols Chemical Plant, used these institutions to circulate and reinforce their po-
while Chinese Canadians dominated the vegetable tra- liticized heritage, values, and norms. The final approach
de. For the most part, Burnaby’s working-class residents is symbiotic. In a similar vein to Wright’s (2010) work on
influenced the political climate, leaning symbiotic transformation, cultural networks and associ-
towards socialist and labour politicians in ations parallel the work of unions and their members. As

53
the 1920s (Burnaby Village Museum 2021, a result, some gains through political lobbying are incre-
10). Similarly, there were also labor move- mentally made. However, these gains come at the cost
ments for a minimum wage, eight-hour of autonomy, leading to an artificial sense of democracy,
inclusion, and worse, activism. tions created classifications of the owners that catego-
rized collections according to their prestige and wealth.
Before the birth of the contemporary museum, the de- By presenting this bourgeois status, these early muse-
velopment of government departments of culture, or the ums functioned as a cultural instrument of oppression
creation of heritage associations, the iron fist approach by reinforcing the asymmetric relationship of authority
first emerged in the cultural sector in the form of majestic between the public (the dominated) and the ruling cul-
temples and beautiful palaces. Although the functioning tural elite (the museums and its owners). In the end, this
of these institutions is far from consistent due to shifts antagonistic relationship slowly led to reforms that enab-
following how society classified and understood know- led many artistic and cultural works to be dispersed and
ledge, the relationship between the visiting public and reconstituted into public institutions to create a more ac-
the wealthy owners who used these spaces to organize cessible space for the general public to enjoy (Bennett
and conserve their objects, art, and pillaged colonial tre- 1995).
asures, is far from clear. On the one hand, the royal elite
and bourgeoisie owned and operated these institutions To facilitate public access to important cultural and ar-
and operated them exclusively under generally self-inte- tistic pieces, government institutions took over caring
rested goals. On the other hand, to legitimize this display- for, preserving, and exhibiting their collections. Some of
ed authority, rarity, and power, the public was required to these institutions began even before Canada’s indepen-
attend and visit. Regardless of these inconsistencies, the dence (e.g., the New Brunswick Museum, the Canadian
very existence of many of these early institutions implied Museum of Nature, and the National Gallery of Canada).
a hierarchical power by presenting the wealth, exclusive While this “rescue” may seem entirely selfless and for
social status, and authority of their owners. the benefit of the communities unable to care for the-
se items, how these exhibits and cultural narratives were
Despite shifts towards more consistent models like the constructed and by whom became a new and pressing
museum, the evolutionary idea of housing collections issue. Although no longer in the exclusive hands of pri-
and organizing culture and knowledge remained in- vate elites, these cultural artifacts and their constructed
trinsically linked to the notion of displaying wealth and exhibits began to present and reinforce distorted and po-
power to legitimize status and power. Several authors liticized cultural narratives. Motivated by the political and
– e.g., Tony Bennett (1995; 2004), Eilean Hooper-Gre- elite interests of government representatives, these new
enhill (1992; 2000), Georges Bataille (1930), Germain heritage narratives adopted a gentler, more manipulative
Bazin (1967), etc. – have documented, contributed, and approach (velvet glove) to reconstruct its public’s valu-
critiqued the understanding, development, genealogy, es, norms, and overall identity. For example, one of the
and history of these collections as a reflection of early first commissions to formally highlight Canada’s need to
museums and museum studies, much of which discus- strengthen its national image and culture by instrumen-
sed the etymology, genealogy, and function of the tra- talizing culture was the Royal Commission on National
ditional museum and its derivation from the Greek mou- Development in the Arts, Letters, and Sciences (i.e., the
seion, a term referencing a place of the mythical female Massey Commission). Chaired by Vincent Massey – who
Muses. In the 17th century, the first restructuring of these was at the time chair of the National Gallery of Canada
early cultural collections changed as the result of incon- – this commission operated from 1949-1951. Massey, like
sistent styles of conservation, ordering, and exhibiting many other arts and performing art patrons (e.g., Lord
(Hooper-Greenhill, 1992). Following shifts in the catego- Strathcona, Sir Edmund Walker, and J.S. McLean of Ca-
rization of science and knowledge, new, more coherent nada Packers) sought to stamp the Canadian communi-
taxonomic structures of knowledge emerged, leading to ty with a “cultured national design of British inheritance”
knowledge becoming a way of self-legitimizing the insti- (Edwardson 2008, 50). These like-minded elites saw cul-
tution and sharply contrasting the principles of the prior ture as an instrument to “civilize the people” by providing
century, which focused on worthiness and nobility status. the general public with moral direction, enlightenment,
However, the late 18th century presented another reor- and, ultimately, “elevated” tastes.
dering of collections and classifications that formalized
the public restrictions to these housed spaces whereby Formal changes to Canada’s cultural
collections of art and culture were thematic. According landscape emerged in the 1970s through

54
to Bennett (1995; 2003), these spaces demonstrated ro- the national and “unified Canada” vision
yal power, symbolized family power, and functioned as of a new Prime Minister, Pierre Elliott Tru-
an instrument of learning. As a result, these transforma- deau, and his Secretary of State, Gérard
Pelletier. In his 1972 speech, Pelletier pleaded: “I venture ing libraries, except in so far as they maintain permanent
to hope that my appeals in favor of democratization and exhibition rooms” (Article II - Section 2). Similarly, in 1951
decentralization will have been to some degree instru- ICOM also worked to prescribe a specific operational
mental in bringing about change” (Pelletier 1972, 222). In purpose for museums, whereby the museum’s purpose
other words, for Pelletier and the government, the issue was restricted to “preserving, studying, enhancing by va-
was not the content exhibited in public cultural institu- rious means and, in particular, of exhibiting to the public
tions, no matter how exclusive, elitist or manipulative. In for its delectation and instruction groups of objects and
fact, it was the government’s prerogative to shape the specimens of cultural value” (ICOM Statutes, July 1951).
cultural narrative through national museums, which ser- It took decades of manipulating and prescribing defini-
ve as repositories and interpreters of national heritage tions, including hundreds of proposals, before the notion
(Dorais 1987). Instead, the government needed to make of having a non-physical space as a museum became
this heritage content more accessible to the public by more commonly accepted (ICOM 2019).
strategically deploying their objects and messages. To
facilitate this process, financial support measures for In their contemporary iteration, many cultural associ-
private and public museums were restructured – building ations have rebranded and promoted themselves as
on the 1968 Museum Corporation Act – through the in- lobbyists and advocates that “champion, support, con-
troduction of the 1972 National Museums Policy. This act nect and elevate the museum sector” (CMA n.d.). For
increased support for museums to increase their public instance, the Ontario Museum Association (2021) offers
reach (decentralize) and make cultural property more newsletters, provides performance, economic, and “effe-
accessible (democratize) to the whole population, not ctiveness for the public” statistics, and pushes for action
just a select group. As such, “civilizing” shifted to “educa- plans focused on collaborative workforces, “relevant and
ting” the public. Development around the objective to meaningful collections”, and tools to help coordinate col-
widely circulate the authorized cultural narrative led to lecting approaches for the province. Along with aware-
the formalization of a museum network, the creation of ness campaigns and government lobbying for increased
national exhibition centers, and a federal loan collecti- funding for its members, these support practices can be
on for areas unable to properly house major collections helpful for cultural institutions (OMA 2019). However, the
(Pelletier 1972, 220-221). These changes implied that cul- symbiotic “give-and take” edge of this approach emer-
ture was progressively viewed and treated as an objecti- ges when critiquing the standards and requirements for
ve-achieving resource. This change also meant that the association membership or, worse, government funding.
traditional role of artifact conservation was sidelined in Aside from the fact that funding disproportionately fa-
favor of more promotional goals, effectively making the vors larger, well-established organizations, such as the
museum a government policy instrument. Royal Ontario Museums (ROM) which have received in-
creases in funding (ROM 2009), the principles and guide-
Finally, taking the form of cultural allies, museum asso- lines are unnecessarily restrictive while tailoring too much
ciations represent a symbiotic approach of oppression to classical notions of a museum (for specific standards,
towards small, community-owned and managed cul- see: Government of Ontario 2017). For association-spe-
tural institutions. By taking on the role of advocate and cific benefits, the Alberta Museum Association (AMA),
government policy enforcer, associations can force for example, tried to restrict the use of the term “muse-
smaller, more vulnerable cultural institutions into an ul- um” – in accordance with their 2001 definition, see: (AMA
timatum: conform with government- and industry-set n.d.) – by promoting a “recognized museum program”
ideas or be excluded from the potential support affor- that requires adherence to a specific handbook on stan-
ded to those who have assimilated. Established in 1946, dard practices, suggesting that the term “museum” must
the International Council of Museums (ICOM) represents be earned. These limitations discriminate against smal-
one of the earliest and largest associations that – along ler museums that are less resourced or those that seek
with the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cul- different goals coupled with some traditional museum
tural Organization (UNESCO) – has worked to define and practices. Unsurprisingly, there are many more cultural
delineate the notion of museums. In fact, in its founding institutions in Canada, including those that self-identify
bylaws, ICOM restrictively defined muse- as museums, that do not hold membership in these as-
ums as: “all collections open to the public, sociations, or that have not easily qualified for any major

55
of artistic, technical, scientific, histori- government funding or support. Thus, in a true symbi-
cal or archaeological material, including otic fashion, despite claims for museum advocacy and
zoos and botanical gardens, but exclud- support, association benefits were programmed with the
“greater good” in mind at the expense of those who do art, and activism on subjects like the Employment Stan-
not easily conform. dards Act, the role of unions, the minimum wage cam-
paign, and how artists can empower and protect them-
In sum, the overarching trend for the cultural sector is selves as workers (WAHC 2021d). In partnership with the
how entwined its various elements are with the neoliberal BC Teachers’ Federation, BC Labour operates a Labour
system for the benefit of its bourgeois proponents and History Project whereby members (BC teachers retired
the detriment of the more vulnerable public. The iron fist or currently teaching) prepare lesson content on labor
approach reflected a general trend wielded by the bour- history for the BC school curriculum. Thus, BC Labour
geoisie, who amassed many cultural and artistic works. (2021g) has a vast assortment of digital lesson plans and
Enclosed in privately held spaces, the acquisition of the- videos designed for interactive cases, all of which are
se stolen and exchanged treasures represented power free to use. There are also workshops prepared for uni-
and status and was organized and conserved exclusively on training that discuss health hazards using developed
for private enjoyment. The velvet glove approach began case studies (e.g. Stave Lake Quarry, Burns Lake explo-
opening these spaces and circulating heritage objects sions, etc.). To widen the Centre’s appeal to families and
for public consumption. Now decentralized and housed children, WAHC also participates in “Doors Open Hamil-
in publicly accessible spaces, these artistic and cultural ton”, in which the public can visit, learn about the Centre’s
artifacts took on a more focused public oppression ap- work with local artisans and its historic location, and par-
proach that sought to “civilize” publics through govern- ticipate in various craft and tool demonstrations. Finally,
ment-authorized narratives that normalized and promo- WAHC offers professional training in summer schools for
ted bourgeois values and norms. Finally, the symbiotic artist-educators using seminars on museum education,
approach showcased the potential of unified resistance labor art and history, and techniques like issue-based
by cultural associations on behalf of its memberships. workshops for different aged audiences (WAHC 2021e).
However, for publics whose attempts to establish a ho- Similarly, BC Labour’s resources could be seen as an at-
listic, grassroots community space for cultural appreci- traction to the academic audience, including political or
ation and the preservation of their self-curated herita- labor enthusiasts and historians. For instance, since 2016,
ges, the advocacy practices are outweighed by a cultural BC Labour (2021e) has been assembling a compendium
association’s requirement to gatekeep and the reinforce of union organizing stories (video and audio) of people
government standards and financial support criteria, as involved in BC history.
well as the associations’ privileging of corporatized large
and established cultural institutions. Moreover, attempts Second, both institutions have created projects and stra-
to control aspects of the cultural landscape, such as the tegies that directly challenge the hegemonic govern-
definition of “museum”, reflect attempts to create its ment discourse, its reproducing practices, and the offi-
exclusive public and membership, while barring smaller, cial narrative it espouses. For BC Labour, this resistance
less-resourced institutions the association feels are not takes the form of communicative strategies with their
worthy of formal recognition. public and their overarching community. For instan-
ce, BC Labour (2021e) researches and publishes stories
FIGHTING BACK: COMBATING THE HEGEMONIC SY- and narratives that substantiate and challenge current
STEM government-sponsored narratives by shedding light on
After collecting and sorting through all available mate- ignored and excluded accounts (e.g. Surrey teachers’
rials, three overarching trends emerged among the two strike 1974, the Langley Affair 1939-1940, Coal Creek
case studies. First, there is a desire for public service that Mine Disaster, April 5, 1917, etc.). Furthermore, BC Labour
partly arises through education programs. More speci- produces a podcast, entitled “On the Line: Stories of BC
fically, for each of the cases, there are educational ini- Workers” that features volunteer-produced stories on a
tiatives that target various members of their respective variety of labor topics, while also physically memoriali-
publics. For example, WAHC offers school visits to their zing spaces and objects in the heritage environment with
space for students and pupils to engage with and learn plaques that aim to remember working people in a pro-
about the important contributions of working people to ject entitled “Plaques Around the Province”. For WAHC,
the local civic, cultural, and national landscapes (WAHC scheduled events and programming that
2021c). For young adults, there is even a “Solidarity commemorate pivotal events, like the

56
School” for “emerging artists” that teaches them how Winnipeg General Strike, or performance
to empower themselves as workers through interactive and paneled events such as their “Con-
sessions and workshops exploring intersections of work, fronting Global Capital” project, are im-
portant fixtures for engaging with the public. In fact, the of walking tour booklets, the current iteration is in the
Confronting Global Capital project included a variety of form of an interactive website and mobile application
critical narratives that took the form of story circles, col- that showcase many perspectives and stories, with the
lectively created theatre performances, and joint labor aim of developing the application to include other stori-
and academic panel discussions. The commemoration es. In addition, WAHC (2021h) supported events such as
of the General Strike alone reflects an aggressive stance screening LGBTQI+ Pride documentaries like “And Still
against the federal government who, just four years earli- We Rise” that document the resistance to the anti-ho-
er, dismantled and excluded its exhibit on the Strike at the mosexual act in Uganda, or events like “¡Si Se Puede!’
Canadian Museum of History (Smith 2015). In celebrati- (Yes, we can!) Youth Dinner and Workshop”, hosted with
on of the 100th anniversary, WAHC (2021f) developed WAHC’s Youth Council and the YMCA’s Young Women’s
this project to highlight the sacrifice and struggle of the Advisory Council. This event brought together diver-
35,000 people (men, women, and children) who walked se, local youth to celebrate and discuss the work of la-
off the job to demand better wages and the right to col- bor activist Dolores Huerta. In the same vein, the event
lective bargaining, all culminating in “Bloody Saturday” “Women at Work featuring the Hamilton 7” celebrated
where state representatives killed two protestors, woun- International Women’s Day and Equal Pay Day in Ontario
ded 34 others, and arrested 84 more. By confronting the through a community gathering, performance, and sto-
public with questions (what happened, what was gained, rytelling by the women of Hamilton 7, a storytelling colle-
what is the legacy, and whose voices were excluded?) ctive (WAHC 2021i).
and by situating the narrative in the context of the larger
historic ruthlessness of government actions towards the CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
original Indigenous landowners – the Anishinaabe, Cree, Together, these case studies illustrate three interesting
Oji-Cree, Dakota and Dene peoples, including the home- implications. First, from a cultural perspective, both insti-
land of the Métis Nation – the project reminded the public tutions not only started as local cultural projects brought
of the violent pattern of state-sanctioned violence, moti- on by the working-class people in their neighborhoods,
vated by colonialism and capitalism. but these projects also emerged as initiatives to re-ap-
propriate their culture by creating a locally owned and
Finally, beyond simply critiquing government-authorized operated space to share and distribute their knowledge,
or censored narratives, both cases use their resources experiences and heritage. In doing so, these institutions
to repopulate the cultural landscape with forgotten and engaged in practices that interstitially brought exclu-
excluded histories of different cultures and people. For ded voices and narratives to the forefront of the cultural
example, BC Labour has contributed to the “Community landscape.
Stories Collection”, a collection of more than 500 Cana-
dian online projects. With a narrative framed around le- This mission was achieved in two ways: critiquing the
arning from the past to work towards a better future, BC official cultural narrative; and repopulating the ceremo-
Labour’s digital exhibit “Solidarity: The Largest Political nial landscape with excluded and ignored public voices,
Protest in British Columbia’s History” includes photos, vi- experiences and cultural stories. For example, both
deos, artifacts and oral history interviews that showcase cases offered public engagement opportunities (e.g.,
how labour and activist organizations forced – through events, tours, invited speakers and panels) for their va-
escalated protest actions – the development of the Ke- rious publics to participate in to understand specific is-
lowna Accord. This event became the most prominent sues, regulations and disputed histories, or simply to
political protest in BC’s history. Furthermore, BC Labour be informed of the development of essential labor or
(2021f) has initiatives with the University of the Fraser community subjects (e.g., workplace regulations, social
Valley to develop the working contributions of South awareness campaigns, the importance and role of uni-
Asian labor. In particular, the project focuses on the vari- ons, etc.). These opportunities offered the public a safe,
ous contributions and developments of BC’s South Asian non-government-monitored space in which to engage
labor and forces the public to confront issues around ra- with controversial issues and common local problems,
cial exclusion. and to acquire skills and information not typically circu-
lated in government-owned news or media institutions.
Similarly, WAHC (2021g) launched a digi-

57
tal project, ‘Workers’ City’, dedicated to
documenting and circulating Hamilton’s In terms of critique, the mandate of both cases enabled
workers’ stories. First, taking the form them to reseed the public space physically and digital-
ly with testimonies from the community. For instance, without government consent may lead to consequences
BC Labour populated the Vancouver Convention Cen- (i.e., project termination, removal from consideration for
tre with plaques from workers, individual contributions, future funding opportunities, changes in regulations).
family experiences, and historical controversies. Again, Second, both institutions also challenge the neoliberal
BC Labour also had an ongoing, province-wide physical status quo interstitially through their independent work,
plaquing strategy featuring dozens of excluded or igno- outside of government, in unoccupied cultural spaces.
red stories from several people and cultures, all of which In other words, both cases resist conforming to or sup-
were shared freely. porting the government authorized narrative by taking
on cultural projects that represent peoples and commu-
Second, both case studies mobilized their resources for nities that have been excluded or ignored. For instance,
public service from a social innovation lens to symbioti- although focused on labor, these institutions still featu-
cally empower their specific communities. More specifi- re many diverse themes around vulnerability, including
cally, they use their resources (i.e., cultural expertise, ac- disability (mental health, physical accessibility), identity
cessible space, digital materials and archives) to provide (gender, LGBTQI+), and heritage (distinct local cultures,
a static learning opportunity (i.e., displays, monuments, industries, ethnicities, regions), thus emerging as a refle-
plaques and exhibits) and active exchanges (i.e., events, ction of the diverse community and public.
workshops and panels) for their participants to be more
critical and informed of challenges to their heritage, labor This research showcases the potential of cultural organi-
or community. For example, WACH’s Solidarity School zations to resist and fight against the hegemonic cultural
provides training for new artists and includes interactive discourse curated and reinforced by the government in
sessions on activism and art, as well as on labor subjects Canada. More specifically, WAHC and BC Labour com-
like the Employment Standards Act and the importance mit their institutional practices and resources to various
of the minimum wage campaign, thus equipping new ar- projects that work to ultimately scale back and resist the
tists with the knowledge to protect themselves as wor- colonial-inspired practice of forcing a commemorative
kers. In the case of BC Labour, several projects were initi- culture and heritage that is politically and oppressively
ated to promote important labor issues and celebrations laden.
(e.g., Day of Mourning BC Schools Project, the Asbestos
Memorial Project, the Labor History Project, etc.), whi- In Canada, there exist many reinforced oppressive me-
le others, like the development of Labor History Walking morials and statues that represent horrific events, peop-
Tours, present opportunities to acquire more familiarity le, or initiatives, such as James McGill (slave owner who
with the community’s roots and heritage. enslaved Black and Indigenous people) and Sir John A.
Macdonald or Egerton Ryerson (both architects of the
Finally, building on the social innovation lens and both im- residential school system that assimilated, abused, and
plications, we begin to see how both institutions have en- killed Indigenous children). These names are significant
gaged in practices that attempt to erode the overarching and influential beyond their fixed positions, because they
neoliberal system in two ways. First, both case studies also lend their name to several essential institutions, in-
are implicated in the symbiotic practices of government cluding educational and public service institutions. By
and associations. Much as associations act as cultural unearthing ignored and excluded accounts of history
intermediaries and lobbyists, some overlap with some of and culture, community cultural institutions have the po-
the practices of WAHC and BC Labour: most notably, the tential to empower their respective publics by challen-
school and education projects and events (e.g., South ging these unchallenged and established symbols, which
Asian Labour History Project or the Migrants Organizing are by their very nature oppressively authoritative and
for Rights and Status) and a few commemorative cele- misleading about heritage and historical events, becau-
brations and memorials (e.g., Day of Mourning or the As- se they reduce horrific events and those who suffered
bestos Memorial Project). While these partnerships have to that of a single person. In reducing narratives to in-
mutual benefits for the cultural institutions (i.e., resources, dividuals that support inequitable hierarchies and prac-
broader appeal, more project opportunities) and govern- tices that sustain them, heritage created and authorized
ment (i.e., local public appeal, shared project risk, smal- by the Canadian government valorizes
ler resources investment, managing not implementing), competitive individualism over collective

58
they are often short-term. More importantly, these col- and communal values and norms. In the
laborations have their limits and will only go as far as the end, for WAHC and BC Labour, heritage
government allows. Pushing past any intended objective is not created by one person alone, but
on the backs of hardworking, exploited laborers through
their daily employment.

59
Girl Museum Activism Through
Girl Centered Museum Practice

ASHLEY E. REMER
INTRODUCTION
Head-girl at Girl Museum, Aotearoa/New Zealand
“He aha te mea nui o te ao He tangata, he tangata, he tan-
gata/ What is the most important thing in the world? It is
the people, it is the people, it is the people.”

This is a Maori whakatauki, a guiding principle of the In-

digenous people of Aotearoa/New Zealand, my home for
two decades. It teaches that people are ultimately and
infinitely more important than things – common know-
ledge and common sense for Indigenous communities
that have been murdered, shunned, and oppressed by
the colonial cultures, that have usurped them and their
land, stolen their material culture, and put it in museums.
“Life before art” is what I was taught as a security officer
at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City at the
turn of this century. While not entirely sure they meant it
two decades ago, my lived experience has reinforced its
accuracy. Prioritizing people over things is an ethos that
should extend throughout cultural work. Who and what
an institution stands for are becoming more valuable
than the objects held within the walls. In the future, if they
exist, museums will all be activist. As educational and in-
tellectual hubs for communities, they will have to be. As
part of the process to both decolonize and indigenize,
any cultural institution, regardless of subject area or mis-
sion, would do well to take that lesson on board.

Girl Museum, the first and only museum in the world de-
dicated to girls and girlhood, takes this philosophy to he-
art. When I founded Girl Museum just over a decade ago,

61
it was to “be a museum”, but with an entirely new model
of being and purpose. In 2009, a virtual museum was ba-
sically unknown, so the path to define and achieve it was
 Girl Museum’s webpage

wide open. While Girl Museum was not the first virtual To understand the marginalization of girls, one can look at
museum, it was the first to emulate a physical museum the etymology of the word “girl” and its evolution and con-
in its purpose, function, and use. Adapting the practices testations over its meaning. As described in Girl Museum’s
of physical into the virtual space is not straightforward first exhibition, Defining Our Terms, “‘girl/gurl/gyrle’ was ori-
or easily done. The space and the visitor become dif- ginally used in the 14th century to describe a child of either
ferent concepts with their own benefits and challenges sex and did not specifically refer to females until the 16th
that are in constant negotiation. But the purpose here century. Although obscure, the root connotation of “girl”
is not to discuss the definition of a virtual museum, but is common in most languages, meaning an unmarried or
how art and activism are natural allies, and how muse- sexually inexperienced female as well as a servant or sla-
ums are perfectly suited to harness the power of both ve.” (Remer 2021b). This defining of the girl by her position in
for constructive change. The purpose and mission of Girl relation to males, her social class and her sexuality provides
Museum is to celebrate girlhood and provide a positive, evidence that girls were not thought of as individuals. The
safe virtual space for girls. As established from its be- use of the term over time became pejorative, as almost all
ginning, and as stated on the website, the vision is: “To be words related to females do. In the language of colonialism,
a world class, socially responsible virtual museum. To preserve, protect, using words that reinforce the child-like nature of slaves
and advance girl culture from around the world and throughout time. To demean and lock those persons in a state of perpetual sub-
support healthy, creative minds, safe bodies, and peaceful communities for servience and reliance on the oppressor. It carried on after
girls into the future.”(Remer 2021a). These are simultaneous- the Civil War and into the modern era (Green 2017).
ly attainable and aspirational goals. Some are meant to
inspire and drive change, while others are benchmarks to In the 20th century, the term “girl” broke through racial bar-
climb on and from. riers to be used as a misogynistic tool towards women ge-
nerally. As women of all colors entered the workforce in the
In the case of Girl Museum, the change desired is better li- 1950s and 1960s, being referred to as a “girl” was de rigeur
ves and outcomes for girls. That girls are worthy of such an for the office environment. This was for similar reasons as
elevated state is confounding to those who are used to the before, to belittle and infantilize women for the power and
status quo. There are at least five museums in the world de- pleasure of men, who were their superiors in the workpla-
dicated solely to the art and life of Pablo Picasso, who was ce. As the Women’s Movement spread during the 1960s
arguably the most celebrated misogynist in the 20th cen- and 1970s, pushing back against the patriarchy included a
tury art world. Surely girls, who at any given time make up rejection of the word “girl”. Actual girls were
half the population of the planet, deserve to have a place now called “young women”, which on one

62
dedicated to them. hand was empowering and on the other
forced social expectations of a more de-
veloped maturity on children. The rampant
sexualization of girls during the 1970s in media was no coin- own way – sometimes, it’s just in the exhibits and programs they
cidence. This continued into the 1980s, when using sexua- present; other times, it’s being a communal gathering place for fo-
lity and lost innocence to sell just about anything became rums and discussions and hard moments; and others are much more
standard practice. actively activist.”8

While the 1990s saw the term “Girl Power” arise from girl For Girl Museum, the primary community is girls. However,
punk and zine culture, it was commodified by the pop mu- social change does not come from only focusing on one
sic industry via the Spice Girls to push out the notion that group; the community must be built for everyone. The most
girls have power and that they should use that power – obvious way that museums can become or commit to an
ostensibly to buy music, concert tickets, merchandise, etc. activist agenda is through curation and interpretation. Who
However, the concept of girls having power still resonated and what is shown and celebrated, and how those subjects
globally despite the overarching capitalist intentions. Not are discussed are opportunities that many museums use to
coincidentally, it ushered in a new strain of research and reinforce norms, but they can also offer a site where norms
scholarly writing about girls, especially girls and the media. can be challenged and interrogated.

These disparate studies and papers gradually coalesced CENTERING THE GIRL: A PHILOSOPHY
into Girls’ or Girlhood Studies, a field that brings together Girls seems to be both ever-present, in that images of gi-
research and scholars from a wide variety of disciplines. rls are ubiquitous in museums and in the media, yet usu-
Though still largely marginalized by traditional academic ally absent from the dominant social discourse. For over
subjects, Girlhood Studies has demonstrated that interdi- a decade, there has been constant justification of Girl
sciplinary inquiry can move girls from objects to subjects Museum’s work, challenged by many who simply do not
and call into question girls’ significance, even within femi- get the importance or urgency, and by those who should
nist circles, and help combat internalized misogyny on in- know better – those whose memories of girlhood are
dividual, communal, and societal levels. Inspired by this, Girl purposefully suppressed or deemed just a holding pat-
Museum combines Museum Studies with Girlhood Studies tern for womanhood. The truth is that girlhood was never
to reinterpret material culture with this new way of viewing homogenous or even a collective experience. It is/was
girls and girlhood as integral to understanding human art, felt and lived differently by each girl, each individual, that
history, and culture. This chapter is designed to showcase has gone through it. Girl Museum honors and celebrates
how Girl Museum is activist by centering the girl philosophi- this diversity and works each day to show why she must
cally and in practice, and how girls of the past, present, and be protected. The girl is brought from the margins into
future are honored. the center and given her due. Girl Museum brings femi-
nism into the museum space to advocate for girls (Remer
Using the arts to advocate for social change is a well-worn & Rhoades 2017). The articulation of its philosophical po-
path, especially for feminism7. However, aesthetics has gi- sition has evolved into something unique: a girl-centered
ven cover to perceived neutrality. Collection houses that feminism focused on girls – their experiences, their survi-
contain fine arts and material culture have always had po- val, and successes. This section explores how to center
litical agendas, either subtle or overt, but have not typically girls philosophically within a museum institution.
been advocates for human rights, especially art museums,
despite purporting to be educational institutions. However, Humans are complicated and cannot be contained in
these thin veils and thick walls have been breaking down single boxes, and barely even on a spectrum. Kimber-
over the past decade. Ideally, museums should be places lé Crenshaw’s breakthrough work on the intersection of
of activism as a matter of policy and programming, fin- factors that come into play when examining people’s,
ding ways of pro-actively supporting and elevating visitors, especially women’s lives, is essential for a more holistic
communities and staff. If starting from scratch, they can understanding of the human experience. (Crenshaw
build this into their framework and fabric, but for larger, ol- 1989). A person’s class, social status, race, religion, age,
der institutions, this transition is more difficult. It becomes location, sex, gender identity, sexual orientation, etc. all
a matter of how to do it and making this necessary change contribute to different outcomes, yet for girls the situ-
possible. There are a myriad of ways that ation is dire. Globally, girls are the most marginalized of
museums can be activist. Girl Museum Pro- the marginalized. Holding for every other factor, sex is

63
gram Developer Tiffany Isselhardt noted: the most determinant factor in a girl’s life experience and
expectancy (Sohoni 1995, 4). It is too simplistic even to
“Each museum is going to be ‘activist’ in their say that from the moment of birth the odds are against
her. It is from the moment of her mother’s birth, and her must not think of yourself or of your family, not even of
mother’s, and so on. Generations of internalized miso- your generation…make your decisions on behalf of the
gyny and cultural oppression are written into her DNA. seven generations coming, so that they may enjoy what
The status of girls and women has been worsening over you have today.” (Lyons 2008). This Indigenous philoso-
the past five years, despite the Millennium Development phy is applicable to all aspects of human decision ma-
Goals set forth by the UN Development Programme king. However, here it is specifically applied to the idea
(UNDP 2020). As authoritarian tendencies and full-blown that a museum can present a holistic and cohesive mes-
regimes become more prevalent, perceived threats give sage about the value and importance of girls by commit-
governments, societies, and families any excuse to re- ting to not exploiting or harming them.
strict girls’ access to education, and to increase dome-
stic violence and human trafficking. Stating the museum mission is the easiest part – putting
the words onto paper where all the staff and the board
For all the reasons mentioned above, girl-centered femi- can access them, to check in with them, to make sure
nism is a departure from how traditional feminism sees they are living this principle. It is in the day-to-day run-
itself. But also the centering and elevation of the margi- ning and activities of the museum that the principle is
nalized (I will not call her the Other, because she is us) dis- challenged and must be constantly re-examined through
rupts the patriarchal system that even the best feminists a process of questioning. For most museums, although
are often compelled to uphold. While it seems to some uniquely not Girl Museum9, a major consideration is the
that progress has been made in traditional spaces, Mau- permanent collection. In fact, having a collection is what
ra Reilly points out in her book Curatorial Activism: “It is defines a museum to most within and outside the indu-
important not to be seduced by what appear to be the signs of equality – stry. How girl-centered feminist museology impacts the
women and non-whites have never been, nor are they yet, treated on par collection is multifold. Starting with the acquisition pro-
with white men.” (Reilly & Lippard 2018, 20). The same goes cess, the object is assessed and questions are asked like:
for girls. “Did a girl make or use this?”, “Is a girl represented by
this?”, and “Are there any neglected or hidden aspects
Girl-centered feminism takes feminist standpoint theory, of this object that are girl-related?” Once acquired, the
the position of women as the center point and replaces application in the conservation of objects asks questi-
her with the girl. Girl-centered feminism functions as a ons about prioritization of care for objects seen as less
disruptor in the museum context, which is traditionally important because they are made by or for girls. Next,
an institution of the patriarchy. Even more boldly, it un- girl-centered feminist museology asks about what is va-
dermines the key message museums traditionally have lued enough to put on display. Are there any objects that
been constructed to relay – that only great men do gre- share girls’ stories or do works representing girls include
at things. The very idea that a girl, seen in many ways as their information or narratives if known? For Girl Muse-
the opposite of a man, could do great things or even be um, because it has no collection and uses other museum
great, is traumatizing to the dominant paradigm. Having collections to explore girl history and representation, it is
a strong philosophical stance gives Girl Museum a solid easier to make these assessments for the purpose of re-
grounding from which its policies, projects and decisions search and exhibitions.
can stem. The extension of this within the system be-
comes a girl-centered feminist museology. As far as research goes, girl-centered feminist museo-
logy is quite clear. First, take the girl as a departure point
Girl-centered feminist museology must take two posi- and then include as many perspectives as is feasible.
tions as inalienable. First, it must center the girl and her Within the “girl” topic spectrum, there are almost an in-
experience in all decision making. This principle must run finite number of ideas for exhibitions and projects. This
across the entire spectrum of activities. The second is has enabled Girl Museum to participate in many diverse
taking a pro-girl stance. The implications of this are far publications and delve into research that no mainstream
more wide reaching than at first glance. Here the ques- museum would consider. Personal and professional inte-
tion is asked: “How will this decision, project, exhibition, rests of the team, as well as subjects suggested by the
etc. affect girls and will any of those effects be negative public, generate much of Girl Museum’s
or exploitive?” This principle is based on the Native Ame- research and feed directly into the exhibi-

64
rican Seventh Generation Principle as stated by Oren tions and interpretation. Exhibitions, both
Lyons (Seneca), Faithkeeper of the Onondaga Nation: “… permanent and temporary, are the next
when you sit in council for the welfare of the people, you area where girl-centered feminist muse-
ology can be applied. er, the mere act of giving girls a platform is controversial.
Isselhardt states: “By privileging the viewpoint of girls/girlhood, Girl
The exhibitions produced by Girl Museum are all models Museum automatically counters the dominant white capitalist patriar-
for social advocacy, even if they are seemingly benign. chal narratives of history and culture.”10 Creating a space and a
Interpretation is the forward-facing content in a mu- place for girls is best done by girls11. To make the most of
seum and the output of research. It is key to creating a the minimal tools and resources available, Girl Museum
relationship with viewers as well as transmitting both the was built by its founder and a small group of dedicated,
philosophy and outlook of the institution. Girl-centered like-minded volunteers who continue to generously give
feminist museology guides interpretation by setting a their time and energies to make it a success. As descri-
standard for the questions to ask and to try to answer bed above, having a platform of one’s own is a reward for
for the public. These include lines of inquiry like: “Who the efforts of the team. Run collectively as much as pos-
is the girl represented”, “Is her name or anything about sible, the volunteers who work with Girl Museum are a true
her life known?”, ‘Is there any record of her own voice or community. This was reinforced over the many years of
perspective?” For example, in the exhibition Illustrated the COVID-19 pandemic when virtual spaces became all
Girls, which explores the drawings of girls in classic chil- that many people had in terms of human contact. When
dren’s stories, taken individually they can seem like cute the world went online, Girl Museum provided a beneficial
pictures, but collectively they demonstrate how powerful source of community, virtual opportunities for students
an impact these images have had on generations of gi- that required internships for graduation, and a safe spa-
rls growing up. Deciding on what aspects of girlhood to ce for our team to focus on input and output in all areas
showcase is the biggest challenge, as almost anything of production for the thousands of people who visited.
can be explored. The main concerns are to have a plan
and think through the entire process to make sure that From its beginning, Girl Museum has been asking: “Whe-
nothing about the topic raises any deal-breaking flags or re are the girls?” The answer is of course, “everywhere.”
concerns. Content for girls that is not trying to sexualize or commo-
dify them is rare, especially on the Internet. In the muse-
As with any museum exhibition process, the audience is um world it is very rare. Exhibitions about the represen-
of primary concern. Each exhibition at Girl Museum has a tations of girls in historic art are almost unknown12. Girls
slightly different audience as well as a different definition are more present in contemporary art, especially photo-
of “girl”. Though the overall museum’s definition of girl is graphy, but their participation is often quite problematic
“self-identifying females under the age of twenty-one,” and/or exploitive. Girls are more often acknowledged in
exhibitions are given flexibility to adapt this definition to social history museums, but have never been the sole
meet cultural or historical definitions when dealing with focus of exhibitions. If anything, they get mentioned in
different topics, and to introduce audiences to these relation to clothing, toys or puberty and marriage. Illumi-
adaptations as a means of better understanding chan- nating the lives of girls of the past helps to build under-
ges to girlhood over time and space. This is significant as standing and empathy towards them and their present
there is no “one size fits all” for learning, so each exhibiti- counterparts. They are us. Making the connections bet-
on must also be its own entity. Girl-centered feminist mu- ween the past and the present is vital for girls to see how
seology allows for maximum flexibility within the pro-girl they have always had an impact on the world. To this end,
framework. This does not mean to shy away from topics Girl Museum has four core exhibition series: Girlhood in
and situations that are difficult, such as human traffick- Art, The Art of Girlhood, Girls in the World, and GirlSpe-
ing and child prostitution. It serves to support choices ak. This has now expanded to include a Contemporary
and remind creators that exploitation is a fine line, and it Art series. (Remer 2021c). There are also projects that fall
is best to err on the side of protecting girls rather than outside of these categories, usually driven by staff or a
risking harm. new platform.

CENTERING THE GIRL: A PRACTICE Demonstrating the diversity of girls’ experiences and
Rigorously adhering to the underpinning of girl centrism contributions is the purpose of the four central themes.
in theory and within the institution be- Girlhood in Art explores girls’ representations and par-
comes a guide for how everything within ticipation in the fine arts, digging deeper than the typi-

65
functions. This section illustrates the pra- cal portraits of princesses and daughters of artists that
ctice of centering the girl. As stated earli- usually turn up in art museum exhibitions. Art of Girlhood
examines girls as human – what they do, eat, wear, play,
sing – all the tangible and intangible aspects of a girl’s for others to stand up for them. In this last section, the
life. Girls in the World looks at social issues and injustices work of honoring the girl is demonstrated using four Girl
from their historic origins and how they impact girls Museum exhibition projects: the Heroines Quilt series, the
today. While all the series are activist in their own way, Sites of Girlhood project, I am a Girl, and Girl Activists.
this one is purpose built for showcasing it. Lastly is the Heroines Quilt became the first recurring exhibition de-
GirlSpeak series, comprised of community-contributed veloped by Girl Museum (Remer 2021f). Every even year,
and crowd-sourced content-based shows. Here Girl Mu- starting in 2010, Girl Museum invites the public to sub-
seum gives the platform to those who wish to speak and mit their girlhood heroines to celebrate Women’s History
share from their perspective. Month. These submissions are posted on each day for
the month of March, so that when displayed all together
Part of the Museum’s mission is amplifying girls’ voices they create a quilt. This was inspired not only by a desire
and showing the ways that “they are us.” There are many to honor the historic girls’ and women’s work of quilting,
opportunities for both staff and guest writers to share but also by the community action AIDS memorial quilts of
their thoughts and experiences. Isselhardt stated: “Girl the 1980s. The Heroines Quilt exhibitions are documen-
Museum gives girls a voice – both scholarly in examining tations of girlhood heroines and the lasting impact they
them, but also by inviting them to participate in the mu- have on our lives. Any exhibition driven by public contri-
seum process or even give feedback on it. Social media butions can be unpredictable in terms of participation,
and blogging make this more so, as it empowers girls to and this one has always been difficult to get submissions.
lend their authentic voices rather than having the mu- To mitigate this, two of the Heroines Quilt exhibitions de-
seum speak for them. Letting your community in – as parted from the community-driven method to focus on
authentic and diverse voices – is not necessarily new to larger themes and specific heroines of the Middle Ages
the field, but it is something that many museums still fail and the First World War to honor its centenary.
to embrace.” The blog has been a key part of how Girl
Museum relates to the world, finding its multivalent voice The Heroines Quilt exhibitions provide a unique opportu-
and sharing it with others. This is best described by Edi- nity for participants to recall their childhoods and write
tor-In-Chief Kathleen Weidmann: about their earlier selves and their role models. This is a
quiet but powerful act of reconciling the memory and the
I’ve always seen it as an extension of Girl Museum’s overarching self with expectations of futures already now lived. The-
mission…To that end, we’re currently refocusing on sharing news re were many who submitted with comments along the
stories, political events, media reviews, and research that dire- lines of how nice it was just to think about their girlhoods
ctly touches upon girls. We’re also starting to include original again and sit with some of those memories and the joy
fiction centered around the girlhood experience.13 they brought. By compiling the quilt-square heroines, the
exhibitions create a community, not only of those heroi-
As stated above, Girl Museum seeks to draw attention nes, but of those who participate. The act of looking ce-
to the diversity of girls’ experiences and lives and to the lebrates those people and characters that populate our
connections between the past and present. To this end, pasts as individuals and as collectives, of generations
Girl Museum highlights stories about girls doing great raised with access to similar content and values. Making
things, but also does not shy away from the many chal- connections between yourself and others’ experiences in
lenging, precarious, and difficult situations facing girls the past helps reinforce bonds that remind us of our need
today. Scanning the internet news sources from around for community. Memories of girlhood shape people’s li-
the world and sharing it on social media is something pe- ves in important and different ways – some may recall vi-
ople routinely do several times throughout the day, but vidly the adventures they had as girls, while others want
Girl Museum chooses content to share with a singular to forget or disregard the significance of these experien-
purpose, and in doing so, it aims to be more impactful in ces. While these may seem small, even these tiny acts of
raising awareness. honoring the self and those who contributed to the con-
struction of the self are significant in acknowledging that
HONORING THE GIRL: A MOVEMENT humans are at once individuals and inseparable from the
Making the theoretical and practical commitment to communities that raised them.
centering the girl is the way that Girl Museum uses its po-

66
sition as an activist institution and as an online platform A more purposefully international looking,
to advocate for the worth and value of girls. This advo-
cacy is a way to showcase and honor girls, but also a call
”Girl Activists”Exhibition banner.

yet still local-focused exhibition is the Sites of Girlhood. give opportunities for celebration and memorializing of
The premise is to identify girls around the world and their girls of the past and the present whom the world would
achievements and literally put them on the map. The pri- otherwise never know about.
mary component of the exhibition is a searchable Go-
ogle map populated with stories of girls from around the A very special exhibition that was a long time coming
world. Project Manager Brittany Hill shared that: “[Sites] launched in September 2021 – I Am A Girl. While it is obvi-
honors girls in the best way – by not focusing on cultural ideas of beauty ously about identity, this exhibition explores historic and
and grace, but also honors all those girls are capable of fighting for an idea, contemporary attempts to define girls and how they de-
giving back, and creating a more loving a colorful world.”14 The proje- fine(d) themselves. Described by its co-curator, Yuwen
ct highlights a range of experiences and is focused not Zhang:
only on the positive ones. There is a pin for the memori- This exhibit and the discussion it invites are not an attempt to
al to the witch burnings in northern Norway and one for come up with a single and ultimate definition of girlhood, but
where Joan of Arc was murdered by an English religious to show the public the diversity of girlhood and the fluidity of
court. There is a pin to honor the girls who drowned off gender identity today. We tried to incorporate diverse views,
the coast of Italy trying to flee from north Africa and one from scholars to the general public. We also tried to show the-
for girls who died in menstrual huts in Nepal. Showing the se thoughts and definitions from a variety of dimensions. For
myriad of girls’ experiences, to paint a full picture of what example, how girlhood is defined from historical and contempo-
lives are like is the true purpose and seeing that displayed rary perspectives, and how girls identify as a ‘girl’ differently.16
on a map of the world reinforces the reality that girls are
significant everywhere. Simply trying to explore the definition of girl and girlhood
might not seem like a radical act, but it is, and risky as
Not surprisingly, the distribution of girls’ stories is uneven well. Girl Museum has tried to create an experience that
and quite difficult to access in many places. Hill noted will be challenging and reassuring.
that finding stories about Indigenous cultures, especial-
ly in formerly colonized places, was challenging. But so Identities have always been in flux, but for the margi-
were the stories of girls in developed nations that would nalized, only during the past decade or so have there
think of themselves as advanced in terms of social ju- been more outlets to make public declarations or even
stice.15 This first phase of the project is populating the explorations. And few of these have been safe places.17
map with those stories that Girl Museum The exhibition documents the varied experiences and
can source from research. The next phase thoughts of girls, functioning as a space for girls to talk

67
will rely on individuals contributing stori- about their experiences and identities while feeling free
es of girls from their communities. While and supported. Honoring and celebrating the diversity of
this project is still being rolled out, it will girlhood was challenging for the team, especially as hi-
storic information about girls is largely written not only by and pragmatic ways in which Girl Museum practices mu-
men, but mostly by adults. So, accessing girls’ own expe- seum activism.
riences and thoughts within the global archive is a titanic
undertaking. Zhang shared some specific challenges: CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
Perhaps, just like girls, seeing strong models can also
After finishing the first draft of the timeline of girlhood defi- empower museums to do better. In their recent book Mu-
nitions, I found that I unconsciously included many examples seum Activism, Janes & Sandell wrote that less than ten
of Western, white girls. Then I set out to look for more ‘outsi- years ago, it would be unusual and even disparaged for
de of mainstream’ research, only to find girlhood studies is an a museum to engage in explicit activism related to inju-
emerging research area and most of the research is focused on stices, human rights, and environmental issues. (Janes
girlhood in Western society. As a girl growing up in Asia, I felt a & Sandell 2019). This was evidenced by my own expe-
bit disappointed and that is sort of a challenge.18 rience at the 2011 American Association of Museums22
conference in Houston, Texas, which seemed to be en-
Getting the tone correct and making sure everyone is in- tirely funded by the oil industry. The acceptance of big
cluded is an ongoing challenge and no doubt there will be oil or other extractive/exploitive money in museums was
absences. For this reason, the exhibition is open for pe- ubiquitous and advocating for ethical sponsorship in my
ople to contribute after it launches as well. This is a way own museum seemed naive to those who would even en-
Girl Museum can constantly expand the conversation gage in a discussion about it. It seems that now the tide
and the information available by welcoming community has turned. Positive steps include the University of Le-
contributions. Reflecting on the importance of such an icester’s ‘Socially Engaged Practice in Galleries and Mu-
exhibition for girls’ education and empowerment, Zhang seums’ course (Adair & Levin 2020). More education and
said: “I Am A Girl gives girls an opportunity to show themselves and training programs will hopefully follow suit and require
encourages them to engage in personal reflection. Giving girls a voice de- courses in social responsibility and activism rather than
finitely demonstrates action upon inequalities and injustices!” As she just offering them.
works in education, she said:
So how can museums effectively be activist without
I especially agree with this. Powerful changes always make it being tokenistic, opportunistic, appropriating, or com-
continue to spread, and museums are vital sites for that to hap- modifying? They must make activism a core part of their
pen. For educators, their recognition and awareness of girlhood mission and values system that guides all activities. This
and girl power will influence the education of the next genera- was the driver for Girl Museum. While it may be tempting
tion. For young people, seeing strong role models can empower to think doing so in the virtual space would make such a
them to change for the better.19 mission easier, it is not the case. Embracing a mission that
goes against the status quo – and embraces activism for
Lastly, for the lives of girls today, it is possible to dive a marginalized group (girls) that is still under threat – and
further and create more nuanced content as the know- the very idea of centering girls’ experiences and points of
ledge and access is present. In 2021, Girl Museum laun- view become an invitation for violence. Girl Museum has
ched an exhibition called Girl Activists, showcasing just been attacked by online trolls, with hackers destroying
how important being an activist is to girls and to the the site in 2018, and faces the need for constant site mo-
museum. The show highlighted girls around the wor- nitoring and annual discussions on fundraising without
ld standing up for themselves as girls, the environment, sacrificing our values. So, accepting the risks of being a
their communities, water access, education and more. target and the limitations of what can be done within a
“By giving girls a voice, a museum inherently says, ‘girls are important’ miniscule budget, while pushing the boundaries of what
and ‘girls should be valued, listened to, heard’ – and in a white capitalist is possible, has been a big learning curve, but also taken
patriarchy, that is activist,” stated Isslehardt21. Guest curators in our stride. There is no institution in the world that can-
Paola Gianturco and Gayle Kimball, who are both impor- not do better in policy and practice in service to its com-
tant writers about girls and their power, put together an munity.
exhibition that celebrates girls’ thoughts and actions that
can become a road map for others to follow their lead. It The biggest lesson of the past decade for
honors girls who are honoring their foremothers, them- Girl Museum is just to keep going and keep

68
selves and the planet through activism, and nothing gi- an open mind and heart about learning
ves more hope for the future. The type of show is an ideal how to do better while remaining true to
example of the multiple levels of philosophical, ethical, our mission – and more importantly, to the
people that we serve. Though we do not watch our visi-
tors walk through the door, we have seen the impact that
our platform has on individuals. Contrary to assumptions,
online activism is not just about reach. It is about doing
good work and impacting one person at a time. One of
the highest compliments given to us was from 11-year-
old journalist Willa from the New Moon Girls magazine:
“Girl Museum is fascinating, sweet, sad, amazing, and
makes you wonder and think. THANK YOU to Ashley and
everyone there for making this!” (Remer 2021e). To have
the expectation of changing the world by reaching milli-
ons online is to fail before starting. So, as Zhang so aptly
put it:

Having an impact on a few and then making changes for many,

in my point of view, is also one of the goals of activism in gene-
ral: activism is all about bringing positive social changes. Acti-
vists empower individuals, make changes in communities, and in
the end bring society toward a greater good.23

A perfect museum is not possible, but creating and ad-

hering to an activist mission, while remaining flexible and
adaptable to the world, is a challenge all should attempt.
Through small steps taken together, museums can chan-
ge the world. 13
7 Kathleen Weidmann, email conversa-
While artists have used their work to tion with author, June 17, 2021.
comment on society and the govern-
ment for millennia, since the 1960s 14
global art activism has become more Brittany Hill, email conversation with
prominent, organized, and targeted. author, June 16, 2021.
In terms of feminism, there have been
the Guerilla Girls, Barbara Kruger, 15
Judy Chicago, Jenny Holzer, to name Ibid.
just a few.
16
8 Yuwen Zhang, email conversation
Tiffany Isselhardt, email conversation with author, June 21, 2021.
with author, June 16, 2021.
17
9 Girl Museum functions as an online
Girl Museum started out as a safe place where girls can express
non-collecting institution and main- themselves free of judgement, pro-
tained that we would only collect tected from online trolls (as much as
digital images. Since then, a few possible), where they control how to
digital images and paintings have engage or not. This includes deleting
been donated. content that they then change their
minds about sharing.
10
Tiffany Isselhardt, email conversation 18
with author, June 16, 2021. Zhang, Yuwen. Email conversation
with author, June 21, 2021.
11
By “girls” here, I mean a broad 19
concept encompassing those who Ibid.
identify as girls, those who consider
themselves grown up girls (or adult 21
women who had girlhoods), trans-gi- Isselhardt, Tiffany. Email conversation
rls, etc. with author, June 16, 2021.

12 22
There have only been two to the best As the American Alliance of Museum

69
of my knowledge, Picturing Her at the was then known.
McCord Museum in Montreal, Canada
in 2008 and Angels and Tomboys at 23
the Newark Museum in Newark, New Yuwen Zhang, email conversation
Jersey, USA in 2012. with author, June 21, 2021.
The Creation of
FLUGT

STINA TROLDTOFT ANDRESEN

THEORY AND METHOD
CLAUS KJELD JENSEN
There are several ways for museums to be activist. In her
ANNE SOFIE VEMMELUND CHRISTENSEN24
article, “‘I’m gonna do something’ – Moving beyond talk
TRINE JUST HANSEN
in the museum”, the English researcher/author Berna-
MALENE FROSCH LANGVAD25
dette Lynch identifies two trends: operational activism,
LOUISE THUESEN
whereby museums aim to make a difference for vulne-
HELLE ØLGAARD
rable groups; and performative activism, whereby muse-
Of Vardemuseerne
ums represent vulnerable groups and their stories (Lynch
2019).

Even though both approaches have something positive

to offer, both also present challenges. Operational acti-
vism calls for knowledge about vulnerable groups, which
is not usually part of the work or knowledge area of many
museums, while the vulnerable groups also need to exist
in the museum’s community if their efforts are to make
sense. Otherwise, cooperation requires time and re-
sources for transport between various towns and areas.
Conversely, the performative approach may mean that
the museums will be activist on behalf of the vulnerable
groups and, as a result, the latter will lose their opportuni-
ty to be active in tandem with the museum.

FLUGT’s exhibits veer towards the performative appro-

ach. The personal stories of refugees form the basis of
the exhibits created by Vardemuseerne in collaboration
with the Dutch design agency Tinker Imagineers. While
we gave refugees a voice in the exhibit, it was also impor-
tant for us to reach out to the countless visitors who visit
our area every year, taking them on a journey, in which we

71
move from numbers to people, and opening their eyes to
the reality of being a refugee. It is in this context that per-
formative activism emerges. Thus, our focus is not “me-
rely” on refugees, but also on our visitors and the insight with the concept for the exhibit and in subsequent inter-
they can gain at the museum, the dialog and debate this view situations.
can kindle and, particularly, the empathy, which they can
take out into the community and thereby make a diffe- FLUGT - AN INTRODUCTION
rence. As already mentioned, this article is all about FLUGT –
Refugee Museum of Denmark, which opened in Oksbøl
There are several reasons for this, including our acade- in the summer of 2022. The basis for the museum is the
mic and professional background. Vardemuseerne has a violent story of the the millions of German civilians who
tradition of working with target groups and creating new fled the horrors of war on the Eastern Front in the winter
exhibits and museums.26 Although we have been good at of 1945. While fleeing, tens of thousands of them died of
raising the bar in terms of what exhibits can and should cold, starvation and the assaults inflicted on them by the
be able to do, this background influenced us. Initially, ac- Red Army. The majority of them arrived safely further
tivism was not a concept we consciously understood. west in war-torn Germany, but about 250,000 reached
Therefore, we spent time on study trips and meetings, Denmark – ill, exhausted and suffering from their de-
where we tried to gain a closer sense of what activism vastating, grueling escape. At the same time, in the last
meant for us. We discovered that it was, to a huge extent, months of the war, they arrived in a country that basical-
about giving refugees a voice. Due to our lack of know- ly did not want them after almost five years of German
ledge and experience of working with vulnerable groups, occupation.
and because there were only a few refugees in our neig-
hboring community, it became more about how we could After liberation in 1945, the Oksbøl camp, which had ser-
use insight to qualify the ongoing debate about refugees, ved as a German military camp during the war, was used
than about being active and thereby activist with refuge- to accommodate many of the German refugees who at
es. We ourselves have no first-hand experience of fleeing, that time could not return to Germany. None of the refu-
so it was equally important for us to involve refugees in gees were allowed to leave Denmark until contact could
the process. The result was therefore more performative be established with family and friends back in Germany,
than operational. As we will explain later, in the future we who could take care of them, and until there was more
aim to apply operational activism as a supplement to the order in Germany.
performative approach.
During the four years of the camp’s existence, it beca-
As mentioned before, the exhibits in FLUGT are based me nothing short of a city behind barbed wire with insti-
on a large number of personal stories, but it was neither tutional kitchens, schools, a theatre, a cinema, a police
possible nor always desirable to incorporate all the sto- station, a fire station and a town hall. The refugee camp
ries we collected. The goal of the collection was to en- was also the largest in Denmark with 35,000 inhabitants
sure a representative selection of stories across time in 1946 alone.
and place. The selection of stories was also based on the
fact that we were dealing with people whose native lan- At the end of 1946, the first refugees were allowed to
guage is not Danish and who sometimes had only been leave Denmark. However, the vast majority of them did
in the country for a few months before we met them for not return home or to the areas whence they had fled
the first time. This meant that misunderstandings could but were divided between the four occupation zones and
easily arise, for example, as a result of interpretation or thus distributed throughout most of Germany. Although
difficult-to-understand Danish. In some cases, it meant the refugees were given the opportunity to state where
we had to jettison those stories, because it was vital that they wished to go, it still meant that virtually all of them
the refugees understood what we were asking of them. had to establish a new home in areas they did not know
It was equally important for us to understand their entire – and areas that did not necessarily want them. After the
stories so as to avoid any misunderstandings in their sub- war, the local population often had enough to do fending
sequent representation in the exhibits. the fact that we for themselves.
discarded certain stories means that certain voices do By February 1949, the large refugee camp in Oksbøl was
not get heard at the museum. This could be looked upon empty. In the following year, it was de-
as problematic. On the other hand, all the stories made molished building by building so that the

72
a huge impact on the project, as they helped not only to building materials could be recycled in
nuance, but also enhance our view of what being a refu- the construction of new houses in post-
gee means. This insight also helped us when coming up war Denmark. Conscientious objectors
German refugees fleeing the horrors of
war at the East Front in 1945.
Foto: Unknown

The old refugee camp in Oksbøl.

Foto: Blåvandshuk Lokalhistoriske arkiv
Impression from the first part of the
exhibition ”Refugees at all times” at
FLUGT. Foto: Mike Bink

Museum guest going in the audio tour in

the former refugee camp in Oksbøl
Foto: Mike Bink
ground bricks into mortar, and removed doors, windows throughout history, have been dehumanized in public de-
and wood-burning stoves until ultimately nothing remai- bate, reduced to a number and a problem for society. By
ned other than the buildings used during the demolition using the position of the museum in society as a megap-
process, the camp’s cemetery and the ground plan of hone for this theme, in the exhibits we sought to represent
the camp in the shape of paths and roads (Jensen 2020). each individual with respect, while sparking reflections
One of these buildings is the camp’s hospital, and it is that may lead to actions, either on behalf of, or together
here that FLUGT was established in the summer of 2022 with refugees. So, it is worth considering whether a visit to
– filled with personal stories of flight and being a refu- a museum can actually impact the subsequent thoughts
gee across time and place. The stories are thus not only and actions of visitors. Therefore, in FLUGT, activism is
about German refugees, but also about Hungarian, Bos- defined by the presentation of a complex theme in exhi-
nian, Syrian and countless other refugees, all helping to bits that aim to provide guests with new perspectives on
put a human face on the intangible figures in the media. refugees on the basis of the refugees’ own stories. Histo-
ry forms the basis of the exhibits, nuancing the usual pre-
HISTORY IS IMPORTANT, BUT SO IS THE PRESENT. sentation of the subject in the press and on social media.
The story of the German refugees forms the basis for In the long term, FLUGT also aims to be a meeting place
FLUGT: partly because the museum is located in one for discussion events, at which people can air divergent
of the last buildings from the refugee camp, and partly views to be anchored in the museum’s subject area. The
because history is often a safe area that can be easier to desire of the museum is to create a framework for me-
relate to than the present, which can be both complica- etings between people and to nuance the debate. This is
ted and problematic and colored by strong attitudes. part of what we understand by the term “activist muse-
um”, where one of the declared goals is to give refugees
In this context, history can help us learn more about a voice and a face, provide visitors to the museum with
ourselves and the world in which we live. So, in FLUGT we insight, and deploy a performative approach to qualify
chose to juxtapose the German stories with the stories of and promote democratic conversations. It is this overall
modern-day refugees, extending from 1949 to the pre- understanding that forms the basis for the considerati-
sent day. This approach helps spotlight the fact that re- ons that the following sections identify.
fugee stories and the related themes are universal – not
something that only go on today. Finally, the juxtapositi- REPRESENTATION AND EMOTIONS
on can also show why it is both important and necessary As the overall ideas for the development of FLUGT fell
to know why some people flee today. into place, work began on creating the exhibits for the
museum. As mentioned, the exhibition is divided into
In this context, FLUGT is made up of three experiences, three parts: first, the history of fleeing through the ages;
in which the Refugees at All Times exhibit is divided into secondly, the story of the site and the German refugees
two parts - telling stories both about the German refuge- in the Oksbøl camp. The third part features an account
es and about more recent refugees. The personal stori- of the history of the refugee camp outside in the plan-
es give voice to and put a face on the huge numbers we tation where the camp was located. Visitors can go an
know from the media. The two other sections deal solely audio walk around the traces of the original camp, liste-
with the Oksbøl Refugee Camp – in an exhibit featuring ning to the story precisely where it took place and getting
original objects, photographs and drawings – and the a sense of the size of the camp. For more than 40 years,
outdoor area of the camp. Visitors can visit the cemete- historians at Vardemuseerne have accumulated know-
ry and the last residential barracks and go on an “audio ledge about the Oksbøl camp and the flows of German
walk” that whisks them back to the time when the largest refugees in the wake of World War II. But now it was time
refugee camp in Denmark was located in Oksbøl, as they to start gathering material about refugees in more recent
walk along the original paths and roads of the camp. To- times. The interviews and objects we collected gave rise
gether, the three sections of the exhibit make the refugee to new considerations, when selecting cases for the exhi-
issue relevant and relatable, so we can see ourselves in it bits. We needed to define the limits of what we could and
and, maybe most of all, in the people it is all about. should show. For example, there is a difference between
seeing images in the media and in a museum. The exhi-
FLUGT AND ACTIVISM bition medium can make it difficult to block out images,

75
As mentioned previously, the fundamen- moods, stories and emotions, partly because you are in
tal objective of FLUGT was to give both a the middle of it. It is easier to turn off the TV or close the
face and a voice to refugees: people who, newspaper and return to normality. So, we needed to
strike the balance between giving refugees a voice and In all these interviews, we attempted to identify a topic
telling intense stories about the suffering of real people, that for many people is personal and vulnerable. That
touching the guests and giving them food for thought, meant we were moving into sensitive territory, where we
but never giving them a downright unpleasant experien- constantly had to scrutinize and consider what we could
ce so they would never wish to visit the museum again. and could not talk about. We talked to people who had
On the other hand, it was also very important for us to fled at many different times – both in terms of their stage
be true to the stories of the refugees – stories, which so- of life and period of time. They had escaped from many
metimes contained violence. This section will, therefore, different places in the world and in many different ways.
look at how we collected interviews and how we conside- We asked them what they had come from, what had gone
red representation and emotions in an exhibition context. on prior to fleeing and what had happened both along the
way and after they arrived in Denmark. But most impor-
INTERVIEWS WITH REFUGEES tantly, we allowed each story to shape itself individually,
Part of the preparation for the exhibits in FLUGT involved enabling the informants to tell their story as they wanted
conducting a number of personal interviews with people it to be told.
who had experienced flight and who now resided in Den-
mark, arriving in the country between 1956 and today. The structure of the interviews was very open, using a
Overall, the museum tackles a tough, serious subject and general interview guide that was constantly adapted for
this applied equally to the collection of modern stories each individual interview. Each story is unique, and each
about experience of flight. These people shared their narrator should have the opportunity to highlight the ele-
vulnerable, personal and, in many cases, traumatic sto- ments of their experience of flight, which they deemed
ries with us – stories that would then be presented in the particularly important and were comfortable describing.
museum’s exhibits. This required circumspection. But it So, the starting point differed greatly from interview to
was also important for us, precisely because these per- interview. After all, when does the story of a life uprooted
sonal stories can help make a difference in terms of our really begin and, when if ever, does it end?
understanding of what being a refugee means.
During the creation of FLUGT, people with experiences of Some stories started with the moment the first bomb
flight served as informants, sharing their stories with us exploded; others the moment they fled. Some star-
in in-depth, semi-structured interviews. It was important ted with detailed descriptions of everyday life – before
for us to collect the stories because they would form a escape was even an issue. Others even started long be-
basis of testimony. Their statements and stories helped fore the narrator was born to illustrate the fact that some
shape and formed the basis for the museum’s exhibits. conflicts and their consequences extended over gene-
The people who told us about their flight helped us by de- rations.
scribing their experiences, because none of us involved
in devising the museum’s exhibits had any such experi- Stories of flight are not only stories of conflict, war and
ence. More than anything else, their experiences, voices crossing borders in the dead of night. They are also sto-
and authentic stories can represent and nuance the nar- ries of people saying goodbye to all that their existence
rative we hear about refugees. entailed: family, friends, schooling, career, everyday life
and dreams. They are also stories about everything that
At the start of each interview, we introduced the infor- happened afterwards: all the other things that make up
mant to the overall concept of FLUGT and explained the a person’s life. Many of the people we talked to descri-
purpose of the interview: to create an empirical basis for, bed the loss of identity involved in fleeing from their life in
and insight into the experiences, moods and feelings im- one place and starting over somewhere else. For many of
plicit in a refugee’s life. We also explained that we would the interviewees, it was important to stress the fact that
use some of the stories in the museum’s exhibit. We also experiences of flight do not end just because the actual
explained to the interviewees that the goal of the inter- flight does. The consequences of fleeing stay with peop-
views was to put a human face on refugees – if not li- le for life.
terally, then metaphorically – in that a human, personal
story nuances the refugee narrative, which we often en- Some of them gave detailed accounts
counter in media discourses and public debates. The de- of their escape routes and experiences

76
sire to create nuances and bring human experiences into along the way, while others made no bo-
play undoubtedly contributed to the motivation of the nes about the fact they deliberately did
informants who told us their stories. not talk about certain things, because it
was too difficult for them. No one was under any obliga- interpreted the stories with emotions and moods. In this
tion to tell us their personal stories. More than anything context, the refugees included in the exhibits can be said
else, it was crucial to create a sense of security and to to have become activists. However, as a result of selec-
avoid re-traumatizing the people who chose to share tion, rewriting, interpretation by actors and subsequent
their stories with us. No one needed to share anything composition, they may also have taken something of a
with us – or exhibit part of their life in a museum – that back seat. It is the voices of the actors who recorded the
felt transgressive. stories we hear as opposed to those of the refugees. One
could argue that this creates distance between the refu-
There were some things we could not address at the mu- gees and visitors to the museum, removing an element
seum. Some refugees struggled with the Danish langu- of the authenticity and activism. On the other hand, it
age, so we were not sure if they understood our ques- was important for the tone of voice to be both evoca-
tions. On other occasions we simply did not get to hear tive and emotional, and to feature clear pronunciation
their stories in the interview situation, in which the time that everyone could understand. It was also essential to
restriction was also a deciding factor vis-à-vis the sen- operate with three languages in FLUGT – Danish, English
sitivity of the topics we could broach. But also, as men- and German – so that as many people as possible could
tioned before, because the interviewee kept quiet about enjoy a visit to the museum. Having said that, the activist
these topics. At the same time, we only heard a sample element can never be completely taken away from the
of the many refugee stories that existed. That is why it is refugees, because they made their personal story and
vital to stress that at FLUGT we did not strive to create voice available to the museum. This was vitally impor-
a complete picture that articulated every aspect of the tant, given that these stories form the common thread of
world’s refugee situation. That was quite simply impos- the exhibit and made such an important contribution to
sible. But we could give the informants a voice and high- the profile of the museum. But of course, the approach
light patterns that recurred in the stories: characteristics, impacted the type of activism at FLUGT: performative
similarities, descriptions common to the stories we col- activism.
lated – elements of the personal stories that are at once
totally individual, yet at the same time have something However, the use of audio guides plays another signi-
universal about them. Because, as human beings, we find ficant role in terms of the experience, since they help
value, security and meaning – meaninglessness too, for bring our visitors closer to the stories by personalizing
that matter – in many of the same things across time, them with real voices, sounds, moods and emotions. We
place and cultures. Finally, we could seek to ensure re- had also learned from our experience with Tirpitz (where
presentativeness and balance in our selection of stories. we also use audio guides) that sound facilitates greater
contemplation than if visitors have to read stories – for
Linguistic barriers, especially in interview situations whe- example, on signs and posters.
re interpretation was not an option, was another reason
why we could not access certain stories. Accordingly, at However, there is a downside to the use of audio guides
the museum, when selecting the stories, we also asses- with headphones. Silence reigns, and we rarely hear vi-
sed whether we could justify the inclusion of a story in the sitors talking to each other in the exhibits, which may be
exhibits if it was uncertain whether the informants had a problem vis-à-vis our ambition to be a meeting place
understood linguistically what we asked them for when and a venue that boosts democratic dialog. On the other
they shared their story with us. In some cases, we ended hand, we also find that our visitors make great use of our
up not telling certain very poignant stories in the muse- café and garden, and that they often need to talk about
um. their experiences with our museum hosts on the way out
and when returning their audio guide. In this context, we
Before including a refugee story in the museum’s exhi- assume that the dialog continues on the way home when
bits, we submitted it to an editing process. This was ne- people’s experiences and thoughts have really gelled.
cessary, given that our communication to our visitors This is something it will be interesting to investigate in the
is based on audio guides, which require a short format. future.
For one thing, this meant that we rewro-
te the stories, but endeavoring to remain EXHIBITS WITH EMOTIONAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDE-

77
as faithful as possible to them. The sto- RATIONS
ries were then recorded by actors who Selecting stories for the exhibits was also a matter of
 Majority of visitors talk in the museum
café and garden, some some also
discuss the exhibitions while seeing it.
Foto: Mike Bink

78
ethics. What stories could we permit ourselves to present is to create opportunities for experiences that move our
and how? The year is 2015. On a beach in Turkey lies a visitors, making them feel something, think about their
3-year-old boy who has drowned, his head submersed own opinion, reflect and compare their own life to that of
in sand and the ripples of the waves. The image is circu- the refugees and maybe also do something, which would
lated throughout the world and this small, lifeless body emphasize the activist element of FLUGT. Empathy for
in the red T-shirt and blue shorts becomes a symbol of certain groups can only grow if we make sure that there
the gravity of the refugee situation and its major human are places that provide nuanced insights and narratives,
consequences. Today, the image is iconic. For most vie- which we can both relate to and mirror ourselves in.
wers, it immediately evokes the civil war in Syria and the
countless crowded rubber dinghies in the Mediterrane- People who have no experience of fleeing, will never
an, almost certainly accompanied for many people by an fully understand what it means. Nor is it our intention for
unpleasant, sinking feeling in their stomach. FLUGT to give visitors a physical sensation or sensory
experience of flight. But it is great if they gain insight into
The question is: do photos such as that of Aylan Kurdi, and think about what it means to leave behind everything
as the boy was called, belong naturally to a museum you know. To uproot yourself. To be scared and despera-
dedicated to refugee stories? The photo actually does te and maybe to find yourself again in a new place. We
feature in our museum. Does it cross a line that lies so- try to appeal to universal human emotions that provide
mewhere between the representation of violent, perso- us with a common frame of reference for understanding
nal stories about real human life and the experience of the subject of the museum: emotions such as sadness,
visitors to the museum? On the one hand, the image is joy and hope, with which we are all familiar from our li-
widely known from the media etc.; on the other hand, its ves in different situations, and which enhance our under-
presentation in a museum context means that visitors standing. We are not talking about emotion for emotion’s
are forced to relate to it in a new way. In other words, the sake, but emotions should be involved, because we learn
context in which it is displayed plays a key role and can and remember better when we are emotional (Austing
help reinforce the content. & Sørensen 2006). We take experiences away with us
and become potentially receptive to shifting our point of
There is no easy answer to this dilemma, nor is there any view. That is why it is also important to find a balance, in
right or wrong answer. Boundaries will vary from person which our feelings do not get out of control and turn into
to person. But ultimately the question is about what me- some kind of emotional pornography, or guests leave the
asures one should deploy in exhibits to promote under- museum with stomachache, distancing themselves and
standing and empathy among our visitors as part of our switching off in order to protect themselves. It is our re-
activism, regardless of whether that understanding of sponsibility to strike a reasonable balance and arrive at a
the topic is positive or negative. How confrontational or point where we fabricate empathy rather than sympathy.
activist can we be in our public engagement in our ende- Finally, images and stories must never be presented in
avour to underscore the narrative of the exhibit? such a way that the refugees cannot recognize them-
selves in them. We must constantly ensure that they are
We are very conscious of the fact that as a museum constructively included in the journey we want to take
we are faced with a privileged dilemma. While our job our guests on, so that it is not the content as such that
is to convey a story that, in a professionally sound way, constitutes the activism, but the voices of the refugees,
elaborates on this complex theme, we must also reach the journey and the reflections they kindle.
our visitors and influence them. For more than 100 mil-
lion people throughout the world, this is not just a “sto- ACTIVIST AND DIALOG-BASED PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT
ry”. It is their reality. As a museum, we need to be aware AND INTERPRETATION
of this responsibility. We must also consider our visitors FLUGT is an important learning environment for schools
when we devise exhibits. Many of the visitors to FLUGT and educational institutions. In Vardemuseerne LEAR-
have absolutely no experience of fleeing or escaping. For NING we constantly consider what approaches we need
them, their visit to FLUGT will hopefully engender insight to deploy to promote learning, and how to activate our
and reflection and, when they leave the knowledge, space and museum objects so they also be-
museum, hopefully the experience and nefit younger generations. One of our greatest priorities

79
contemplation will remain with them for is how as a museum we can contribute to the democra-
some time. But people who have been re- tic development of children and young people and their
fugees are impacted for life. So, our task ability to make up their mind, on the basis of both history
and the personal refugee stories featured in the muse- Sometimes in the program we encounter pupils who,
um. The latter are particularly relevant in relation to our for one reason or another, express extreme or unbalan-
public engagement and interpretation activities for chil- ced attitudes that can be difficult to accommodate and
dren and young people visiting FLUGT. Over the years, tackle. On one hand, as museum educators we are very
Vardemuseerne LEARNING has gained comprehensive interested in creating space for reflection and discussi-
experience of conveying different topics in the fields of on among visitors. On the other hand, though, we do not
both cultural history and the natural sciences, and we want to become a kind of catalyst for hateful and offen-
constantly reflect on, and discuss what approaches are sive utterances and comments. When trying to challenge
best in a learning context. these pupils and their attitudes, we often find that some
of them are totally unwilling to enter into discussion. On
For some years, we had presented the story of the Ger- the contrary, they may adopt a provocative approach to
man refugees in Denmark’s largest refugee camp after the subject. This usually leads to a feeling of insecurity
World War II in an existing public engagement/interpreta- and uncertainty in the rest of the group, which does no-
tion program for secondary school pupils. The program, thing to boost the young people’s democratic self-confi-
entitled People Behind Barbed Wire, is process-based, dence. On the other hand, this uncertainty is also impor-
involving work both before and after the puplils’ visit to tant, because maybe the pupils really learn something
the former refugee camp in Oksbøl. The learning activi- about each other. We just have to provide a professional
ties of the material were inspired by cooperative learning framework, in which there is room for different attitudes
and dialog-based public engagement/interpretation, re- and the pupils can feel safe.
quiring collaboration between the pupils. The storytelling
in the program is based on some of the real human fates The intention of an activist presentation of a topic such
we know about from the Oksbøl camp. However, they are as flight and refugees, in addition to empathy, is to sup-
versioned to ensure a strong, communicative narrative port the democratic development and dialog of young
that tackles the various themes the pupils have to work people. We also see this in the ability of young people to
on: flight, uncertainty, lack of food, war, self-determina- take a stance. Unfortunately, though, in some cases, the
tion. The pupils are divided into groups, and each group is opposite is true. We have found that many of the young
given a suitcase with an “identity”. They are then guided people initially find it difficult to make up their mind about
around the area, given assignments, work together and such a major topic. They appear to find it risky to elabo-
exchange suitcases. Working together, each group has rate on why they think as they do. Fortunately, we often
to identify the resource that their “identity” is missing. In find too that their self-confidence grows during the pro-
short, they have to sit for a while “in the shoes of a re- gram. Most students are good at reflecting on, and un-
fugee” where a real refugee camp was once located. As derstanding even complex issues, once they have the
in the exhibits, we found that placing extra emphasis on time and opportunity to delve into special personal fates
some selected personal stories helps stimulate the young and circumstances and get close to the stories. The Pe-
people’s sense of empathy. However, one of the challen- ople Behind Barbed Wire program is a good example of
ges of this is that the pupils get a slightly one-sided pic- a concept that creates a safe learning environment that
ture of refugees, which is at odds with the ambition of the paves the way for understanding, dialog and debate, and
museum. However, for the young people, the experience ultimately stretches the pupils and extends their hori-
of meeting a “real person” actualizes the overall theme zons.
of flight, making it more relatable, even though it involves
the voice of both history and the museum. Even though Based on these learning experiences, we are now de-
the program mainly addresses the German refugees in vising new programs for FLUGT. Given the ambition of
Denmark after World War II, discussions with the young FLUGT to be a meeting place for dialog and new realiza-
people move on to the topic of today’s refugees, and tions, the educational programs need to have the same
there is usually a connection to their own lives. Thereby, objective. We are more than aware that we are moving
the program reflects not only a link between past and into a sensitive and controversial public engagement
present refugees, but also the museum’s activism, since, and interpretation environment. The fact that we present
on the basis of personal stories, history provides insight past actions and issues in a contemporary
into what it means to be a refugee, and generates dialog perspective can give rise to exciting and

80
about, and reflections on what being a refugee may be fruitful, but probably also intense discus-
like today. The program thus creates its own kind of jour- sions and debates. At the same time, we
ney and invites the pupils to take part in it.
aim to devise educational programs that can convey hi- voice.
story to both kindergarten children and high school stu-
dents with the same overall goal: to actualize history, turn Our approach to communication reflects the exhibits,
statistics into humans and inspire (self-) knowledge and which focus on the individual, so that specific stories be-
democratic conversation. come relevant and tangible, and are given a face, as part
of our approach to activism. At the museum and in our
It goes without saying that this is a challenge, but the communication, we must ensure broad representation:
personal refugee stories, museum objects and the mu- of those who have been refugees, of those with points
seum space are a huge help in our public engagement/ of view on the refugee issue - for example, Venligboerne
interpretation efforts. These elements are particularly - and those with anti-refugee attitudes. We must repre-
helpful to the activist approach, when introducing this sent all points of view, so that the communication also
complex theme in a non-classroom setting where history reflects the museum’s desire to be a forum for debate
was actually made. Here, our role as museum educators – for everyone, including our visitors. This naturally en-
is also a strength, since we can assume a more objective tails a special responsibility on behalf of the people we
position in the learning situation, guiding pupils towards represent – a responsibility we must honor as a museum:
an expanded understanding, and facilitating a conversa- especially in that part of the communication that takes
tion or debate based on objects or setting. place in a dialogical space on social media, where the
tone can easily become hateful and one-sided.
When devising programs for FLUGT, we aim at provi-
ding educational institutions with teaching that is more COMMUNICATION 2.0
case- and practice-based than what ordinary classroom We know that on social media, even innocent and quite
teaching is able to. We regard it as one of our most im- prosaic topics can serve to escalate conflict and spark
portant tasks to help give children and young people the hate speech. So, the communication of FLUGT is a chal-
opportunity to learn about themselves as people, people lenging task. Our aim is to provide insight and shift at-
with and without refugee experiences in their immediate titudes: not to provoke, hurt and offend, but to engender
environment and the world of which they are part. So, we reflections and constructive dialog with both our users
strive to create a space for wonder and reflection and, and visitors to the museum. Communication is thus both
particularly, a space, in which pupils can feel safe about about providing insight into what it means to be a refugee,
sharing their thoughts with each other and us. but also about creating a space for constructive dialog
as part of our activist role. That is why we are very active
FLUGT AND COMMUNICATION in terms of where the limit is, of the extremity of the vie-
In FLUGT, the task of communication (in this context, ws we can accommodate and of how we avoid becoming
mainly social media) is a particular challenge, because an instrument of external agendas. Trenchant stances on
the aim of the museum is to be a forum for the theme of the museum, the theme and the refugee stories we pre-
refugees viewed in both a historical and a current light. sent will be crystallized in the comment threads on our
In both traditional and social media, when themes such social media.
as flight and refugees are on the agenda, the debate and
tone are often unnuanced and perfidious. Lines quickly When communicating FLUGT, we constantly need to re-
get drawn and the opposing views rarely leave room for late to a media reality, in which content is something that
the nuanced reflection that shows the people that the constantly emerges in dialog with our followers. That is
whole topic is about. That is why the communication of the particular challenge that FLUGT faces. On our own
FLUGT is a balancing act, in which we constantly have communication channels, can we orchestrate a museum
to weigh the content, so that the strong attitudes and activist approach, in which we present stories to followers
deep feelings the content may generate do not overs- and encourage them to come up with their own nuanced
hadow the stories we want to tell. At the same time, when interpretation? We are totally aware that we are placing
communicating FLUGT, we have to strike a balance bet- complex content in an arena where pseudo-debate and
ween different refugee flows, so that we can tell the si- opinion relativism often eclipse democratic discussion.
te-specific stories about the German re- And even though disagreement about everything from
fugees and treat fairly the many refugees contemporary political discourse to attitudes about quo-

81
who have come to Denmark since then. ta refugees, for instance, are of course entirely legitima-
Our communication must give them all a te, it is also this two-front war the museum aims to curb.
In other words, on social media our challenge is to con- tion salons and debate evenings that prepare the ground
tinuously assess how, on one hand, to embrace the bro- for reflections and spark good, qualified conversations.
ad spectrum of attitudes and, on the other, to distinguish There also needs to be room for activities that target re-
and draw a line, when a discussion runs the risk of getting fugees, not only with the purpose of supporting their in-
off track: to introduce our followers to people and stories sight into and understanding of Danish society, but also
that make the topic relatable and topical, but also to in- to make room for their voices and provide them with a
sist on good tone, factual argument and orderliness. place to meet, where they can share experiences, with
each other, the museum and our guests. The goal is thus
Identifying what forms communication needs to take in to include a kind of operational activism at FLUGT.
order to embrace all these considerations is a continuous
process. At present, we are striving for a kind of docu- However, one element must not and need not exclude
mentary approach, in which the presentation of a theme the other – something that, it may be argued, happens in
or a personal story takes a relatively objective form, so certain contexts. For example, the Berlin-based Multaqa
that the individual follower has the opportunity to read an project aims to attract more refugees and immigrants to
opinion into the content. In the long term, this form will be German museums as safe places, where they can con-
developed as the museum evolves. tribute, have a voice and help build bridges. For example,
refugees lead guided tours in their native language for
Because communication should also make room for the other refugees – an important and excellent way of in-
discussion of content. On our social media, our visitors volving them in the work of the museum’s. However, this
should also encounter the space for debate that the mu- neglects other visitors to the museum, who neither spe-
seum aims to be. Do the conventions hold up? Are war ak nor understand the language spoken during the tours
and persecution the only “valid” reasons to flee? What and who would also like to hear the stories the refugees
about the many climate refugees we can expect in the are telling, based on their cultural insight.
coming years? If we want to influence opinions and at-
titudes, we must also facilitate spaces in which these can Thus, it is also vital for FLUGT to continue to reach out
be exchanged and broken both online and physically. It is to our visitors – be they tourists, locals or schools – and
in this borderline territory that we define the communi- give them an opportunity to reflect and talk. KØN - Gen-
cation strategies for FLUGT. der Museum Denmark in Aarhus has a similar direction,
basing their work on women’s stories and working with
THE FUTURE OF FLUGT gender culture to create “curiosity, dialog, reflection and
When FLUGT opened in the summer of 2022 , the ap- knowledge about gender, equality and diversity” (KØN
proach to activism in the exhibits was mainly performati- - Gender Museum Denmark 2016). Thus, activism in
ve. We will continue this approach in the near future. This FLIGHT must also – and in the long term – accommoda-
means, for example, that we still aim to give refugees a te not only refugees and their opportunities to contribute
voice through the exhibits and continue to communicate and be active, but also the desire of each visitor to the
well. So, we will continue to find strong ways of embra- museum to understand and make a difference.
cing the countless stories and attitudes so as to avoid
supporting a black-and-white portrayal of the refugee THE NEED FOR AGILE MUSEUMS
crisis and refugees, aiming at a more nuanced version, Part of deploying the performative approach will be to
in which numbers become people. We must continue to ensure that the museum moves with society, retaining its
reach out to our visitors, so they gain insight into refugee relevance, remaining constantly topical and supportive
issues and reflect on them – and perhaps even react to in relation to the processes and public sentiments that
them. Similarly, we will continue to work with schools and emerge in society.
youth education programs, helping pave the way for re-
flection and democratic dialog. We will also continue to This means, for example, that we must be ready to react
work with refugees as informants in the context of spe- at short notice, as happened when the first Ukrainian re-
cial exhibits etc. fugees came to Denmark. The museum initiated emer-
gency fundraising and documentation
However, we must also be dynamic, programming activi- that helped to emphasize the fact that re-

82
ties and events targeted at the museum’s visitors to pro- fugees have an important role and voice
vide them with insight into what it means to be a refugee in our history. The fundraising project also
and to flee. These can include events such as conversa- included documentation of public sen-
timent, which is also part of the refugee story and was room for dialog on difficult and current topics. Similarly,
significantly different, for example, from when Syrian re- museums also have an important opportunity to make
fugees arrived in Denmark. Whereas many Syrian refu- room for possible disagreements. For example, after op-
gees encountered resistance and negative actions – for position from locals, many of who belonged to the far
example, when a Dane spat a group from an expressway right, the Albertinum, an art museum in Dresden, invi-
bridge – the Ukrainian refugees were given a totally dif- ted them to discussions instead of simply rejecting them
ferent reception. Danes met them with open arms and (Apperly 2020). The museum thus helped build bridges.
invited them to live in their homes, while the government The example of the Levine Museum also reveals how
enacted a special law to grant them a residence permit in history can help to both explain and create a safe base
Denmark (Esbjørnsen 2022). for discussing the present (Lynch 2019). We have had the
same experience during guided tours of the former refu-
The Migration Museum of Denmark in Farum has likewise gee camp in Oksbøl, where the story of the post-World
focused on the idea of the agile museum and in 2022 in- War II German refugees automatically sparks thoughts
troduced the idea of developing a museum “contingency and dialog about today’s refugee challenges. That is
box”, which would contain tools for museums that wan- something we must and will continue in the future. With
ted to collate, document and co-create, when new refu- today’s huge refugee flows and their presentation as
gees arrived in Denmark, as happened with the Afghan numbers, challenges and problems, such meetings and
refugees in 2021.27 The project, therefore, addresses a events may prove to be both important and necessary, if
need, given that an increasing number of museums want we want to make a difference to the way many refugees
to work activistically to help tackle challenges and pro- are portrayed.
blems in contemporary society.28
CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
This also applies to FLUGT. It is important for us to trans- For several years, the English researcher, Bernadette
late this agility into events that can be used to give voices Lynch has argued that museums must evolve in a more
to more refugees, build bridges and qualify the dialog on activist direction and thus help make a difference to the
refugees when special needs arise. Museums have the society of which they are part (Lynch 2019). Given the
potential to be meeting places and forums, where to- increasing trend towards museum activism in Denmark
gether with others we can gain insight into and under- in recent years, and the increasing focus of museums on
standing of challenges and problems, and come up with being something for someone, there is no doubt that this
solutions. A museum is thus one of the few places where will be their way forward.
there is still room for inclusive meetings and respectful,
democratic conversations between people who may not However, according to Lynch, it is not enough for muse-
agree (Hunt 2018). ums to practice what she calls “performative activism”,
in which they present vulnerable groups and their stori-
One example of this potential comes from the Levine es – the approach we adopted at FLUGT. Museums run
Museum of the New South in the United States. After the the risk being activist on behalf of the vulnerable groups,
police killing of Keith Lamont Scott and the ensuing un- thereby depriving these groups of their voice and the op-
rest, the museum invited the people of the city for tours portunity to help make a difference by working with the
and informal workshops. For one thing, this put the ra- museum. Instead, museums must become operational
cially motivated reason for the murder in a historical per- and work to make a difference together with the groups
spective, paving the way for small group discussions that they focus on (ibid.).
were “passionate, authentic and respectful” (Hill 2016). As
Kathryn Hill, Director of the Levine Museum of the New That is something that FLUGT must definitely make room
South, put it: “…we understood that Charlotteans cannot for in the future. We will continue our mainly performative
address the issues at the core of these events – the issu- approach, but we must get better at including the opera-
es of social mobility, institutional racism, and implicit bias tional approach, so that we also become a museum for
– without understanding the long history that has given refugees rather than solely a museum about refugees.
them root” (ibid.). This, however, will require a certain balancing act. FLUGT
must not close in on itself, but continue to reach out to

83
The example illustrates how museums our visitors, constantly preparing the ground for insight,
can win by being agile and, on the basis reflection and dialog as part of our activism.
of events, help create a safe space with
People often listen intensively, but
they also talk and have discussions
during ”Humans behind barb wire” in
the former refugee camp on Oksbøl
Foto: NaturKulturVarde
Performative activism thus plays a key role because it is
a way of reaching out to our guests and can spark reflec-
tions and dialog, and because it is also important to make
a difference for all our visitors, just as it is important to do
so on behalf of all the refugees the exhibits are about,
and the countless people who flee every single day. We
focus on our visitors, because we believe that visits to
museums can make a difference for them and influence
the way they behave towards refugees, and the way they
talk to or about them.
So, of course it is all about making a difference for re-
fugees and helping to give them a voice, but it is also
about reaching beyond that, welcoming Danes, tourists
and schools to the museum and opening their eyes to the
complexity, nuances and human aspect of the refugee
problem. Thereby, we provide them with insight they can
take home and use actively – not only in the context of
debate, but also in close relationships with people who
fled.

24
Anne Sofie Vemmelund Christensen
currently works at Fiskeri- og Søfarts-
museet (the Fisheries and Maritime
Museum) in Esbjerg

25
Malene Frosch Langvad currently
works at Varde Library

26
E.g., Tirpitz, which opened in 2017,
subsequently with temporary special
exhibits.

27
“Flygtige fortællinger – samtidsdo-
kumentation på de kulturhistoriske
museer”, application to the VELUX
FOUNDATIONSN with the Migration
Museum of Denmark, Vardemuse-
erne (including FLUGT), Bornholm
Museum, Holstebro Museum and
the Centre for Advanced Migration
Studies (AMIS), spring 2022.

28
E.g., Billund Municipality Museums,
whose mission for their new museum
will update the museum’s remits,
http://billundmuseum.dk/nyt-muse-

85
um/ (May 23, 2022)and Hjerl Hede,
which will solve the current problem
of lack of craftsmen with the project,
‘Modern Hands’, https://hjerlhede.dk/
modernhands/(May 23, 2022)
The Activist Potential of Feminist
Art Artworks as Agile Objects
in Museum Communication

CAMILLA SKOVBJERG PALDAM

INTRODUCTION
Associate Professor of Art History, Aarhus University
KØN – Gender Museum Denmark is, like the Schwules
Museum in Berlin, a cultural history museum that aims to
tell the history of gender and create reflection and de-
bate. The museum bases its approach on its collecti-
on, which contains a large number of testimonies – par-
ticularly from women – and countless ’gendered’ objects
from everyday life throughout history. Feminist art also
features the history of gender and brings it up for discus-
sion, but most often in art museums and galleries, in the
public space or online, using other means and other
media, which, however, also focus on many of the same
issues in women’s lives through time, as those that KØN
conveys in exhibits of life stories and everyday objects.

The aim of this article is twofold. On the one hand it wants

to outline the history of feminist art as a parallel story to
the cultural history presented at KØN – Gender Museum
Denmark; on the other hand, it aims to investigate the
role feminist art can play in activist, cultural history mu-
seums. I suggest that it would be beneficial if museums
increasingly allowed the two stories to be intertwined.
Therefore, the article first provides an overview of the hi-
story of feminist art – its media, topics, and expressions
– but without pretending to be exhaustive or to project a
canon. It then looks at three examples of cultural history
exhibits, two at KØN and one at the Schwules Museum in
Berlin, which, in addition to other objects, also feature art.
The aim here is to investigate what art can contribute in
relation to other types of objects, and what potential art

87
can have in a museum context. I contend that art is an
excellent ‘agile object’ (German & Harris 2017), which is
particularly suitable for creating the reflection and deba-
te at which museums aim. First, though, I will explain what feminist. It is the capacity of art to bring gender and, in
this article means by “feminist art” and how feminist art particular, the position of women up for discussion that
has evolved throughout history. defines it as feminist. As in Aagerstoun and Auther’s es-
say (Aagerstoun and Auther 2007, vii), this implies a be-
THE ACTIVIST POTENTIAL OF FEMINIST ART lief in the potential of art to contribute to social change.
In “Considering Feminist Activist Art” (2007), Mary Jo The interpretation of both feminist art and activism is
Aagerstoun and Elissa Auther write that feminist activist merely more comprehensive than theirs. That is also why
art is at once critical, positive and progressive: the title of the article is not “Activist Art”, but “The Acti-
vist Potential of Feminist Art”, because in its pure form
By critical we mean work that seeks to expose underlying activist art is generally defined as art that is “situated in
ideologies or existing structures that have a negative effect on the public arena with artists working closely with a com-
women and their lives; by positive we mean work that takes munity to generate the art” (Tate n.d.). This type of art is
a stand, expressing its maker’s faith in achieving results or certainly an important part of feminist art, but it is only
positing alternatives; by progressive we mean a belief in the a fraction of it, and the focus of this article will be on the
feminist tenets of equality and inclusiveness, a better world potential of the feminist art object in museums: the role
free of sexism, racism, homophobia, economic inequality, and of artworks as agile objects in museum communication .
violence” . (Aagerstoun og Auther 2007, vii).
FEMINIST ART – A NONHOMOGENEOUS MOVEMENT
Thus, in their definition of feminist, activist art, Aager- Feminist art is not a single thing. As the feminist art histo-
stoun and Auther do not include art, which “although rian Griselda Pollock (1949-) writes:
both critical and progressive, privileges open-ended cri-
tique over a positive form of politics.” (Aagerstoun and There is no such entity; no homogeneous movement defined
Auther 2007, viii). This context instrumentalizes art to act by characteristic style, favored media or typical subject-mat-
principally as aesthetic communication, implying a no- ter. There are instead feminist artistic practices which cannot
tion (or at least a hope) of a direct connection between be comprehended by the standard procedures and protocols of
the intention of the artist and the effect of the work on modernist art history and criticism which depend upon isolating
the recipient (also referred to as the “transmission para- aesthetic consideration such as style or media (Pollock 1987,
digm”, which I will broach later). However, closed works 80).
that present both problem and solution risk becoming
didactic and instructive and may end up preaching so- Feminist art cannot simply be defined on the basis of ca-
lely to the converted. The vision of KØN states that the tegories such as style or media. Rather than its aesthetic
museum “wants to be the leading creator of dialog on the importance expression, it is its gender political agenda that defines it
of gender and create insight, as well as engage and strengthen the will as feminist. Feminist art really flourished with the feminist
to an equal society” (KØN n.d.). In other words, the museum movement of the 1960s and 70s. Many feminist artists
works actively on behalf of gender equality, but its princi- chose to express themselves in media other than traditi-
pal task is to create dialog and discussion, rather than to onal painting and sculpture: partly as a result of the open-
urge visitors to think in a specific way. Most works of art ness to new media and forms of expression, for which the
are ambiguous and open to a variety of interpretations. avant-garde movements of the 1960s in particular pa-
Thereby, they can prepare the ground for the discussion, ved the way; and partly because painting and sculpture
which a museum like KØN seeks, to a greater extent than are embedded in a history of art dominated by men. Ac-
the closed, didactic works that form the basis of Aager- cordingly, many female artists broke with the formalistic
stoun and Auther’s definition. The starting point of this abstraction of painting, which had set the trend for male
article is an understanding of feminist art as art that, in artists, working more figuratively and using their own bo-
one way or another, critically reflects gender inequality dies in art – for example, in performances. Many of them
and conditions of life, thereby creating discussion about also broke with the traditional artist role, which pays tri-
these issues and ultimately makes us wiser about both bute to the individual, inspired “artist genius” (by the way,
ourselves and the society of which we are part.29 In this even today the term “genius” still seems to be reserved
context, all feminist art is regarded as activist to some for men). As an alternative, they created
extent, by virtue of the discussion and critical reflection collective events, such as the exhibit Da-

88
that art can initiate in the recipient. Consequently, refer- mebilleder (Images of Women), organized
ring to art as “feminist” is independent of the gender of by Kanonkubben, in 1970 in Copenhagen,
the artist or whether the artist themselves refers to it as who with happenings and audience invol-
Shigeko Kubota "Vagina Painting",
1965 - performance 1965.
© Kubota / VISDA

vement, put a sharp focus on contemporary gender roles which were already loaded with meaning, both in terms
(Bundgård 1970, 22-23).30 Later, significant feminist artist of motif-related connotations and social issues related
groups have been, for example, Guerilla Girls (1985-) and, to painting and sculpture as artistic practice (Parker and
in a Danish context, Kvinder på Værtshus (1997-2009) or Pollock 1987, 39).
Aarhus-based Artillery (1999-2003) (Hinnum 2004, 56).
FEMINIST ART IN MULTIPLE MEDIA
Performance became a popular form of expression for Although a lot of feminist art is expressed through per-
many female artists, including the Austrian artist Valie formance, workshops and other community-based pro-
Export (b. 1940) who, in Aktionshose: Genitalpanik (Ac- jects, feminist art has never completely abandoned the
tion Pants: Genital Panic) (1968), challenged contempo- object. Accordingly, feminist art exists in all media. The-
rary passive representations of women in film and the re are paintings such as Frida Kahlo’s (b. 1907) symbolic
tabooing of women’s genitalia by walking through a ci- self-portraits or the Danish artist Stense Andrea Lind-
nema in Munich in bottomless pants; the Japanese artist Valdan’s (b. 1985) works, painted using her own men-
Yoko Ono (b. 1933) who in Cut Piece (1964) sat motionless strual blood and a dildo as a paintbrush (2015). There are
on a stage and left it up to the audience to decide whether photos, such as Cindy Sherman’s (b. 1954) ironic pasti-
or not to cut pieces of her clothes (MoMA Learning n.d.); ches of the representation of women throughout history,
or Japanese Shigeko Kubota’s (b. 1937) Vagina Painting often depicting Sherman herself in a variety of roles, or
where she kneels and paints the floor menstrual red with the works of Barbara Kruger (b. 1945), who often com-
a brush strapped to her lower body (Hawley 2016), the- bines her photos with ironic aphorisms such as: “I shop
reby challenging and parodying the quasi-ejaculatory therefore I am” (1987). There are installations, including
action paintings of male artists such as the US artist Judy Chicago’s (b. 1939) legendary Dinner
Jackson Pollock (b. 1912). According to Party (1974-79) – a large triangular dining table set with

89
Parker and Pollock, one of the attracti- 39 plates in lavish vulvar shapes, dedicated to women
ons of performance was the opportu- throughout history. There are sculptures, such as the
nity to escape from the traditions of art, French-American artist Louise Bourgeois’ (b. 1911) hu-
Judy Chicago: ”Dinner Party” 1974-79.
Står på Brooklyn Museum.
© Brooklyn Museum / VISDA.

mongous spider mothers, or the Palestinian artist Mona and not regarded as art. As Linda Nochlin writes in her
Hatoum’s (b. 1952) oversized kitchen utensils, including famous text, “Why have there been no great women ar-
a giant, guillotine-like egg slicer – Slicer (1999) – which tists?” (1971), there are a huge range of structural reasons
portray the kitchen and the home in general as anything why women have only been allocated a very limited pla-
but a safe, harmonious place. There is also a huge ran- ce in art history: for example, the fact that for a long time
ge of video works: for example, recorded performances they were not even granted access to art schools. Their
by the Serbian artist Marina Abramović (b. 1946) who for place was in the home, where their opportunities for
more than 15 minutes aggressively combs her hair, while creative expression were largely craft-based. Judy Chi-
repeating “Art must be beautiful, Artist must be beauti- cago’s aforementioned, Dinner Party should be viewed in
ful” (1975), underlining the objectification of women in art this context. The work is on display at Brooklyn Museum’s
both as artist and model; and performance-like works as Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art, a venue for
those by the Danish artists Hanne Nielsen (b. 1959) and feminist art, theory and activism. They write about The
Birgit Johnsen (b. 1958) who, with expressionless faces, Dinner Party:
grate a pile of onions that simply fall on the ground, while
the sting of the onions almost dissolves their faces. There It is a multi-media work that consists of ceramics, china
are also magnificent films like the Iranian-US artist Shirin painting, sewing, needlework, embroidery, and other mediums
Neshat’s (b. 1957) beautiful, intense depictions of wo- traditionally associated with ‘women’s work’, and, as such, not
men’s life in the Islamic world, or experimental, technolo- generally considered ‘high art’ by the art world. In an effort
gically advanced films like those by the Swiss artist Pipi- to celebrate undervalued female creative production, Chicago
lotti Rist (b. 1962), who plays with both representations of consciously sought to reclaim and commemorate those medi-
gender and the position of the viewer, so you can watch ums traditionally considered ‘craft’ , as fine art ones equivalent
her dreamlike, erotic works lying in beds or through little to painting and sculpture. (Brooklyn Museum n.d.)
peepholes.
SOLIDARITY AND INTERSECTIONALITY
Feminist art can also be feminist more by virtue of the With feminism in the 1970s, a new solida-
materials it uses than of its theme. There is thus a strong rity emerged in relation to being a woman

90
tradition of feminist art turning to craft, including em- and thereby being subject to a number of
broidery, knitting, porcelain painting and crocheting. This expectations and oppressive structures
type of craft was traditionally the province of women (Parker and Pollock 1987, 64). Conscious
that “the personal is political”, women began to share life theless, women as an overall category are still less well
experiences in basic groups, and the focus on close, lived paid, more frequently subjected to domestic abuse and
life also features in art: for example, in the film Tornero- violence, and experience more shame in relation to their
se var et vakkert barn (Sleeping Beauty) (1971) by Kirsten body and sexuality than cis men – to name just a handful
Justesen (b. 1943) and Jytte Rex (b. 1942) – a montage of of the inequalities that are still alive and kicking across
a number of women of various ages either dancing or re- national borders and cultures. In other words, we still
counting their lives and longings (Paldam 2022). Women need a women’s struggle.
stood together and supported each other, but it soon
became clear that not everyone was facing the same THE BODY IN ART
oppression, and that feminism had hitherto been based Many of the works mentioned, and feminist art in gene-
primarily on the experience of white, heterosexual, mid- ral, address themes such as body, sexuality, motherhood
dle-class women. Parker and Pollock write: and home, including, in particular, a rebellion against the
objectification and tabooing of women’s bodies. In art
By the 1980s Black women, lesbian women, working-class wo- history, there is a surfeit of paintings and sculptures, or-
men, Jewish women were rightly claiming that their position chestrated by male artists and their lustful gaze, which in
in a racist and sexist society gave rise to quite specific forms of varying degrees idealize women’s bodies. Female artists
oppression. Women’s shows began to reflect the solidarity and wanted to regain control of their bodies: to be active sub-
self-consciousness of particular groupings of women (Parker jects rather than passive objects. However, as Pollock
& Pollock 1987, 64). and Parker point out, figuration is laden with a history of
opinions, uses and associations. For example, an image
This is also reflected in art: for example, when the Afri- of a naked woman created to celebrate the sexuality,
can-American artist Carrie Mae Weems, in her photo power and fertility of women can easily be misconstrued
series Ain’t Jokin (1987-88), features a photo of a black and perceived as a voyeuristic representation of a naked
woman standing with a mirror, accompanied by the sar- woman (Parker og Pollock 1987, 5). When a female artist
castic caption: “Looking into the mirror, the black woman such as Kirsten Justesen (b. 1943) says that you circum-
asked, ‘Mirror, mirror on the wall, who’s the finest of them vent the discussion of object and subject when, as a
all?’ The mirror says, ‘Snow White you black bitch, and female artist you use your own gaze on your own body
don’t you forget it!!!’” Since Weems’s photo and Parker (Wagner 2013, 5:10), it is therefore a half-truth. The fact
and Pollock’s text, there has been greater awareness of that the sender of an image has a specific intention for
intersectionality – intersections between oppressive sy- it does not tally with what the viewer sees. Nevertheless,
stems that reinforce each other – and many feminist ar- the reconquest by women of ownership of their bodies,
tists address not only being a woman but also their disa- including their own choice of where and how to exhibit
bility, ethnicity or class. Take three examples of work by them, is key to feminist art and the feminist movement.
Danish artists. In Gudruns Livshistorie (The Story of Gud- Often, feminist art gets very close to the body, as in Red
run’s Life) (2004), Gudrun Hasle (b. 1979) tackles her dys- Flag (1971), a photo by Judy Chicago, in which she is pul-
lexia. In her video Absolute Exotic (2005) Lillibeth Cuanca ling a bloody tampon out of her vagina, or Menstruati-
Rasmussen (b. 1970), who has Filipino roots, takes an iro- on II (1979), a performance by the Franco-British artist
nic look at being viewed as a sex object on the basis of Cate Elwes (b. 1952), in which, in the course of three days,
her ethnicity. In her performances and sculptures, Jea- menstruating and dressed in white pants, she could be
nette Ehlers (b. 1973), who has Caribbean roots, thema- observed in a box where she wrote answers to questions
tizes Denmark’s colonial past. For example, together on walls and windows. As Parker and Pollock point out,
with the artist La Vaughn Belle from the former Danish the work confronts the “cultural non-existence of men-
West Indies, she created the sculpture I Am Queen Mary struation” (Parker and Pollock 1987, 31), a theme that
(2018), depicting Mary Thomas, a black woman and he- many feminist artists have addressed both before and
roine, who in 1878 fought for justice and equity in the for- since: for example, the young Danish artist Maja Malou
mer Danish West Indies. Lyse (b. 1993), whose feminist activist work features on
Instagram and in performances, videos and sculptures
These examples illustrate that feminism at established art museums such as Tate, Brandts or
or women’s struggle resist a single, one- ARoS. One of Lyse’s Instagram posts features an ima-

91
size-fits-all definition, and that the chal- ge of a vibrator lubricated with menstrual blood, thereby
lenges are not the same for everyone tackling the culture of silence associated with two topics:
who defines herself as a woman. Never- menstruation and women’s self-satisfaction. Similar-
Katja Bjørn: ”Chatol”
© KØN - Gender Museum Denmark
ly, the artist Laetitia Ky, also active on Instagram and in biting the skin of her cheeks, while in a large drawer we
established art contexts – for example, representing her see a family rolling out, one after the other, round and
home country the Côte d‘Ivoire in their national pavilion round indefinitely. Another drawer reveals a calm sea,
at the 2022 Venice Biennale – advocates more openness out of which a naked woman is rising. The woman picks
about menstruation. Ky is particularly known for her hair up large stones from the beach, raises them above her
sculptures, in which she has braided her long hair exten- head and throws them with an intense, aggressive roar.
sions into everything from women’s symbols and irons to Finally, on the pull-out desk of the bureau we see a piece
a bleeding vagina. Her pictures are always accompanied of paper and a hand that is writing personal, fragmented
by long feminist captions. She addresses not only the reflections almost like diary entries. The videos touch on
taboo so often associated with talking about menstrua- topics such as motherhood, family and self-representa-
tion, but also the fact that in some places menstruating tion, but neither pose explicit questions nor provide an-
women are regarded as unclean and have to hide away swers. The weird, almost surreal scenarios of the videos,
in huts, while other women cannot afford sanitary pads. the intense soundtrack, the shock effect of the flies and
Yet another example of how women’s challenges are far the secretive doors and drawers of the bureau all help to
from being the same across countries and cultures. pique the viewer’s curiosity, encouraging them to ask a
different kind of question than those brought up by the
THE AGILE OBJECT IN THE EXHIBIT GENDER BLENDER utility objects featured in the exhibit. Art history-wise,
As illustrated above, there are plenty of feminist art obje- Chatol belongs to a tradition of feminist video art, fami-
cts, and in an activist museum context this is interesting, liar, for example, from the work of Pipilotti Rist, where the
because although increasingly also host performances monitors are installed in unexpected places, allowing the
or participatory projects, it is still the objects that the vast viewer to interact bodily with the work – to open doors,
majority of visitors encounter. bend down to take a look, to close drawers… We can view
the work based on a knowledge of video art, but we can
In KØN’s permanent exhibit Gender Blender, visitors can certainly get something out of it without that knowledge.
listen to personal stories, read facts about topics such as In their article “Agile Objects” (2017), Senta German and
gender equality, follow a timeline of gender in history, and Jim Harris write about object-based teaching in muse-
see a wide range of “gendered” objects, which include ums:
everything from a pack of birth control pills and a Barbie
doll to Chatol (Writing Desk), a work by the Danish artist We see the starting point for teaching with objects not in
Katja Bjørn (b. 1967). The entire exhibit encourages visi- the accumulated, existing knowledge they embody but rather
tors to think actively and to take a stance: for example, in their capacity to submit to new investigation by students
by considering their own gender identity and marking it to whom that embodied knowledge is either unknown or
on an abacus, or via wall texts that pose questions such irrelevant. In short, the object is not a passive receptacle for in-
as: “Is gender a role you can play?” Visitors are also urged formation but an agile tool for creative thinking and learning.
to contribute to the exhibit with their own stories, a joke, (German & Harris 2017, 248)
a drawing of their gender or a new object for the collec-
tion. But what does it mean that the exhibit, among other German and Harris set a number of criteria for what
things, includes a work of art like Bjørn’s? The work con- makes an object agile and thus suitable for creative en-
sists of an old bureau with lots of doors and drawers. Be- gagement and interpretation in museums. They list four
hind many of them is a video, which, with Bjørn herself in characteristics of agile objects: (1) Objects must be suf-
the leading role, refers, in varying degrees of explicitness, ficiently complex to call for sustained engagement. (2)
to gender. One video features a woman dressed in white Objects whose function is not immediately clear ensure
cotton underwear, standing among ten naked babies ly- engagement through the many interpretations that need
ing on the floor. Several of the children are crying, and she to be explored in order to assign identity and reveal me-
lifts them up one after the other in an attempt to comfort aning. (3) Objects that are fragmentary and/or damaged
them, but she seems increasingly tired and overwhelmed encourage the student to consider the physical history
by the insurmountable task. Behind another door we and long narrative of an object’s life. (4) Objects made of
see the face of a woman. She opens her more than one material facilitate discussion of process
mouth and suddenly – shockingly – ac- – the design and manufacture of things – and meaning.

93
companied by an intense noise, out zooms (German & Harris 2017, 250)
a swarm of flies. Behind a third door, we
see her biting her nails, eating bogeys and These criteria very much apply to works of art. The gre-
Penis extension tool, belongs to
KØN – gender Museum Denmark

nade part (1864) and penis extender (1995), displayed in veying specific, canonized knowledge.
Gender Blender, are not easily decoded at first glan-
ce either. They are certainly also agile objects with an German and Harris do not regard works of art as par-
enquiry, a story, a materiality and a mode of expression ticularly useful agile objects. On the contrary, they pri-
that are worth taking a closer look at. But whereas the vilege the inclusion of almost all other objects over art.
grenade part or the penis extender raise questions about If you look more closely at their arguments for this reje-
the object’s use, the context in which it was used and the ction, however, it soon becomes clear that the rejection
reason for its design, the work of art sets the scene for has to do with a certain art-historical approach to the
another, broader type of question. Just like other types artwork, and not with artworks as objects in themselves.
of objects, the viewer can also ask about the historical The basis of their argument is thus:
context in which the artwork was created and how this
context interacts with the expression of the work, but in an object that is utterly unknown to students can be the most
addition art always contains more, which can be expres- useful in teaching. Thus, for object-based learning, the art-hi-
sed through formal or sensory appeals, and there is ne- storical canon, the received knowledge about the historical
ver just one answer as to what it is. Many visitors have progression of styles and artists (however constructed) is not
neither the historical knowledge nor the interest to really particularly helpful. (German & Harris 2017, 248-49)
understand the objects they encounter, and German and
Harris also oppose the view that “every object needs to But firstly, works of art will often be as unfamiliar and ali-
be fully understood under every examination”(German & en to visitors as grenade parts and penis extenders. Se-
Harris 2017, 249). Visitors with very different backgrounds condly, no one demands canonized works. The above
and knowledge can thus all get something out of the ob- overview of art history is thus not a canon for feminist
jects, but it is important to realize that each outcome will art, the entire basis of which is an erosion of hierarchi-
be different depending on their background and pre-un- es, in terms both of genre and material. Thirdly, there are
derstanding. However, German and Harris do not ad- many approaches to art other than one
vocate simply letting the objects speak for themselves. based on the history of style. As previous-

94
They emphasize the need for educators who can help ly described, feminist art actually emer-
elucidate the network of meanings and stories the ob- ged in opposition to, and as a break with
jects represent (German & Harris, 251-55), without con- established, masculine art (canon), and
Cucumber from ”64 Sysler og Sam-
linger” (Justesen 2008).
© The Author and KØN – gender
Museum Denmark.

cannot be defined on the basis of categories such as sty- pupil/student involvement,” as the KØN website puts it.
le or media, since it is its gender political agenda, rather In Gender Blender the texts accompanying the various
than its aesthetic expression, that defines it as feminist. objects are typically descriptive, attempting to provide a
It is as if German and Harris do not look at art at all, but sober account of the history of the object and the signifi-
just pigeonhole artworks as “a canonical group of objects cance it has had for the genders and their interrelations-
valued for other reasons – aesthetic or technical quality, hip. The object most open to interpretation is probably
attribution, historical association, intrinsic worth” (Ger- Katja Bjørn’s Chatol. But the curation and presentation of
man and Harris, 248-249), which thereby can have no agile objects to visitors can take place in many ways. The
relevance as agile objects. However, as with any object, next example is an artist-curated exhibit.
the answers depend on the questions we ask. When Ger-
man and Harris write that, instead of believing that we ARTIST CURATION
can understand each object in depth, we must instead In 2008, the Danish artist Kirsten Justesen (b. 1943) cura-
approach the objects “according to the investigative pri- ted the exhibit 64 sysler og samlinger – en kvindehisto-
orities of [our] own subject” (German & Harris 2017, 249), risk scrapbog (64 Chores and Collections – A Scrapbook
then works of art are just as flexible and agile as anything of Women’s History ) at KØN – at the time the Women’s
else. If your focus, for example, is on understandings of Museum. Justesen was born in 1943 and the collection
gender, then feminist art is extremely suitable, without consisted of texts and objects from every year of her life
students or teachers needing to relate to history of style, from 1943 to 2008. The collection did not relate strictly to
aesthetic quality or the canon of art history. Justesen’s own life but followed her generation. It was a
fascinating period piece and, as Sanne Kofod Olsen wro-
However, art objects or not, it is the curator’s flair for sele- te in her introduction, comprised:
cting agile objects that determines how an exhibit paves
the way for reflection. These are considerations that have Objects that contain meaning and tell a story that extends far
clearly been made in the curation of Gen- beyond the object itself. A manifestation of cultural history
der Blender, which consciously prepares collected through fragments from a time, each of which con-

95
the ground not only for individual visitors, tains its own element of significance (Olsen 2008).
but also for school groups, teaching them
in “discussion-based courses based on In the notes to the book, the objects were divided into
“texts, museum objects, recipes and historical images.” sembled by some anonymous curator. Consequently, in
(Justesen 2008). Some had short descriptive titles such Justesen’s collection, each of the 64 everyday objects,
as Breast Pump or Eggnog, others alluded to a personal artworks and recipes assumed the status of ‘work’. They
story: for example, the image of a cucumber that bore all became readymades or found objects and we wanted
the text: “Every year for her birthday she wants pork with to understand them.
parsley sauce, and permission to eat a whole cucumber
herself” (Justesen 2008). Neither the detached objects THE SCHWULES MUSEUM – A GENDER ACTIVIST WUN-
nor the small gobbets of story were further explained. DERKAMMER
This piqued visitors’ curiosity. Was eggnog something A montage of things, in which objects from different con-
you used to get all the time? Were cucumbers particular- texts are all given equal status, was not only the hallmark
ly expensive? Were they usually served in over-thin sli- of 64 sysler og samlinger, but was also a feature of the
ces, or was the birthday girl’s desire all about burying exhibit 100 Objects: An Archive of Feelings (2020) at the
her teeth in a whole cucumber without worrying about activist-based Schwules Museum in Berlin. Like KØN, the
having to share with others? There were no answers. The Schwules Museum was started by activists in the early
viewer had to try and create understanding by drawing 1980s. For many years, the museum mainly focused on
on their own experiences or knowledge or by talking to gay history, but in recent years – also like KØN – the mu-
other visitors. Justesen’s curation also included works of seum adopted a wider-ranging remit. This is what they
art: for example, a drawing by Louise Bourgeois (1947) write on their website:
and a poster by Guerilla Girls (1988). In her Introduction,
Kofod Olsen wrote: The Schwules Museum, founded in 1984 by progressive gay
activists in West Berlin, has taken decisive, if incomplete and
It is not an art exhibit, but the way of communicating through controversial, steps in the past years towards becoming a space
images, texts and objects is to a large extent the form of com- where not only cis gay men but also women, people of trans
munication of the visual world. The relic, the work of art, the experience, and other minoritized (and racialized) people in
everyday object become equal objects. It is a montage of things the queer community can work, curate, organize, and encoun-
from real life. (Olsen 2008). ter their histories and visual cultures.. (Schwules Museum
2020).
Whether works of art, eggnog or cucumbers, what is im-
portant that it was Justesen as an artist that had sele- Looking at the Schwules Museum’s exhibits across the
cted them. The emergence of avant-garde movements years, there has been everything from contemporary
such as Dadaism and Surrealism in the early 20th centu- art and historical art, personal accounts – for example,
ry expanded the concept of art to include readymades in HIVstories: Living Politics – to popular culture in RAIN-
and found objects (objets trouvés), which artists did not BOW ARCADE – A Queer History of Video games 1985-
create, but simply chose.31 One of the reasons visitors to 2018, where visitors could not only see examples of and
Justesen’s 64 sysler og samlinger were curious about read about video games and their often misogynistic, gay
the likes of the eggnog, and started asking questions or transphobic content, but also play a number of queer
about it is because they assumed that the artist’s choice video games. In other words, like KØN, the Schwules Mu-
was significant, as opposed to merely random. Had the seum seeks to activate visitors, letting them experience
sender not been a named artist, but, say, an anonymous and reflect in ways that break with a linear transmission
museum employee who had found 64 different objects paradigm, in which a museum dishes up knowledge or a
and exhibited them with no explanatory context, the message, which it then expects the visitor to understand
collection/exhibit might have seemed merely arbitrary. as the museum had intended it to be understood. Com-
Now we search for connections and meaning, the idea munication is far more complicated than that, and KØN
behind the choice. In a way this is a paradox, since the and the Schwules Museum clearly work to a much grea-
goal of the avant-garde was to shatter the status of the ter extent within an interaction paradigm, where meaning
artist as an individual with a particularly privileged insight is created in interaction between people in a dynamic
and sensibility, and to point out that anyone can be an process (cf. Frandsen pp. 249-50). Such an interaction
artist. Nonetheless, it is precisely because we still adhe- paradigm is also a premise for German
re to a romantic notion of the artist, regarding artists as and Harris’s theory of the agile object in

96
something special with an exceptional way of looking at museum communication.
the world, that we perceived Justesen’s 64 objects dif-
ferently than we would have done if they had been as- In 2020, the Schwules Museum presen-
ted the exhibit 100 Objects: An Archive of Feelings, which bar (Object No. 6), which for a period of time was located
they introduced as follows: at the Schwules Museum, might well tickle curiosity, but
did not in itself manage to convey the “Anger”, which its
The cabinet of curiosities exploded! In spring and summer 2020, affect label implied. It really needed the accompanying
the Schwules Museum will turn the spotlight on its own colle- explanation, so that visitors could understand its implicit
ction. […] we present the richness, diversity and fascination of story. By comparison, documentary photos evoke more
our collection in 100 selected objects. … 100 objects presents affect: for example, Object No. 5, Petra Gall’s photo of
our collections in a new way: not arranged according to specific the Walpurgis demonstration in West Berlin in 1983, which
identities or historical eras, but according to affects, or feelings. has become an icon of feminist, anti-violence activism,
What does an object make us feel? How did its creators feel? Its and which was also given an “Anger” label. The photo is a
original audiences?(Schwules Museum 2020) powerful, fascinating document, providing a glimpse of
what feminist protesters looked like in 1983 and a sen-
Out of a collection of 1.5 million objects containing se of the atmosphere, solidarity and fighting spirit of the
everything from books, documents, paintings and pho- situation, with so many women surging forward, holding
tographs to drag costumes, the museum selected 100 hands. But the picture quickly became exactly what it is:
objects, including gay magazines, a knit sweater featu- documentation of an historical event. That was not the
ring queer iconography, a beer coaster from a lesbian case with the works of art: for example, the quasi-sur-
bar and a wide range of artworks, all examining the af- realist photo Rhea (2019) (Object No. 11. Label: “Desire”)
fects : desire, joy, care, anger and fear. Whereas a gre- by the artist duo Red Rubber Roads – aka AnaHell and
at deal of Gender Blender features an historical timeline Nathalie Dreier.32 It depicts a large, green, upright fabric
told with ‘gendered’ objects, and Justesen’s 64 sysler og bag in a green landscape. Through a crack in the bag, we
samlinger featured an object for each of the years she see two female breasts on top of each other, both “loo-
had lived, 100 Objects at the Schwules Museum did not king out” at the viewer – “fragmented women’s bodies, at
set out to create a linear narrative. With its selection of once submitting to and evading the viewer’s gaze. But it
100 objects, the exhibit may initially call to mind A Histo- is clear that they belong together,” as the description of
ry of the World in 100 Objects curated and explained by the photo put it. The photo is humorous, strange and al-
Neil MacGregor at the British Museum in London in 2010. luring, paving the way for endless discussions and ques-
Created in collaboration with BBC Radio 4, the exhibit tions – for example, about the representation of naked
included everything from utility items such as axes and women in art, relationships between women and natu-
tea sets to technology and artworks. Each of the exhibits re, and the representation of lesbian love. But the photo
100 selected objects was accompanied by a 15-minute provides no answers. It remains open to interpretation
podcast, in which, on the basis of the object, MacGre- and affective response. These are just three examples
gor introduced us to the history of humankind (Multiple of different types of objects, but more could be mentio-
Authors n.d.). Although the Schwules Museum also sele- ned with the same conclusion. Various everyday objects
cted 100 objects from its collection, the exhibit differed and documents may very well serve as agile objects, but
radically from A History of the World in 100 Objects, in the selected works of art in the exhibit are particularly
that the objects were not selected to provide an histo- suitable. In their complexity, openness and both sensory
rical overview, but to examine and evoke affect . As in and formal appeal, they act as a prism for a wide range of
64 sysler og samlinger, objects of all shapes and sizes discussions and issues and, as objects, are also ideal for
were mixed together, but at the Schwules Museum the evoking affect in the viewer.
objects had commentaries. On one hand, each item had
been given a label with a feeling. On the other hand, the- CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
re was a longer written contextualization of each item. The Schwules Museum referred to their 100 Objects exhi-
So, visitors could approach the exhibit in several ways. bit as a “cabinet of curiosities”. The comparison with a
They could simply see the objects and form their own cabinet of curiosities – also known as a “Wunderkammer”
impression; they could see the objects and their “affect – is very apt. It refers to the earliest type of museum exhi-
label” and consider whether the object evokes a similar bit, which emerged in the 16th century, before art beca-
affect in them; or they could do both the me autonomous and regarded as a special category. A
former and read more about the object Wunderkammer could display everything from paintings

97
and its context. In this context, the diffe- to wonderful objects from nature – for example, narwhal
rent types of objects had different effects. tusks and corals – ethnographic objects, finely executed
A beer coaster from the SPIRITS lesbian handicrafts, sculptures, to clockworks and automatons.
98
On the previous page: Red Rubber Road
(AnaHell and Nathalie Dreier): “Rhea”,
2019. Part of Schwules Museum's col-
lection.

The words “Wunderkammer” and “cabinet of curiosities” conditions, feminist art challenges norms and notions.
imply that the objects are in themselves wonderful and Therein lies its activist potential. Feminist art is not a sta-
curious, and that they kindle wonder and curiosity in the tic category. It is an active part of history, which it both
viewer. Wonder and curiosity – and the ensuing dialog reflects and co-creates.
and discussion – are also the goals of the activist muse-
um, and viewing the activist, cultural history museum as
a Wunderkammer can be productive as an exhibit model
beyond the 100 Objects approach. In the Wunderkam-
mer, hierarchies between object types are broken down.
While not being perceived as the same, they nonetheless
appear side by side. Art is often viewed differently, with
a different expectation of an inherent meaning (however
obscure that might be) (cf. Kirsten Justesen’s 64 sysler 29
og samlinger), than an everyday object such as an apron, The aesthetic experience has been
which in turn also differs from, and has a different capa- seen by many aesthetic theorists in
the 20th century as ”the product of
city as an agile object than a documentary photo or an the concentrated encounter between

audio recording of a personal story. Objects are diffe-

the work of art and the viewer/listener
– an encounter that has reflection and
rent – they can do different things, lead to different ga- depth as its central parameter” and
“aims to teach us about ourselves and
zes and different types of reflection – but the interaction potentially make us better citizens”
between them and the way they complement each other (Pedersen 271). Such an understan-
ding of the encounter with art is also
can be productive. Incorporating art objects does not the basis of this article.
mean that a museum commits itself to a specific, con-
30
servative, art-historical approach, as German and Harris The exhibit was mounted by Kanon-
klubben, a professorless group of
presuppose. Incorporating art does not mean suddenly artists at the Royal Danish Academy
becoming “highbrow”. Nor does art have to be merely from 1968 to 1970, who made films
and various happenings. Some of the
visual. Like Katja Bjørn’s Chatol, it can also be tactile, en- members of Kanonklubben initiated
couraging visitors to actively explore, and open and clo- the Red Stocking Movement and
participated in the first Red Stocking
se its doors and drawers. It can prepare the ground for Action on Strøget (the main pedestri-
doing something, rather than just contemplation. an street in Copenhagen) in April 1970.
Members of Kanonklubben included
Kirsten Justesen, Jytte Rex, Kirsten
Dufour, Rikke Diemer, Gitte Skjold
In terms of media, topics and approaches, the history of
Jensen, Marie Bille and Lene Adler
feminist art is extensive, rich and multifaceted. If there Petersen (Source: KVINFO).
had been room in this article, I would have addressed the 31
myriad of queer art that is just as interesting and relevant Objets trouvés and readymades are
two types of objects that the artist
to this context. Like other objects in the here mentioned does not produce themselves, but
museums, art tells the story of the genders. It simply de- simply found and selected. They
may seem similar, in that they both
ploys different expressions and materials. Cultural history consist of the highlighting and exhibit
museums such as KØN – Gender Museum Denmark and of something already created, but an
objet trouvé has a spiritual aspect. We
Schwules Museum include art, both in temporary exhibits see the amazing, wonderful aspects
of an object, view it with new eyes,
and in their more permanent exhibits, because art forms
are moved by it, and highlight it for
an active part of the story the museums want to tell, and this reason, without this necessarily
having to take place in a museum or
thus naturally belongs in the collection. But at the same gallery, whereas, to a greater extent,
time, art is loaded with meaning, which, if the art is good the readymade is a challenge to the
art institution. It can also be selected
enough, extends beyond the time in which it was made. for its particular beauty or special
Therefore, it is obvious to include art in activist museum message, but the crucial thing is to
exhibit it, thereby highlighting the
communication as excellent agile objects. interplay and tension between the
In one way or another, feminist art tackles everyday object and the art object.

99
gender inequality and living conditions. By 32
preparing the ground for reflection, and In Greek mythology, Rhea was a Titan,
daughter of the earth goddess Gaia
for wonder and discussion about these and the sky god Uranus.
History of the Women s
Museum A Museum Created
by Women About Women

MERETE IPSEN INTRODUCTION

Co-founder and Former Director of the Women’s The creation of the Women’s Museum involved a
Museum (now KØN) wide-ranging network of women’s movement activists,
employment services and female researchers at the uni-
versity and other educational institutions. Initially run by
volunteers and with short-term leases, but faster than
any of us dared imagine, the museum was established
in 1984 as a collection point, a meeting place and an
educational, research and information center for wo-
men. In the early 1990s it acquired permanent premises,
regular public subsidy and status as a state-recognized
museum.

The foundation of the Women’s Museum Association in

1982 had a dual objective: to spotlight the cultural histo-
ry of women and to create jobs for women. The start-up
was supported financially by subsidy schemes for the
unemployed. Unemployment at the time was particularly
high among women of all ages – both unskilled workers
and academics. Given that most of the women found
themselves in this situation, the organization, collections
and exhibitions of the museum reflected this class diver-
sity.

Theoretically and politically, the basis of the museum

was both radical feminism – a perspective that interprets
and embraces women in a community across class, age,
ethnic and educational boundaries and barriers – and so-
cialist feminism, which stresses the importance of these
differences in status, privileges, opportunities and power

101
– including amongst women. Identification and diversity
were each other’s lifeblood. The Women’s Museum was a
workplace for women, showcasing their creativity, skills
and world views. A basic premise was that, unlike wo- sin and shame.
men’s centers, the exhibitions, café and cultural events
should be open to everyone – women, men and children As a rule, the tradition of oral history was a method that
– while everything exhibited in the museum, in contrast to suited our purpose. We could give a voice to women who
other museums and cultural institutions, would be crea- otherwise would not have spoken, women who would ne-
ted by women. ver have regarded their memories as something worth
collecting. Consequently, one of our primary collection
The intention of the Women’s Museum Association was methods was oral history, in which life stories and mate-
to create a vibrant alternative to patriarchal institutions, rial, object-based culture are intertwined.
counteracting the images of women as weak, passive
and inferior. The goal was to view ourselves as active This kind of collection became fundamental and also co-
subjects. The methods were based on the premise that lored the project descriptions we wrote in our applicati-
women are best able to describe and interpret the lives ons for grants from the job creation schemes that were
of women, that they are capable of anything and only initially our most important source of funding. The focus
external, rather than innate or internal boundaries, stand was housework and motherhood. Both of these basic
in their way.33 women’s areas were undergoing rapid change, and wo-
men’s movement activists had a highly ambivalent at-
DOCUMENTATION AND COLLECTION: THE INVISIBLE, titude to them.
THE INTANGIBLE
DThe marked absence of women in the public enga- Two of us – a researcher and a young woman in a kind
gement/interpretation work of museums, sporadically of employer/apprentice relationship – would visit the
complemented by passive women to support active men interviewees in their own homes. We generally paid se-
and male activities, had not yet been critically themati- veral visits to build up trust and to encourage them to
zed in feminist analyses. However, there has always been describe the darker aspects of their experience too. The
a rich tradition of new, special museums emerging in the motherhood project focused particularly on single mo-
museum world as a result of certain groups of people fe- thers, whose pride in their own children and vulnerability
eling under- or misrepresented in existing museums. So, in a world so biased against them added more dimension
the aim of the Women’s Museum was to become a spe- to the image of motherhood. At the same time, being a
cialist national museum dedicated to the cultural history single mother was a premise for working at the museum.
of women, influencing the sector on the basis of positive Accordingly, action research, in which identification and
counter-images rather than a critique of existing ones. solidarity are a driving force, and subject and object are
basically interchangeable, was embedded in the first col-
The basis of the Women’s Museum would be the invisible, lection and public engagement projects.
most anonymous and under-described areas. The aca-
demic methods were interdisciplinary, and the concept The museum gained a reputation for saying the unsaid
of object was determined by life stories, emotions and and giving a voice to those who had been silenced. It col-
society. The museum was more interested in undercur- lected things that no other museums had in their collec-
rents than surfaces, and in ambivalence and ambiguity. tions: worn, cut, darned, unwashed bloodstains, traces of
There has been a somewhat skeptical view of the wide- violence, the wedding dress that was never worn – humb-
spread truth about advances in women’s conditions, and le, mundane objects symbolizing the murkier aspects of
women have never been referred to in the singular, spe- life.
cifically, but always in our situational, differentiated, often
contradictory diversity. The skills and know-how of domestic life were presented
alongside documentation on how women have fared in
In the traditional gender divisions of labor, large parts of the public sphere, in education systems, in the city streets
female domains and products have been intangible or and at work, complemented by a focus on ground-brea-
perishable, and women’s cultures have only to a small king deeds and events, in which women found their way
extent been written. For women, it was the spoken word or fought their way into closed areas in
that passed on knowledge and feelings, skills and morals. politics or sports, as inventors, as artists

102
Conversation and the spontaneous narrative tradition or in paid work shaped to suit men, who
carry associations of good and bad, beautiful and ugly, had women to look after them and their
children.
Selected objects and photos from
FiJ and a wax baby created by the
Chinese artist Chen Xi.
The collection of objects and the interviews were inextri-
cably linked. Certain collections and studies documen-
ted entire families: for example, a group of farmer sisters
from North Jutland, or mothers, sisters and daughters
living in the same house in Aarhus for several generati-
ons. In this context, the tangible objects are imbued with
feelings, memories, traditions and links between genera-
tions. Others documented female entrepreneurs, female
inventors from the patent archives, or nurses, midwives
and teachers. Documentation of the disappearance
of home birth in favor of the hospitalization of birth in
Fødselsanstalten i Jylland (FiJ) (The Jutland Maternity
Home), the origin of which was to provide unmarried mo-
thers with security during pregnancy and birth, was ba-
sed on photos and the acquisition of delivery room and
fire buckets, incubators and scales, beds and linen from
FiJ prior to the move to Skejby Hospital.

Individual objects can possess major narrative value. The

103
corset of a late 19th-century, fashion-conscious woman
is a symbol of the restricted range of movement among
women of the upper classes. The kitchen scale of the
 Corset (1880s) with a poster about
self-harm (2010s).

anorexic, who weighed everything she put in her mouth, there is no doubt that this discontinuation of a wide-ran-
reflects a kind of ‘mental corseting’. The breast prosthe- ging, comprehensive collection was detrimental in terms
sis of a cancer patient who had one of her bra cups filled of reaching new groups of visitors, who gain ownership of
to compensate for her loss; the repaired porcelain bowl, the museum by donating things to the collections.
which the mother of a battered daughter had glued to-
gether to obliterate the sharp chips; the pressed bridal Like the museum’s own production of new exhibits, ac-
bouquet of the bride who was walked down the aisle by tivity in terms of collecting decreased in tandem with a
the very father who had sexually abused her; the ‘kusso- drop in the number of professionals in the collective ma-
mat’, where any woman who felt like it could photograph nagement team.
her own genitals and observe how naturally varied wo-
men’s private parts are: these are all examples of obje- PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT: VIBRANT EXHIBITIONS THAT
cts in the Women’s Museum’s collection and permanent BRING THINGS TO LIFE
exhibition, all documenting in various ways the importan- In the early years, the museum did not build a permanent
ce of the body in women’s lives. They are the result of an exhibition, but presented special, temporary, thematic
open collection strategy. exhibits. Temporary exhibits provided freedom to create
a varying exhibition language: from detailed reconstruc-
In the early years, when there were many of us, the com- tions to stylized designs, and from a widespread use of
mitment to, and range of the collection were huge. It is copies to the presentation of exclusively original objects.
hard to say whether this commitment was undermined
by Statens Museumsnævn (Denmark’s national board of We made lifelike figures with the use of mechanical and
museums from 1976 to 2001) in 1998, when their asses- audiovisual motion. In the rooms, objects and human fi-
sment led to the conclusion that the museum had too gures moved on revolving stages. We created sounds,
many duplicates, or whether it was because we did not lighting and images that changed with the movement of
have the capacity to receive too many things, all of which visitors in the exhibition space. The ‘human bodies’, some
had to be registered and stored, when we also wanted to with built-in motors, were modeled in chicken wire and
concentrate on increasing visitor numbers. But today plaster on real human beings. We used our
and in recent years, the intensity of the collections has own children’s bodies for the figures of

104
waned. The intake and registration of objects are invisi- children. We programmed the sound and
ble to visitors, so have no bearing on outside interest. But lighting to accompany visitors through
the exhibitions. We wanted to show that
Reconstructed birth room with home
birth. Collected and edited accounts
of births alternating with sounds of
increasing contractions were played
from speakers under the birthing bed.
From the exhibition Make Room for
Life (1984).
 Visitors could move around the letters
‘U SKYLD’ (Not Guilty) in IT’S not
YOUR FAULT, an exhibition about rape
(2010).

women excelled in the fields of mechanics and techno- tourist locations in Vendsyssel in the North of Denmark.
logy. We also encouraged people to be less reverent in With selected exhibits in a 2150-ft2 circus tent and a
their attitude towards a museum, making it easier for staff of 25-30 women and children in an adjacent tented
them to take in the often serious content of the exhibits, camp, we went on the road to reach a new audience.
and inviting them to express themselves spontaneously
and giving them the opportunity to laugh together. DIFFICULT TOPICS, AND ETHICAL AND METHODICAL
CHOICES
Exhibits have multiple layers of experience and inter- DThe tabooed female body, women’s antenatal anxi-
pretation. With its reconstructed housemaid’s room and ety and homophobia remained central topics, and sex
delivery room, the first major exhibition – Make Room for education became part of the museum’s program. For
Life – invited visitors into intimate spaces with sounds the later topic, we used a room, the door of which could
of loneliness, toil and pain behind a safe kitchen interior, be closed, so no one could listen in. Objects from the col-
where you could sip a cup of coffee on an oilcloth tab- lection underpinned the fact that the Women’s Museum
lecloth. We were the real-life custodians, sitting next to could provide a plausible setting for this controversial
the women giving birth and baking biscuits in the kitchen. educational theme. On the last Friday of each month, we
Later exhibitions provided a comprehensive overview – handed out free condoms at the museum.
for example, of an entire century in First One Way, Then
the Other - or looked inwards - for example, in Family Discomfort and abuse. The ambivalence of life. Pa-
and Drudgery. Some were based on the wide-ranging radoxes in life choices. Clashes between classes. The
collections and their registration process – for example, aim was for the collection and exhibits to accommodate
Boil, Saucepan, Boil – or on highly specific collections – material about conflict, reflecting close discussion with
for example, Wedding Dresses. In the exhibit At Night, in informants and donors – even when it came to topics we
the glow of a torch, visitors encountered poetic, fanciful, wished did not exist. Examples include special exhibits
experiential spaces with just a handful of symbolic ob- about drinking and drugs, prostitution and trafficking,
jects in labyrinthine, condensed atmospheres. Art also and rape. Interviews with former addicts and daugh-
played a significant role, even though art was not part ters of addicts, and with therapists who know that tre-
of the museum’s remit. It was important to describe the atment for addiction is based on male lifestyle and is of
conditions of female artists, and their networks became scant help to women, painted a picture of how drinking
important partners. and drugs brand a woman for the rest of
In the summer of 1986, in an effort to break with its lo- her life, even when she is clean, and how

106
cal Aarhus connotations and demonstrate the museum’s children of addict mothers are more affe-
nationwide ambitions, we created a mobile branch and cted than if their fathers are addicts. The
‘set up shop’ for two two-week periods in two different topic of trafficking as today’s slave trade,
 The museum has many women’s
movement posters from the 1970s. A
selection hung in Women’s Lives from
Past to Present (2003-2014)

in which the global class society exploits and capitalizes cial, temporary exhibits, halving the available space for
on women’s desires for a better life, was portrayed as a thematic exhibitions and opening the basic exhibition
food chain for prostitution and the cultural objectifica- Women’s Lives from Past to Present. We refrained from
tion of the female body. The rape exhibition was created referring to it as a ‘permanent’ exhibit, but no longer did
together with rape victims and therapists. Visitors could we devote internal resources or hire external resources to
listen to the victims’ experiences of pain, anxiety and continue the relatively rapid changes involved in thema-
self-blame in anonymized form. tic exhibitions. The longer-term advantage was that we
were able to create supplementary interpretation/public
What all these exhibitions had in common was people’s engagement material in the form of digital guides and
urge or compulsion to hide their experiences. The muse- virtual tours. Only very few productions of sound and sli-
um sensitively attempted to shed light on those experi- des were involved in the exhibition. Conversely, the tan-
ences in a way that would not re-traumatize the infor- gible objects played a significant role.
mants, but intensively enough to express the point of the
exhibit. Concerns for visitors, who may have had parallel The storerooms were bursting with objects that were ide-
experiences, entailed a balancing act, so we did not al- al for the post-1800 topics in the exhibit. We loaned older
ways incorporate the toughest topics. In the childhood items from other museums.
exhibition, you could hear a child who left home with his
little brother, because his father thrashed the latter for DOMKIRKEPLADSEN 5: DEMOCRACY, POWER AND
defecating in his nappy. But the museum did not tackle MOVEMENT
the theme of incest, because we believed that children It was the will of fate that over time we evolved together
visiting the museum who had been victims of incest with the building we had originally had 1-year user agree-
might recall their experience and feel powerless without ments for. Shortly after state recognition of the museum,
anyone being aware of it. the building was totally refurbished for museum purpo-
ses, and around 2015-17 refurbishment was once again
The exhibition space is a powerful medium, and good necessary. The aim was to ensure that the building with
exhibits can kindle intense, profound reactions. When its granite staircase and golden handles would not appe-
tackling difficult topics in exhibitions, it is important to ar too grand and forbidding but would serve as a physical
take an ethical stance in relation to those who have had setting for a public engagement/interpretation strategy
the experiences. that tackles power, democracy and movement, and sto-
ries about women who broke the glass ceiling and rose to

107
FROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME TO THE positions of power.
PRESENT DAY
In 1999, we changed the principle of spe- The building is a cultural treasure in itself. The first fe-
 Role Models were there to host the
visitors at the exhibition, 2005.

male police officer in Denmark and the first female po- tacts abroad is important for a museum, whose highly
liticians in the city council are embedded in the building specialized field frequently calls for contact with colle-
as historical evidence that women can accomplish the agues elsewhere in the world.
unexpected when they have the courage and are given
the opportunity. In the lead-up to municipal, county, re- Over the years, several official delegations, curious about
gional, parliamentary and EU parliament elections, we the museum as an organization, exhibition venue and
organized cross-party election meetings devoted to fe- place of research, have visited the museum: for examp-
male candidates. We also dedicated exhibits to the anni- le, the National Museum of Women in the Arts in Was-
versaries of women’s suffrage in Denmark: their right to hington D.C., a delegation from university and municipal
vote in municipal elections (2009) and their right to vote council of Umeå, when the city was intending to open a
in parliamentary elections (2015). women’s museum in time for its status as European Ca-
pital of Culture in 2014, and the Women’s Federation in
Flexibility and a permanent setting are united in the old China, where the state wanted a women’s museum. The
council chamber, in which the panels, chandeliers and museum also received many invitations to travel and
some of the furniture date back to 1909 – the year in give talks. Though generally speaking this involved just
which the first woman became a councilor – now supple- one of us, sometimes many of us would go, and in 1985
mented by rolling display cases, which make it possible the first-ever group of young single mothers went on a
to change the space into a hall for debate, concerts or joint national tour.
teaching. A quote by the Danish novelist and feminist,
Mathilde Fibiger If Only I Was a Man (1805) was used as Cultural projects in the EU and global collaborations en-
the title for one of several educational programs on gen- gender respect for other traditions, refreshing the mu-
der hierarchy, exclusion and inclusion. A new basic exhi- seum’s insight into the conditions of Danish women.
bition Gender Blender was constructed in the newly re- With a variety of partners, the museum has taken part
furbished rooms – all thanks to generous grants. in transnational projects, tackling themes such as immi-
grant families with newborns, women’s culture from an-
THE REST OF THE WORLD cient times across the European wars, the wiping out of
Throughout its existence, there has been an international girl culture, partner violence among teenagers, women’s
dimension to the museum. As one of the first women’s
museums in the world, we served as a model museum
and encountered great demand from abroad. The many

108
new women’s museums that emerged in the 1990s – and
are still emerging – wanted to benefit from the experien-
ces and methods of the Women’s Museum. Having con-
 Meeting of the single mother project
group 1984.

relationship with the economy and Muslim women’s lea- different non-Western backgrounds created the exhibit
dership experience. Journey to Denmark, featuring personal objects from
their culture of origin and their life stories. After its pre-
Introducing Danes to ways of life from other parts of the sentation at the museum, it was turned into a touring
world and boosting the museum’s knowledge of differen- exhibit, presented in town halls, educational institutions
ces and sense of community across countries and cul- and large workplaces. After serving as ‘live custodians’
tures are recurring elements of the museum’s work. Art at the museum, the women traveled around, telling their
also transcends borders, and female artists from Spain, personal stories.
France, China, Mexico etc. have visited and exhibited at
the museum. ORGANIZATION, MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATI-
ON: PROFESSIONALIZATION AND FORMAL RECOGNI-
From the outset, Danes with ethnic origins other than Da- TION
nish have been involved in the museum in various ways. In During the early years, the museum’s resources were
1985, a group of Turkish women resident in Denmark took based on labor market-related grants and temporary
over the museum and set up a living room and weaving appointments. Job training and adaptation to the labor
room. Visitors were treated to a presentation of the wo- market for young women, and maintenance of the en-
men’s personally selected objects, while their husbands titlement to unemployment benefit for the elderly, were
sat in the wings sipping sweet mint tea. Somali women accompanied by specifications for supervisors, who
conveyed the horrors of circumcision, while represen- were given the first regular jobs. In an appreciative en-
tatives from Burkina Faso presented the roominess of vironment, the museum offered training in a wide range
small mud huts. of tasks: from café work, care of objects and professi-
onal cleaning to exhibit construction and visitor service,
Since 2005, the museum has been running a mentoring and from registration and database work to a myriad of
network for women with refugee and immigrant backg- audiovisual technologies. During this phase, sometimes
rounds. Women with no knowledge of Danish culture or there were as many as 45 employees in the museum, all
the Danish labor market are given a mentor, who shares on various schemes. The day-to-day management was
her life experiences. This woman-to-woman relationship in the hands of the job creation project supervisors and
is rewarding for both parties, and over the years hundreds those of us who switched to full-time employment after a
of non-ethnic Danes and Danish volunte- few years, when we received the first cultural grants from
ers have met at the Women’s Museum. Aarhus Municipality in the mid-1980s.

The mentoring network gave rise to Role

Models, in which a dozen women with 109 At the beginning of the 1990s, the museum was recogni-
zed as a special national museum and secured perma-
nent funding at the state’s minimum level. We wanted to preserve our collective form of manage-
ment and applied for exemption from the Museum Act’s
The desire for state recognition was a driving force in the requirement for one director. The Ministry and the muni-
Women’s Museum Association, but the realization had cipality supported this wish, as long as each individual in
consequences for some of the non-hierarchical prin- the collective management team could satisfy all the re-
ciples of the museum’s foundation. The flat model of the quirements in the Museum Act for a professional leader.
new direct democracy movement, in which everyone’s Only 6 of the 9 managers at the time met these criteria.
voice was equal, was organized in the monthly ‘Mass
Meeting’ – the supreme organ – and the ‘Morning Me- The teachers disappeared. The working women, both
eting’ – the coordinating authority. In a subsequent pha- skilled and unskilled, those with no formal education, who
se, the museum acquired a board, the Mass Meeting was had been an important part of the staff in the first years
discontinued, and the Museum Association’s annual ge- of the museum, decreased in number. Gradually, imper-
neral meeting became the supreme authority. ceptibly for most people, noticeably for others, with few
exceptions, the lesbians also disappeared from both the
Ministry of Culture Denmark has a number of professi- management team and the board.
onal and organizational requirements for a museum to The goal of creating jobs for women did not figure in the
be state recognized. There are requirements for collec- articles of association of the Women’s Museum, but still
tions and opening hours, a certain level of local grants, existed in the Women’s Museum Association – the muse-
a secure building, a representative board and an aca- um’s ‘owner’.
demic, museum professional as director. The Ministry’s
spokesperson, Statens Museumsnævn (Denmark’s nati- Gradually, in a process of professionalization, the orga-
onal board of museums from 1976 to 2001) deemed that nization was consolidated. It could change, regardless
the collections, research and interpretation/public enga- of whether wishes for change came from within or from
gement were at the appropriate level and found the form outside. The fact that the museum was recognized, whi-
of management interesting. In discussions with Statens le at the same time retaining its unconventional form of
Museumsnævn, the museum created a set of articles of management, was a huge victory. We towed the Danish
association, which acknowledged the creativity and pro- Museum Act line, did away with the Mass Meeting with
ductivity of the museum’s unconventional structure and no external pressure, were given special dispensation for
found compromises between the requirements of the collective management and created a consensus mo-
law and the ideology and ambitions of the museum. del with a coordinated board and management team.
This was done in close discussion with Statens Muse-
Regarding the Mass Meeting, Statens Museumsnævn umsnævn, which later conducted a number of quality
was more willing to proceed along the original path than assessments. In their 1998 quality assessment, Statens
we were, and allowed it to remain the supreme authority, Museumsnævn suggested that if the constitution of the
as long as we kept detailed minutes. museum’s board included a chairperson we would gain
greater clout. After discussing the matter thoroughly, the
Paradoxically, what the management needed was a management team and board decided that the non-hie-
group of people committed to serve as a sounding bo- rarchical balance between management and board
ard for the day-to-day management team, rather than would be broken if organization of the board included a
the Mass Meeting, at which – after the original wide-ran- chairperson. Given that the museum’s compliance with
ging attendance – the attendees now tended to change the Danish Museum Act was of a high standard, the bo-
from one meeting to another. The result was an annual ard respected our desire to continue with a non-hierar-
general meeting and the election of a board, in which the chical board.
principle of consensus continued with an even number of
members and with no chairperson. The board and mana- HIERARCHIES
gement were coordinated, both referring directly to the Formal and informal hierarchies gradually took shape.
annual general meeting. The unemployed women we appointed, in all their di-
versity, were valuable for the museum’s
The Women’s Museum Association was given the majori- sustained renewal. They raised inevitable

110
ty of seats on the board; the rest went to representatives
of Aarhus City Council.
The cleaning lady, made of chicken
wire and plaster bandage, was one of
the first human figures we created.
Visitors were quite shocked at how
lifelike she was.
questions and contributed to new problem-solving, the- after closing time, never becoming part of the everyday
reby providing an innovative environment. It was also communities.
profitable for many of them on an individual level. Some
of them initially had low self-esteem, others were still The logic of hierarchy was embedded in the organization
affected by their experience of violence and abuse, and of the museum. Could we have avoided this? The initial
some were licking their wounds after an unpleasant di- years proved that we could manage large financial re-
vorce. The fact that all the women worked together me- sources, implement long-term plans and organize and
ant that none of them had to cower and could breathe share work with no regard for status. Each person con-
freely. When their employment ended, they went out into tributed according to their ability, rather than according
the mixed-gender community with far more self-este- to position. By and large. Those who helped make plans
em and confidence than they had when they arrived. and enter into agreements with external authorities and
This was highly valued by local authorities in the social partners had greater influence than those who came la-
and unemployment sectors. However, after the first few ter. Some were recognized in the collective leadership,
years of euphoria about creating jobs for lots of women, others were not. But for a long time, we succeeded in ad-
the museum also had to tackle internal conflict manage- hering to a consensus model where you do not vote on
ment. something but listen to everyone before deciding.

As project managers, we became used to dignified par- FROM ASSOCIATION-OWNED TO SELF-GOVERNING

ting with ‘old’ staff and the introduction of ‘new’. That was INSTITUTION
the nature of things. When ending the fixed-term contra- The museum changed its organizational form from as-
cts, some of the women reacted angrily at the fact that sociation-owned to self-governing. Gradually the mana-
we, and not they, could receive a salary and not have to gement expressed the desire for a designated board. The
return to the culture of control that was the downside of municipality’s department of culture pointed out that,
unemployment subsidy schemes. now, generally speaking it was only small leisure clubs
that were owned by associations. I do not recall any dire-
Even the project managers had different wishes at the ct pressure, but a situation that was all part of exploring
start. The limited project funding had to be managed in how the Women’s Museum could become a self-gover-
the best possible way. Some thought there would be mo- ning institution, in which external institutions appointed
ney for more staff if everyone went part time. For others, members to the museum’s board and took co-respon-
a decent, full-time salary was paramount. Compromises sibility.
were made, some shared a job, and some found work el- Over the years, the management team had become
sewhere. Changes in labor market policy after 1994 re- smaller. At the time the museum was recognized by the
sulted in fewer people in wage subsidy jobs. This meant state, the management team consisted of 6 women; in
fewer staff and a change in the way the work was organi- 1995 of 5; and by 1996 of 4. Since 2002, there have been
zed. Previously, we had shared all the jobs – even cleaning. only 3. Over the years, the division of work became ‘pro-
The community was fractured when the managers were fessionalized’. While research and public relations re-
exempted from cleaning (apart from their own offices) to mained a shared responsibility, principal responsibility
allow them more time for administration and research. A for finance, fundraising, staffing, collections and politi-
few years later, when increasingly fewer unemployed wo- cal-social activities was divided between the three of us,
men were hired, and the museum expanded its area from though adjusted on a daily and weekly basis in the con-
approx. 13,000 to 19,000 ft2, we decided to hire cleaners. sensus model’s ‘tripartite negotiations’ within the colle-
ctive. The collective leadership was both less wide-ran-
The cleaning woman, dressed in a cleaner’s tunic and ging and less dynamic, but the strength of the collective
placed in a discreet corner of the lobby, where she scrub- was conversation and discussion, and the fact that any
bed the floor, was one of the museum’s first and most strategy or decision, whatever the scale, could be tried
treasured human figures. The guests respectfully avoi- out internally before being implemented.
ded this lifelike character. She represented the necessity
of cleaning work as the invisible, undervalued work, from We ended the association in 2011 after a
which many women previously earned their money. This long process of discussions between the

112
was also the kind of cleaning work we paid for and con- management team and the board and
veniently let happen at times when no one saw it, when having given advance warning to the as-
our paid cleaning women came to the Women’s Museum sociation for a few years. The Women’s
Yoko Ono’s Wish Tree in the lobby of the Museum Association had become both less active and
Women’s Museum (2004).
less activist.

The cessation of the Women’s Museum Association had

been discussed at extraordinary general meetings. The
board and the management outlined the advantages
and disadvantages of both association and self-govern-
ment. The members’ desire to maintain connection to the
museum and the opportunity they had had to support
the museum with many successful years of its unusual
form of organization were important for the continuation
of the association, but the possible strength of inviting
other institutions to appoint members to the museum’s
board and take co-responsibility for the museum’s work
won.

Could we have continued as an association-owned and

operated museum? That is unlikely. There were very few
actual movements in the 00s. Changing the broad or-
ganizational form of the Women’s Museum was under
consideration prior to the climate movement, the Arab
Spring, Extinction Rebellion and MeToo, all of which pre-
saged extensive new mobilizations. Maybe the Women’s
Museum was feeling somewhat isolated and old-fashio-
ned in its final years as an association-owned institution.

113
We could also feel the crisis of 2008. The permanent
operating grants, which were never large, were not re-
duced, but the opportunity for extra grants from foun-
Children concentrating.

dations dwindled. It seemed to us that the foundations increased operating grants from Aarhus Municipality for
were more interested in funding large, visible cultural in- school services and later for our touring pop-up muse-
stitutions. We hoped that by ‘streamlining’ the Women’s um. The extra funding was of course a result of the ma-
Museum, we could gain more access to funding. The final nagement team’s efforts, but it is impossible to ignore
decision was made in 2011 – the year Denmark’s first fe- the seal of approval that a professionally composed bo-
male prime minister took office, and gay couples beca- ard gave the museum.
me entitled to a church marriage.
Wide-ranging external contacts also continued. In the
The new structure of the board was ready by 2012. The early years, the museum’s space was filled with staff
Museum Association became the Friends of the Wo- and volunteers in a motley jumble of working groups and
men’s Museum and was given one seat on the board small projects with the production of theater performan-
and the Women’s Museum one (employee elected). The ces, audio slideshows, and small exhibits supplemented
others were appointed by Erhverv Aarhus, LO, Aarhus by courses in self-defense, croquis sketching, witchcraft
University, Aarhus City Council and Mediebranchen. So, and generational get-togethers, at which old people told
there was now an odd number, and for the first time a children: “When I was a child…” This multifaceted internal
chairperson and vice chair. production and public engagement/interpretation chan-
ged. Gradually, as the museum was consolidated, acti-
The decision about the composition of the board was vist activities involved external organizations and part-
made in close discussion with the Municipality and Ad- ners. From its inception, the museum provided space
ministration. We drew inspiration from the compositi- for external exhibits by groups of women, whenever the
on of other museum boards without investigating, for theme was within the museum’s remit. With fewer volun-
example, whether the Danish Women’s Society or Mød- teers in the museum’s everyday life, there was room for
rehjælpen would have accepted a seat on the board of more women to organize dance, concerts and exhibits,
the Women’s Museum. This was something the Women’s and increased collaboration with other stakeholders in
Council Denmark accepted a few years later, when the the city in terms of lectures etc. Recurring traditions of
Friends of the Women’s Museum was transformed into working with other women’s organizations, trade union
the Women’s Museum Club, and this seat on the board and cross-political groups to prepare for 8 March and
became vacant. Mother’s Day celebrations etc. helped
Under the new board, as it now was, the collective lea- perpetuate the energy that results from

114
dership continued. We succeeded in obtaining additio- all the people actively involved in events
nal operating grants in the National Budget, substantial and smaller exhibits at the museum.
funding for upgrading the museum’s physical rooms and
VISIONS, PRINCIPLES AND REMITS documenting the lives of girls. The collection of boys’
The Women’s Museum’s relationship with the building memories, clothes and toys etc. for the exhibition star-
changed over the years. Initially, we were grateful for ted, and a number of girl and boy case histories from the
the annual user agreements, which guaranteed us a roof 1850s to the 1990s were presented with objects on the
over our head when we gained state recognition and then basis of a kind of treasure hunt. The exhibit follows the
totally refurbished the building for museum purposes in historically changing conditions and expectations for gi-
1992-93. However, we were constantly reminded that we rls and boys, from the perspective of different countries,
might have to move out of the building to provide space class, size of family, work and duties, leisure and play. It
for a city museum. shows classic girls’ and boys’ lives, mixed with case hi-
stories, in which some of the children’s interests and ob-
The museum lacked space. With progressively fewer jects reflect a second gender identity.
referrals and volunteers, but relatively more permanent
employees, the pressure for better staff facilities grew. Children from institutions and schools visit the exhibit. It
The museum also wanted more visitors than the 40,000 is also perfect for generational get-togethers. Objects
or so visitors a year. The figures were nothing compared evoke the past for parents and grandparents, who then
with those of our ‘big’ museum colleagues in Aarhus, so assume the role of mediator, telling the children about
we also wanted to expand the exhibition area. experiences from their own childhood. We involved focus
groups of children in the construction process, alongside
After the refurbishment in 1993, access from the main early childhood educators, teachers and children’s re-
building to the original jail building was blocked. Sym- searchers. Focus groups of users and experts were new
bolically, Yoko Ono’s Wish Tree stood right there, invi- to us. What was also new was the millions of kroner we
ting everyone to wish. Banknotes with wishes for love, raised from foundations for constructing the exhibition
women’s power, peace on earth, new toys etc. grew on with professional architects helping us with the design.
a fertile tree. One of the Women’s Museum’s greatest After the opening, we conducted a user survey with ob-
dreams was to gain access to the rooms behind the tree. servations and interviews of children in the exhibition.
That dream came true in 2005. They loved it: both the girls and the boys.

We applied to the Municipality of Aarhus for access to THE WOMEN’S MUSEUM AND GENDER FLUIDITY
the leased adjacent building, referring to the fact that in The prediction from the outset was that the Women’s
in 1992 the city council had decided to rent out its ap- Museum would be a nine days’ wonder, far too limited
prox. 6,500 ft2 for a period of 10 years to cover the costs to survive. Some said the name was wrong. It sounded
of refurbishment. However, it was not so simple from the aggressive. The goal was obsolete, the gender issue had
point of view of the city. The 10 years had passed, but the once been relevant, but was now resolved and equality
rental income had become a fixed part of the municipal existed. Not only indirectly, but also directly, we experi-
budget. If the museum were to take over the adjacent enced skepticism and attacks. For some men, hostility
building, we would also have to pay rent, which became was surprisingly close to the surface – paving the way for
possible when we developed separate interpretation/ ridicule. This latent hostility undoubtedly played a role in
public engagement activities for children. the patent heterosexuality with which the museum pre-
With support from foundations and an increase in our sented itself to the outside world, and the silence that
municipal operating grant, we were granted access, and surrounded lesbianism, both as an important historical
in 2006 opened an exhibit about children for children. topic and as a strong driving force in the Women’s Muse-
This exhibit redefined the museum’s basic principle. We um’s own development. It was important for the museum
could have chosen to focus the exhibit on boosting girl to establish and maintain trusting partnerships with gen-
pride in a world, in which – on paper – we have equali- der-mixed museums, business associates, partners and
ty, but in which girls still lack the same encouragement public authorities.
to express themselves physically or believe in their own
worth. But we took a wider-ranging approach by in- In the museum’s close working relationships, we succeed
volving both genders and not concentra- in building respect and trust. The depth of this was reve-
ting on the life of girls. We wanted to get aled back in 1987, when the museum was subject to an

115
our message across to all children: hence, aggressive smear campaign by the national press, kicked
The Histories of Boys and Girls. We had a off by a couple of men who actively incited confrontati-
myriad of objects, photos and interviews on about the museum’s foundation. Male civil servants
stepped in, strongly defending the qualities and benefits Stocking Movement, in women’s shelters, on Femø or at
of the museum as a gender-separated workplace, where the Women’s Museum. “Men don’t think they can visit
exhibits were always about and by women. the Women’s Museum.” We have heard that statement a
thousand times.
Over the years, the Women’s Museum has also had many
male donors. Proud of the lives and deeds of their mo- At the Women’s Museum, we never used the term ‘the
thers, sons have donated items from their mothers’ be- opposite sex’. From the outset, we were aware that it is
longings. Civil servants and male politicians have praised demanding for both sexes to change the gendered expe-
the Women’s Museum as a workplace and museum in- ctations of the environment in which we live, which are in
stitution. Craftsmen and service people have enjoyed entrenched in us from early childhood. But the basic view
coming to the museum. Female photographers have was that gender does not refer to innate characteristics
portrayed men, just as female visual artists have portray- of the biological sexes. We regarded masculinity and fe-
ed their warmth and tenderness for, and anger and fear mininity as a continuum of transitions, in which each in-
of men. Transgender paradoxes related to forgiveness, dividual has a degree of opportunity to position themsel-
AIDS and homophobia were presented as biblical scenes ves. The identity of a person is a more or less conscious
in Ecce Homo. The exhibition of Dame Edna’s costumes interpretation of gender, and that can change from situ-
began when, at the Skanderborg Festival, Barry Hum- ation to situation for that same person.
phries mentioned the Women’s Museum, and we invited
him to curate an exhibition, regardless of what gender he The Women’s Museum became one of the important
chose. gender segregated spaces, where the gender identities
of the female universe could be seen in all their diversi-
Women, men and fluid boundaries between femininity ty. Despite formal gender equality in our society, gender
and masculinity are embedded in the history of the Wo- continues to be linked to power, and gender-based hie-
men’s Museum, based on the history of women. rarchies impact emotions and social relationships. But a
critique of patriarchal power structures does not imply a
Aarhus City Council appointed the first men to the board conviction that one gender is better than the other.
of the Women’s Museum in 1996, and this has happened
almost continuously ever since. We welcomed them, and For some people, the Women’s Museum represented
they have all been strong ambassadors for the Women’s threat and provocation. This may be because men are
Museum in the sometimes misogynistic real world. gender blind and do not actually understand the struc-
Nevertheless, it was a change of course from the foun- tural power relationship between men and women. It may
ding principle that the management and administrati- also be due to the fact that we are woven together in
on should be entirely in the hands of women. Later, the lust- and love-based relationships, which makes it pain-
Ministry of Culture’s focus on gender distribution, in ful for both men and women to see the relationship bet-
extension of the 2006 Act on Gender Equality in Public ween the sexes as a relationship of power and possessi-
Institutions, meant increased attention to the composi- on, oppression and powerlessness – something women
tion of boards. The vast majority of museums had male aired publicly once again in 2021.
majorities on their boards, but the female majority on the
Women’s Museum board and in its staff seemed easier to In Histories of Boys and Girls, we abandoned the principle
pinpoint and declare outdated. At one time, we investi- of radical feminism. Though the exhibit was created by
gated the possibility of obtaining an exemption from the women, it was about both sexes. Both girls and boys are
Danish Act on Equal Treatment, just as we once applied fundamentally unaware of the invisibility of women’s li-
for an exemption from the Danish Museum Act’s stipula- ves and historically changing women’s movements, and
tion of a single professional leader. But we could not get of the fact that there are reasons to do something speci-
round the Danish Act on Equal Treatment. al if you want to focus on women’s history. The unconsci-
ous exclusion of girls and women (and homosexual and
We are in favor of equality. But often we learned that there ethnic minorities and disabled people etc.) is also going
is a certain myopia when it comes to assessing equality. on today. Girls feel it. Boys do not experi-
The generations of systematic exclusion of women from ence it. So, boys often asked why they had

116
democracy and cultural life are not referred to when men to visit a women’s museum.
do not feel represented and feel that women have taken
over, whether in the fight for women’s suffrage, in the Red
 With song and music, women and
children dressed in clothes from
bygone eras invited everyone to vi-
sit Domkirkepladsen 5, into which the
Women’s Museum moved in 1984.

NEW REMIT
Based on a desire to boost and consolidate the muse- of gender and to take part in open discussion and mutual lear-
um’s position as a platform for influence and recogniti- ning with users, women’s institutions and environments, and
on, the management team made a number of choices. other relevant partners by asking women for advice, involving
In many ways, having the recognition of the museum by the public and prioritizing ‘social inclusion.
the surrounding community confirmed is driven by the
desire to serve the community to which the museum be- Up until 2016, the remit - the life and work of women - re-
longs. Is the desire to be a meaningful, engaging museum mained unchanged, but in the long run we did not main-
that listens to the local community and dedicates itself tain the explicitly feminist nature of the museum. We as-
to influencing contemporary life one of the main reasons similated mainstream culture:
why we sanded down the sharp edges of radicalism and
steered away from provocative positions towards recog- The museum will continuously evolve as a meeting place and
nizable forms of organization? venue for debate, information and experience, and accom-
modate an active research environment. We will maintain
The relationship between Gender and Sex in English-lan- a consistent female perspective on everyday life and body,
guage women’s research also characterized the do- individuality and communities, past, present and future.
mestic conditions, in which women’s research was ‘re-
christened’ gender research. This also influenced the The collective management team always had a desire
linguistic tone of the museum. As a result, for change and innovation in tandem with reading chan-
in 2011 we rephrased the museum’s vision: ges in society. Creating jobs for women was originally a

117
principal objective, but the absence of employment for
The aim of the Women’s Museum is to men made it a stumbling block for the Danish Agency for
propagate knowledge about the importance Culture and Palaces. The lack of men among visitors was
Celebrating the 25th Anniversary on
31 October 2007.
also cause for concern. Perhaps we were too ready for ble to adhere to the type of principles and methods on
change in 2016, when the quality assessment by the Da- which the museum was originally based? Would we have
nish Agency for Culture and Palaces called for a change been able to increase our grants and add all the space we
of remit – from a prime focus on women to gender in ge- finally acquired if the museum’s professional strategies
neral. had not become more traditional?

In 2016, after several rounds of formulation by the board There is no way of knowing. But with joy and respect,
and the management team, we changed the focus of our we can see that the world around us has once again be-
remit to the cultural history of the sexes, but viewed from come passionately concerned about women’s issues. If it
the perspective of women’s history. Much had changed had been possible for the Women’s Museum to retain its
in the museum, but in all the cultural museums of the main focus on the diversity of women’s experiences and
world, women were still scantily represented. In the ac- skills, continuing as an experimental workplace for wo-
companying 10-year strategic plan, we therefore emp- men, then the Women’s Museum might have been able
hasized that ”the Women’s Museum in Denmark would to continue its activist approach, reflecting women’s mo-
expand its remit but retain its name”.34 vements both old and new, and the several ‘waves’ that
have emerged since.
CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
In 2007, in a speech to the museum, the then Mayor of Museums must reflect their times. In recent years, atten-
Aarhus Nicolai Wammen said: tion to the bodily, gender-branded and cultural-historical
characteristics of women has again been boosted, and
With a special focus on neglected groups – the invisible and new women’s rights initiatives are emerging. Protests
the oppressed – the museum expresses a view of humanity, against the oppression of women started in the United
which I believe is of great credit to its founders and employees, States in the 2017 Women’s March and spread to the en-
and which generates respect for both the museum and Aarhus tire Western world. So did the MeToo movement. Women
at home and abroad. Twenty-five years ago, it was not un- in the cultural and business sectors focus on the absen-
common to experiment with collective management. In most ce of recognition. Motherhood has become a key theme
institutions and companies, this form of management was not in art exhibitions, literature and media debates. Puzzled,
viable, but at the Women’s Museum it survived and helped female artists are asking why museums do not purchase
create the many impressive results that are highly respected in anywhere near as many works by women as by men.
the museum world, among visitors, in the Danish Agency for
Culture and Palaces and in the City Council. ‘What a fabulous Museum! I wish we had one like this in
New York,” wrote a visitor in the museum’s guestbook in
Over the years, aware of society’s changes in culture and 2007. In fact, there is a new one on the way in Washington.
views of women, we made adjustments, both large and In late 2020, Congress enacted legislation to create a na-
small. The history of the Women’s Museum reflects the tional museum dedicated to the
desire to be an open place where worn-out things can history of American women, given that women’s lives
glow, and where hidden things can be seen: a place that are still invisible, and women’s experiences marginalized.
helps women gain an active, visible place both in histo- 40 years on, the government of the United States is now
ry and the present. The basic principles of the Women’s expressing a need for what we, as a grass roots organiza-
Museum’s pioneering era changed significantly along the tion, accomplished in the 1980s, and which pretty quickly
way and, through its almost 40 years of existence, the earned us recognition by the authorities in Denmark.
museum relaxed several of its originally distinctive and
key ideological positions. Over the years, our experimen-
tal, irreverent approach to the responsibility of a muse- 33
um became less pronounced. Hierarchical structures I have backed up my memories with
annual reports and other archive
evolved in relation to decisions and the division of labor, material, and conversations with Jette
collective management was slowly and gradually phased Sandahl, who was a member of the
museum’s management team until
out, and a revised remit, in which a mul- 1995. Much of the wording in the text
ti-gender approach gained ground at the about the first decade of the muse-

119
um’s existence is hers.
expense of the uniquely female, became
34
the basis for the continued existence of
The quote is from the museums inter-
the museum. Would it have been possi- nal strategy for 2015-2025, p 2.
Section
02

TESTIMONIES OF PEOPLE AND

ACTIVISTS INVOLVED IN THE WORK
OF THE MUSEUM ACROSS THE YEARS
JULIE ROKKJÆR BIRCH INTRODUCTION
Former director of KØN – Gender Museum Denmark Since the establishment of the Women’s Museum Asso-
ciation in 1982, the museum, now called KØN – Gender
Museum Denmark, has been disseminating cultural hi-
story accompanied by voices that could supplement the
physical objects with personal life stories. This was also a
matter of necessity, because reminiscences of women’s
lives and work have been gobbled up – eroded – by time.
This condition defined the collection of KØN – Gender
Museum Denmark, which contains vast documentation
of oral accounts: intangible cultural heritage that we re-
gard as equally important as the objects in the museum’s
public engagement and interpretation. The inclusion
of personal stories (engaging in dialog with the outside
world in general) is still an essential part of the museum’s
work, whether collecting objects, curating exhibitions,
conducting research or devising public engagement/in-
terpretation initiatives.

Even at the organizational level, the doors of the muse-

um were open from the very beginning. On account of
the fact that originally the Women’s Museum Association
was also an unemployment project for women (cf. Ipsen),
the museum still has a socio-economic identity, which is
all about creating alternative job opportunities for both
particularly vulnerable and newly qualified unemployed
people. The flow of short-term employees is demanding
in a small organization, but one cannot underestima-
te the extent to which the museum benefits from these
frequent breaths of fresh air from the outside world, re-
flecting that world’s view of the museum and helping the
museum to remain dynamic and relevant.

Over the years, many different individuals have contribu-

ted to the evolution and expansion of the museum, hel-
ping to make visible invisible cultural history and preser-
ve it for posterity. But it is not only the museum’s subject
matter that such an exchange of knowledge enhances. In
the interaction between the museum and the individual,
that individual also undergoes a change as a result of the
special self-reflection that occurs in their collaboration
with the museum. In other words, “coming to the muse-
um” and becoming part of its story is a unique experien-
ce.

The following section features a selection of personal

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accounts, which touchingly describe people’s encounter
and collaboration with the museum, illustrating the mu-
seum’s special role as a “safe space” for “unsafe stories”.
The following account was written by IRMA PEDERSEN, who came to the Women’s
Museum in 1984 for a 7-month work capability assessment. Originally published in the
Women’s Museum’s 1984 Annual Report.

My name’s Irma Pedersen and I was born on January 15, 1930.

After 7 years at school, I started helping out in a garment factory, which later led to me
becoming a seamstress.
Early on in my life I became aware that money and freedom are inextricably linked.
After World War II, there were plenty of jobs in the garment industry, as everyone’s
clothes had become threadbare during the war.
We worked according to a pay system that we called “piecework agreements”, which
was a bit of a matter of trust between the seamstress and the operations manager.
Later came the so-called rationalization experts…
After 22 years as a seamstress, my back was done in….
Then I became a waitress and spent 9 years at the same workplace.
There are many non-union people in that industry, and competing with young people
who still have their strength is difficult when you’re over 50.
After 2 years of unemployment, it started to dawn on me that I probably shouldn’t count
on getting a job...
Then fate came to my aid.
I heard by chance that the Women’s Museum Association was offering posts to long-
term unemployed women. I applied and was accepted. Never in my life have 7 months
passed so quickly.
It was a workplace unlike any other I had experienced before. No day was the same.
I would find myself singing on the way to work and looked around startled, wondering if
anyone heard me and assumed I was a bit crazy.
I learned a women’s language that I had probably heard of but didn’t believe existed.
When we had to move to our current premises, I wondered a lot about how it could be
done in practical terms. We had no money and we had to get the premises ready so that
we could actually work there.
But my concerns were groundless. Suddenly everything picked up speed, the work
clothes came out and everyone was covered in paint, so you’d think there was a
carnival in town.
I will never forget the hard work we put in each day, and the transformation from dark,
boring rooms to the bright ones we have today.
Once the premises were in order, we got busy making a procession and exhibits for
the Aarhus Festival. Now it was time for the city to see that we were serious about the
women’s museum.
There was a buzz of activity everywhere and there wasn’t much time. “We won’t make
it.” Lots of people said that.
What an experience when our procession on the main pedestrian street attracted 200
people to the Women’s Museum Association, many more than we had hoped for in our
wildest dreams.
Since then, exhibits have gotten better and better, and our need for more space is
increasing every day.
Truly a vibrant workplace, with exciting activities that we can be proud of.
Thank you for giving me that experience!

“It was a workplace unlike any other I had

experienced before”

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The following account was written by GRETHE SKÅNING, a volunteer at the Women’s
Museum in 1986. Originally published in the Women’s Museum’s 1986 Annual Report.

At the end of 1985, I resigned from my job in the municipal social and health department
in order to retire.
After an orientation interview with 2 project supervisors at the Women’s Museum
about the museum’s conceptual basis and practical way of working, I was assigned to
the museum’s registration group. I also became a member of the Women’s Museum
Association and got the opportunity to contribute to and influence the more general
principles and decisions regarding the museum’s conceptual basis and day-to-day
operations.

In the time that I worked as a volunteer, I gained insight into and an understanding of
the cultural-historical and educational efforts provided by those who were employed
to take care of the museum’s operations, including temporary exhibitions and other
educational work.

There are many routine work tasks, things that have to be done in order for the museum
to function. These include cleaning, tidying up, purchasing materials, baking and
brewing coffee in the café, bookkeeping, hard work on exhibitions, refurbishing rooms,
moving heavy objects, registering incoming objects, etc. I can’t keep up with all the
debates that characterize the basic democratic stance of the organization. But the
ripples from the open and lively debate about all sorts of different phenomena affect
everyone, and the special solidarity the place is contagious. It is great to work in a
place where even the routines are constantly questioned and where everyone has the
opportunity to be heard.

It can be difficult for me to put names to the faces of the ever-changing employees.
But it makes an impression that so many can pull together and feel like members of
a community, even though they come with very different prerequisites, and virtually
everyone is located on the outer edge of the social system where, as we know, lots of
people have a tendency to express themselves bluntly.

I have often seen former employees continuing to visit the museum. In front of them,
despite my age, I feel like a novice. After all, they lived through the museum’s pioneering
period, a period when, as is well known, the fighting spirit and the desire to bring an idea
to life helped overcome many difficulties.

Some people are afraid that the Women’s Museum will be locked into a suffocating
system of rules, regulations and circulars and subject to the control that institutions
have to tolerate as a result of receiving state subsidy in order to operate.
I believe that the very principle – the fact that this is a workplace for women – will be
strong enough to keep the pioneering spirit alive and help overcome the restrictions
that can easily throttle traditional institutions without losing credibility. Pioneering
spirit is still needed. The individual, who cannot always see who actually “decides”,
experiences a basic sense of security in being valued and in being allowed to “speak up
and out” if things go too quickly at the Women’s Museum.

“The special solidarity of the place is

contagious”

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The following account was written by CONNI CHRISTENSEN, DORTE PORSGÅRD
and ANE VIND, who were employed as part of the very first single mother job-creation
project in 1984. The text was originally published in the Women’s Museum’s 1984
Annual Report.

As a young woman on the project, it was very affirming to experience that

independently we were able to create something that could be used by people other
than ourselves... We, who only had a lower secondary education and came from the
regular labor market, suddenly experienced a completely new freedom, which provided
great opportunities, but at the same time a great responsibility. For those of us us, who
had been long-term unemployed, it revived our desire to start an education and really
boosted our self-confidence. Dorte, for example, left us in the middle of the program to
pursue her education. For all of us, work took on a new dimension of desire, quality of
life and responsibility.

As single mothers, it is always difficult to combine children and work, but at the
Women’s Museum it was always possible to take your child to work if there were
problems with childcare or something, and this benefited both our children and us! Just
as we take our private life to work, we would take our work home, and when time was
tight coming up to the exhibition, we were happy to work late into the evening.
Naturally, we also had conflicts – for example, about work discipline and methods –
but we also found support and close friendships with each other. We are of course
disappointed not to be able to continue as employees on such an exciting and rewarding
project, but of course we wish the young people on the new projects good luck, and
hope that it will be as educational for them as it was for us.

“Just as we take our private life to work,

we would take our work home”

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The following account was written by ANE VIND who was on the single mother project
in 1984. Ane Vind wrote the account in the summer of 2021.

I have taken a really close look at my memories of the Women’s Museum and my time
there. I remember the time as educational, engaging and useful, on several levels.
Partly, of course, on the professional side: gaining insight into historical conditions,
learning how to edit audio recordings to create stories, interviewing women whose lives
were very different from mine, and experiencing the joyful moment when we felt a
sense of community across generations.

My time at the museum also gave me an interest in people’s diverse conditions, not only
historical, but also contemporary social differences. Meeting other employees, on the
various “job creation” schemes, was both thought provoking and educational.
On a personal level (and professionally, as I now work with people) this was very useful
and increased my understanding of people’s differences.

Perhaps what I got most out of my time at the museum is the belief that the efforts
of both individuals and groups can make a difference. The fact that we launched a
movement, not always completely sure of the way it would go (far from it!), but with
drive and indomitability.

Not everything went as we imagined, but we made things happen.

The exhibit would open, even though your kid threw up on your party dress just before
the silk ribbon was cut.
Visitors were happy and curious and didn’t notice the little mistakes, and what we
thought was a mistake actually ended up paving the way for new insights.

When I look back, being a new, young mother was a vulnerable position to be in. I don’t
think I saw myself as weak or exposed, and that was probably partly because we were a
group. We could see ourselves in each other and experience the strength of that.
And feel that we could do something.

“We launched a movement”

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The following account was written by ULLA THORUP, who worked on the exhibit It’s
NOT Your Fault at the Women’s Museum in 2010. Ulla Thorup wrote the account in the
summer of 2021.

In 2010, the It’s NOT Your Fault exhibit opened at the Women’s Museum in Aarhus,
where I was involved right from the planning stage as someone who had experience of
the subject – unfortunately, you could say.

The purpose of the exhibit was to show that it is not women’s fault that they are
subjected to assault and rape, even though the environment often labels them as
accomplices.

The exhibit was very relevant, since it focused on rape and women’s right to make
decisions about their own bodies and not evaluate themselves in relation to men.
The exhibit became very significant for me, as I had been raped in Los Angeles at the
age of 17, and my circle of friends believed that I should forget the incident, as men were
ruled by their desires and needs, and we women should or could not tamper with the
natural order of things.

Women were often accused of dressed too provocatively or going home with a good
friend – ergo the assaults were their own fault.
Like many others, I am grateful that the exhibit got off the ground and was a great
success, and hope that it was instrumental in dispelling women’s sense of guilt and
shame.

For me personally, the exhibit was an eye-opener, as I felt visible and acknowledged,
and I hope the same was the case for other women who had been subjected to abuse.
Consequently, I trained as a psychotherapist and became a volunteer at the Joan
Sisters to support other abused women.

“I felt visible and acknowledged”

126
The following account was written by ELIAS SADAQ, a poet and playwright who was
born and grew up in Aarhus, and who contributed to the Gender Blender exhibit that
opened at KØN - Gender Museum Denmark in 2017.

Aarhus is part of my history, my DNA and my self-understanding. The city made me

the person I am today, I have written my name on every curb, walked the narrow streets
from Aarhus V to Aarhus C. I know every road, the inner city is my playground, the Latin
Quarter, the Town Hall Park, Åboulevarden, Klostertorvet, Møllestien etc. In the heart
of the city sits the cathedral like a huge giant, heavy and majestic, looming over the
entire city and casting long shadows. Right next to it is a special, red-brick building. A
building that has had many different guises. A small building that has always had great
significance for the entire city. A small building that has had great significance in my life.
My mother always referred to the little red building with respect and pride, a part of her
history that later became part of mine.

Ever since I was a boy, I have always loved going to museums, loved walking around
the rooms, losing myself in history. When I came to the museum for the first time, I
did not regard it as my own, I entered as a visitor, as a stranger in a new home. That
was before I understood myself and understood how the museum also told my story,
my struggles and my victories. I did not understand how my story resembled the
same story that the museum bore witness to. I only got to understand this one dark
winter evening when Julie, a curator at the time, had invited me in after closing time,
giving me an opportunity to tell my story, shape a language for my self-identity and
perpetuate it as part of gender history. An anonymous testimony, a long conversation,
a small Dictaphone, a safe room, bright lamps and warm floors. I remember it like it was
yesterday and yet as if it was another life.

I told Julie that I was gay and Muslim, that I had difficulty loving myself, that I was afraid
that my God, family, friends and the world around me would not be able to love me, that
I felt infinitely invisible, alone and wrong.

It was the first time I had shared my story in that way, yet I was never nervous in Julie’s
presence, I experienced a rare respect, understanding, real curiosity and attention to my
situation and my courage. It was through this conversation that we found a language,
created a space, a physical visibility for an invisible minority. I donated to Julie and the
museum my own little blue Koran, which, together with my story, under a pseudonym,
was to be part of an exhibit entitled Gender Blender. An exhibit that addressed
minorities, in terms of gender, body, sexuality, ethnicity, etc. Some weeks later the
exhibit opened to the public and I turned up in the lobby in a state of excitement. I came
alone in the morning and stood next to the heavy stairs to the first floor. If you have
been to the museum, you will never forget the impression of the entrance, the patterns
on the floor, the painted ceiling, the two heavy stone columns by the stairs and the
unmistakable feeling of the shiny, cool wooden railing that guides you up to the interior
of the museum. A building that exudes history in every corner.

On the first floor was the exhibit and my contribution, and a pair of headphones
connected to a display case with text boxes in which my Koran was presented. I
looked over my shoulder several times to make sure I was alone before putting on the
headphones. As the worry about my voice being recognized disappeared, I breathed a
sigh of relief, relaxed and got absorbed in the story.
I was proud.

127
Not only of the fact that my own contribution, but that my story too had found its place
in a sea of other voices, minorities, women, men, those across the spectrum, those who
did not identify with a gender.

The exhibition made me view myself differently. I discovered that I belonged to a

special group of particularly alienated, particularly marginalized individuals. A group of
individuals who, in our own way, had broken with norms related to gender, sexuality and
identity across ethnicity, belief and class. I felt part of a community, a sense of kinship, I
was stepping into a legacy of activists and freedom fighters.

A few months later, I came out to my family, friends and the outside world.
Today, there is no doubt that the museum’s presentation and treatment of my story,
my life and struggle, helped give me the courage to stand up for myself, and to use my
voice to give visibility and role models to others in the same situation. I could tell my
story. I wasn’t invisible. I was found, linked forever to history in the museum, in Aarhus, in
my home.

We live in the age of values. Every day, great battles and confrontations take place,
challenging the principles and norms of the past. I feel a flow, a reckoning from a
generation to which I myself belong, which is predominantly interested in taking a stand.
A generation that demands change, that wants to shift the bar, create more space
for all lives, for women, men and those who refuse to be restricted by the concept of
gender. The fight for equality is intersectional and in the transparent century, we see
ourselves and each other for the first time connected across the spectrum of gender,
religion, sexuality, ethnicity and political belief. “No one is free until all are free” and “an
injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere”. That is my conviction. Although
we experience internal strife and do not always share common values and contribute
in various ways to each other’s oppression, my generation’s fight for freedom will
always stand on the shoulders of those who came before, be it women’s liberation or
the LGBTQ movement. In this context, I sense growing pains, resistance and discomfort
on the part of an older generation that finds it difficult to keep up with the changing
times. Our collective history is being reversed and considered. Statues are taken down
and road names changed. Questions about how we must account for the mistakes
and shortcomings of the past are entering the public debate for the first time. We
used to regard feminism as a movement only for women. Today we view it as an idea
that embraces equality for all. In the same way that today we understand that it is not
enough just to think racism is wrong, but that we must actively speak out and declare
ourselves as anti-racists. We are having conversations about consent for the first time,
the dividing lines are getting sharper and sharper. We are giving ownership of the body
back to the individual and accepting that all bodies must be loved regardless of size,
shape and/or disability.

Everyone has an opinion on everything and everyone has become an activist in their
own little life. In the 21st century, it is a privilege to be apolitical. But how should culture
relate to this development and these trends? How do you convey this development
without getting caught up in a particular point of view.

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 This is where museums become a mouthpiece and link between lived life, society and
history. Personal stories take the lead in the encounter between activism and level-
headed, academic communication. The display cases are filled with human experience.
The perspectives are diverse and reflect reality – a reality that threatens the established
norms and narratives – a reality that, if possible, causes discomfort and calls for
change. It is in these display cases that we encounter the unknown and can confront
change or see ourselves in the mirror for the first time. In the same way that I have
seen aspects of myself reflected in ancient paintings and sculptures in art museums,
which in their own way convey a reality or a desired reality. Actually, I never saw myself
as an activist, not until people started calling me that. I was always a boy who wanted
to change the world around me because of the injustice I witnessed, whether racism,
classism, xenophobia, homophobia, social control or misogyny. And when I spoke out
against injustice, I was always put down, and silenced by teachers, friends and family.
It was not until I reached my twenties that I discovered the word “activism”, partly
through my work in the museum. Suddenly my life and work took on a different context,
authority and meaning. They were legitimized and acknowledged as historic activities
and tools in a historic building and found common ground among other activists.
I am convinced that personal stories and narratives change the world around us. Normal
people, not unique individuals, just people with an inner drive who want to change
themselves and, as a result, the world around them. The fact that museums have an
opportunity to document these lives and make them topical by giving them a platform,
only contributes positively to social change and social transformation. Everything
in one’s life can change with a walk round a museum with defining moments and
experiences. The interpretation is the viewer’s own, silent conversations they have with
themselves, and you never know what you will find in a display case that might inspire
people and might change the world forever. This is what museums can do and this is
what museums must do. Remind us of the past and help change the future.

”I could tell my story. I wasn’t invisible. I

existed”

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The following account was written by CHRISTINNA, a burlesque dancer who
contributed to the Gender Blender exhibit that opened at KØN – Gender Museum
Denmark in 2017.

“THE WOMEN’S MUSEUM”. There it is in meter-high iron letters above the entrance.
I step gingerly over the threshold, in anonymous jogging clothes, lugging a suitcase
that is, in reality, far too heavy, as its humble, worn plastic wheels thump against each
and every ancient granite step up the grandiose staircase. A staircase that decades
earlier carried the weight of important men, but now carries the flame of hope for the
few who become the many when we stand together. My dressing room is the exhibit
room up under the roof. Here, in the hallowed halls where cultural capital drips from the
walls, I smear my body in oil and glitter, and glue on false eyelashes. I jump up and down
a few times to check that my pasties are staying where they should be, taped to cover
my dangerous female nipples. After all, I shouldn’t inadvertently give the audience
more than they paid for. Finally, I zip up the sequined dress and pull the long, glistening
rhinestone gloves up over the elbow. One half of my job is to put on clothes – the other
half is to take them off.

Now I can hear them clapping. That means I’ll be on soon. I wait expectantly in the
twilight of the white stairwell, lit only by the moonlight outside. Then the heavy,
varnished wooden doors open. The music plays, the lights shine. I step confidently into
the old town hall, where they have come to see me dance. Come to watch me undress.
In the flesh, as they say. And I enjoy their gaze. Finally, I can be myself. More than
myself, I am even more me, here, in the light. Not many museums voluntarily invite a
stripper inside their thick walls, but at the Women’s Museum they do – and it’s not the
first time I’ve been here.

In fact, I have appeared at the Women’s Museum repeatedly in different contexts over
a number of years as a stripper. We also call it burlesque. It is a contemporary type of
performance in which dance, theater, striptease and satire all come together in a way
that challenges our senses and our (gender) norms. It challenges our ideas about what
bodies can be sexy. What sex actually is. And who finds you sexy. For me, it is a place of
freedom where my sexuality and my sensuality are my own. I define the framework, I
set the boundaries and I exercise my sexuality in a way where the control lies with me. I
am sexy – as a subject and as a person. I wish everyone had that freedom. Granted, we
can’t all work as strippers and burlesque performers. But we can all try to express our
sexuality and gender identity in the way that is most ourselves.

Research shows that the more we are allowed to express our sexuality and gender
identity exactly as it is, the less shame we feel and the better we feel. I feel the Women’s
Museum is part of the solution to this. It is a place where we can (perhaps for the first
time) find someone like us, and where we can perhaps learn to understand those who
are absolutely not like us. Only with understanding and acceptance can we move
forward, as people and as a society. And as we say in my industry: “The show must go
on.”

I’m just your average unfashionable, cisgender, heterosexual, slim, conventionally

beautiful, relatively young, able bodied, well educated, white middle class woman.
The only thing that would have been worse was to be a man too. I don’t even have an
invisible disability to boast about. I’ve only had the most fashionable and common
ailments such as stress and moderate depression. The only thing that boosts my

130
diversity is the fact that I’m a stripper, which I guess is a kind of sex worker. I’m also a
librarian. But even “stripper librarian” is somehow a cliché.
Don’t get me wrong. It’s not because I haven’t had any problems. You bet I have. I have
had my own personal problems, but probably no more than many other (women). I have
been in a psychologically abusive relationship, been molested in my own bed, while out
and about in the city and on charter trips by customers, waiters, taxi drivers, strangers
and friends. I also find time and time again that the restrictive norms of gender also limit
me. The whore-Madonna trope and the sexual double standards are alive and kicking.
Both in my working and dating life, my work as a burlesque performer has presented
challenges. People want the stripper, the academic or the housewife but, guess what,
I come as a package solution – or rather a package problem. I am all those things.
Humans are all those things and many more. We cannot be reduced to well-defined,
demarcated stock cubes.

The women’s activists were the first to declare that privacy is political and I heartily
agree. “Private” IS public. Without us, the private ones, there is no public. Politics is
created so that we can organize our private lives, both together and individually. Things
are certainly better for women now than they have been for many centuries, but as
Nynne says in popular culture: “Could be worse – but could fucking well be better.”

On the second floor of the museum hangs a picture of my face. There are actually two.
The first is a truthful depiction of “I woke up like this”. Me, without makeup, without
filter, with no photoshop. The second is me in full show makeup, posing like a movie
actress from the old days. But they are both me. I am neither more nor less woman nor
more or less me in either of them. I’m hanging there because, on a spectrum of gender
expression, I profess to be hyper-feminine. Super feminine. A real girl-girl. Woman with
a capital “W”. Traditionally feminine. I signed up when the Women’s Museum posted
an announcement on their Facebook page looking for representatives of different
gender expressions, gender identities and sexualities for their exhibit on gender,
Gender Blender. In all my cis mediocrity, I perhaps represent a kind of majority among
minorities. The librarian stripper strikes again.

And there I am, alongside a drag queen, a bodybuilder, the gay Muslim and the trans
woman, as one image of what gender can do. And that’s what KØN – Gender Museum
Denmark can do. There is room here for all of us. Those who are mega common and
those who are uncommon – at least without one being labeled as better than the other.
A museum that is not out to push women out of the picture, but on the contrary tries to
create a framework with room for more kinds of women, more kinds of people. Me too.
You too.

Today, a majority of Danes believe that we really have equality – in fact, many believe
that the fight for equality has gone too far. #MeToo and all that. But what we forget is
how incredibly fast it all went. How far there is still to go. We forget that for centuries
women were nothing in themselves. They were a piece of property handed down from
father to husband, the same way a farmer sells a sow to the butcher. The sow has no
say in the matter. We forget that it is only barely 100 years since women got the right to
vote. It is only a little over 30 years ago that two people of the same sex were allowed

131
 to enter into a registered partnership. And not even a year has passed since Danes
finally got a consent law that ensures something as basic as active consent in a sexual
relationship. And on many other fronts – racism, sexism, discrimination – the past year
has only shown us that we still have a long way to go.

Bad museums only look back and show us the past without dealing with it. They
preserve history. Many museums look back, but also explain the past to us in a modern
context, shedding light on history. Only a few museums dare to look ahead. To hope.
To dream. To be a part of history. KØN – Gender Museum Denmark does. And just as
many people initially labeled the women’s struggle of 1968 as extreme, hysterical and
unnecessary, history is now repeating itself. Critics say intersectional feminism is made
up of violent asexual feminazis out to burn patriarchal, capitalist society to the ground.
And, bearing in mind what the last year/century has offered us in the crumbling ruins of
patriarchal, capitalist society, I can only say: “Pass me a fucking match.”

”I’m sexy – as a subject and as a person”

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The following account was written by SHABNAM, SAHAR, FARESHTA, SHAYMAA and
ELLA, the group of Muslim women who curated the Muslim Women exhibit at KØN -
Gender Museum Denmark in 2019.

A museum remembers a society, the culture, the women, the gender, moments
from our world, a small moment in one’s reality that becomes immortal in the age of
technology. The old city hall, the old police station, the old Women’s Museum, KØN –
Gender Museum Denmark remembers a lot of stories, tales and accounts about us all.
Often a group of women has been overlooked, forgotten, missing from the stories that
the museums have told to society. The Muslim woman. When stories about the Muslim
woman are forgotten, it only increases the appetite for more.

Being a woman has always been part of our identity. Being a Muslim woman has always
been a part of us too. What both have in common is that they have always been present
and parallel to each other. For us, it has not been about choosing either or. Both can
and should be allowed to coexist. One of those women has often been represented,
while the other remained invisible in the stories and exhibitions that we ourselves have
walked around and looked at. When the Muslim woman got a voice, it rarely came from
herself. The voice was created by others around her. Until one day we stumbled across
the news that the former Women’s Museum was looking for a Muslim curatorial group
to portray the Muslim woman in a pop-up exhibition. We breathed a deep sigh of relief,
and our thoughts were given free rein to shape all the endless possibilities for what
the exhibit could contain and contribute. The motivation was kindled by appetite – for
representation, voices, nuances and colors. All ages, all faiths, all countries, all the trivial
little quirks from everyday life that were lacking. Couldn’t they be accommodated in the
pop-up exhibition?

The five of us in the curatorial group were all very different. We were tasked with
conveying the poetry, art, everyday life and nuances behind the Muslim woman in
Denmark. The passion for the project was clear throughout the six months in which we
brought the exhibit to life together. We were different in terms of our background, age,
education, ethnicity and the ways we practiced religion. Our common denominator
was that we were Muslim women in Denmark who had lacked a voice, been overlooked
and misrepresented. Together, through art, poetry, testimonies, letters, and objects
from our everyday lives, we assembled what we had missed. Our voice. The lack
of representation in public discourse and the media over the years has led to the
polarization and stigmatization of the Muslim women we usually look up to. The strong,
intelligent, courageous, fearless women who carry mountains on their shoulders. The
voices that we have heard through childhood and our own have been missing in society,
culture and art.

Creating a voice in a creative space can create many nuances. Conveying words in a
poem can give a story and new meaning to the person who reads it in their own voice.
Thereby the language can take on a new narrative each time the poem is seen with
different eyes. An object can show how similar and different everyday life can be for
the Muslim woman. Books can create a space for the Muslim woman in literature and

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provide time for reading both fiction and non-fiction. Books that had been banned
elsewhere in the world were given space in the exhibition, as a testimony to the voices
that had otherwise been concealed. A film with questions can create new reflections on
the way we articulate and create curiosity, categorization or stereotyping of an identity
for a given person. Visually, it can illustrate to people that the Muslim woman behind the
voice will not be the same every time the same question is asked, that it can show the
difference in the stories that also characterize the answers.
The pop-up exhibit was ready in December 2019. In the curatorial group, we had
collated the voices we had received in various formats. We wanted to share the
platform with as many Muslim women in Denmark as possible. The identity we wanted
to create for the Muslim woman had to accommodate a larger space with the nuances
and differences that belonged to this. It became an exhibit in which the women could
recognize themselves. This was clear when we held an opening where the pop-
up exhibit was allowed to be presented and shown. The voice was neutral, it was
recognizable and it could support the Muslim woman in all her facets.
We did not arrive at that until all the women throughout Denmark had passed on their
voice, stories and reflections for the identity we built together and through the exhibit.
The atmosphere at the opening fizzled with expectation. Among the guests there were
a number of familiar faces who had contributed to the exhibit. The curatorial group
explained the thoughts behind the exhibit before it was presented and opened up to the
world that was to receive it. Curious, people wandered around, looking at all the poems,
letters, films and books. Everyone was positive about the many voices the exhibit
contained and displayed. The Muslim woman had been presented in all her ambiguity,
and she had been welcomed.

We had high hopes for the exhibition, the aim of which was to spotlight the voice that
had been overlooked and lacking for so long. To show a voice that was created by the
Muslim woman. But even though the voice had grown in self-confidence and could
stand on its own two feet in a pop-up exhibit with high hopes for the many places it
would reach throughout the country, it could not combat the pandemic that forced the
entire country into lockdown. The biggest challenge came after the opening. Just as
the bird was ready to fly from the nest and out into the big wide world, the pandemic
closed down everything and put our dreams on hold. After the disappointment of the
lockdown and the uncertainty surrounding the pandemic – which still exists – a glimmer
of hope flared up when KØN – Gender Museum Denmark reopened. Would the pop-up
exhibit featuring the Muslim women’s voices, stories and reflections get a place at the
museum?

An exhibit such as this can contain many voices, and it has the ability to pass on a
story to the person who observes it. It can create a space for a story that the museum
has not told and remembered before in society, culture and art. It can create new
definitions, and the moment an exhibit encounters another person, it creates a special
moment. It can be a vulnerable space, and it requires a safe framework to pass on so
many different stories, where the voices are preserved and together can contribute
to a shared, nuanced voice. A museum plays a key role when it comes to collating and
conveying an identity. It is a role that we must always be aware of when we step inside.

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 When we walk through an exhibit and listen, the voice that defines that space becomes
part of our voice. When we step out of the museum again, we have a part of that voice
with us. Giving an exhibit a voice is fascinating. Thanks to other people, it can change
both a view and a narrative and recreate itself, and yet remain a reality that reminds
us of how important it is for the past and the present we carry around in us to create a
space for each other. A space created by women who, with each of their voices, could
give a stronger voice to a woman who has otherwise always been overlooked and
misunderstood. We do not understand ourselves until we understand each other and
recognize that our stories can be both similar and different.

The Muslim woman has always been talked about, but when has the Muslim woman
herself spoken with her own voice? And what is the nature of that voice?

These were the questions we took as our basis when we sat down at the first meeting
of the curatorial group – Shabnam, Sahar, Fareshta, Shaymaa and Ella – together with
Louise Rognlien. We were just a handful, but the Muslim woman we needed to show
society amounted to more voices than all of ours put together. We wanted to create a
diversity that could show the nuances implicit in the voice of the Muslim woman. That
she can be driven by different elements, that she can be represented in more ways than
the voice that the public has chosen for her.
We were women, each with our own story, but we had a common goal – to create a new
identity together.

”A museum remembers”

135
Section
03

THE TOOLKIT OF THE

ACTIVIST MUSEUM
137
BODY and SEX in a Museum
Activist, Discussion based,
Norm critical Sex Education in a
Museum of Cultural History

ANNA KATHRINE SVENNING

START-UP AND DEVELOPMENT
Former Head of Public Engagement and education at
How to develop our museum so that it keeps up with the
KØN – Gender Museum Denmark
times? How do we apply our knowledge and the obje-
cts in our museum to benefit new generations? And how
can we contribute to the personal, social and democra-
tic upbringing of young people? This was a key question
we asked ourselves at the Women’s Museum in Denmark
(now KØN - Gender Museum Denmark) in 2014, when
we decided to develop a service for schools that could
complement, in particular, the elementary school cur-
riculum and eventually the upper secondary education
curriculum too.

We got in touch with teachers in our locality and asked

them to which subject areas they would like us to contri-
bute our knowledge and methods. It soon became clear
that sex education needed a boost. The teachers descri-
bed their reluctance to tackle the subject, their uncer-
tainty about content and methods, and the challenges of
incorporating sex education into existing subjects.

Since 1970, sex education has been compulsory for all

grades in Danish elementary schools. However, given that
sex education is not allocated its own lessons in the ti-
metable, but is supposed to be incorporated into existing
subjects, and given that many teachers have no training
in sex education (at time of writing, it is an elective of
about one week’s duration in teacher training programs),
the amount and quality of the sex educa-
tion varies greatly. Time and again, studi-

138
es over a number of years have revealed
that sex education is under-prioritized in
schools. The latest study by the Danish
Ministry of Children and Education shows that teachers a consultant from Normstormerne (an outreach project
do not know enough about the framework for sex educa- under the aegis of AIDS-Fondet - a Danish organizati-
tion, and that pupils receive inadequate teaching, espe- on dedicated to prevention and information about HIV/
cially when it comes to issues such as rights, boundaries, AIDS).
norms and diversity (Følner et al. 2019).
We were very ambitious. We wanted:
Meanwhile, society today requires up-to-date sex • To develop a sustainable norm-critical, action
education that can provide pupils with tools to tackle competence- and dialog-based concept that
the complexity and changeability in which they grow up. involved the pupils.
Today, more than previously, there are completely diffe-
rent opportunities and conditions for gender, body, sexu- • To question society’s recognized notions of
ality, identity and types of family, and to a much greater normality by contrasting it with the historical
extent than previously gender is up for negotiation and context and the lives of young people.
change (Graugaard 2019). Up-to-date sex education ne-
eds to address these conditions, support pupils in their • To take the identity formation of young people
identity formation, providing them with individual and seriously, perceiving them as competent actors
social competences such as self-esteem, self-knowled- in and co-creators of education.
ge, empathy, acknowledgement and respect for others.
It needs to tackle the reality of the young people and • To avoid hierarchical and reproductive state-
provide open discussion about their values, norms and ments, maintaining open dialog based on plu-
opportunities for action (Wøldike et al. 2013). ralism, active participation and self-reflection.

Given the museum’s remit – the cultural history of the • To provide pupils with a sense of the fact that
sexes – and professional expertise in the subjects of gen- they are created by history, but also create
der, body and sexuality, it made total sense to devise a sex history on the basis of the choices they make.
education program that could supplement sex educati-
on in schools. We wanted to make use of cultural history, • To make use of the museum’s cultural-histo-
the objects in our museum and the museum’s space to rical objects to pave the way for difficult and
create a different kind of sex education from that which sensitive topics of conversation about gender,
takes place in the classroom. As far as we could see, in body and sexuality.
early 2014, sex education was a relatively unknown phen-
omenon in both Danish and foreign museums. The funding for the project enabled us to explore many
avenues, and we often ended up in dead ends. It took
We held initial brainstorm meetings with people from the time to find a concept that accommodated the prin-
museum’s network, professional organizations, the muni- ciples of norm-critical sex education that also featured
cipality and representatives of other local museums with pupil involvement. The museum was concurrently in a
the goal of further investigating the need, getting them process of change, expanding its remit from a focus on
interested in collaborating and gleaning ideas on how we women’s history to a broader focus on the history of the
could proceed with the project. The Danish Agency for sexes, and the museum’s subject matter needed to be
Culture and Palaces gave us a grant of DKK 300,000 for expanded with the collection of objects that would refle-
project development. We then set up a working group, ct greater diversity. The progress of the project gave the
made up of professionals from elementary schools, mu- museum valuable experience vis-à-vis developing the
seums and professional organizations. methods and content of sex education and cooperation
between schools and cultural institutions – experiences
We then got started. Between 2015 and 2016 we devised that we drew on in our further work on developing current
and tested different content and methods in collaborati- sex education provisions.
on with the Natural History Museum Aarhus, three local
8th grade classes and their teachers, plus After the project grant expired, the museum continued
the development on its own, and in 2017 we were able to

139
offer the current version of the BODY program to schools.
Two years later, the SEX program was ready. In 2018, the
museum opened the exhibition Sex Education Throug-
hout the Times. Featuring a wide-ranging and diverse
range of subjects, it spotlights past and present attitudes
to topics within the fields of gender, body and sexuality.
The space serves as both a classroom and an exhibition
venue and provides a valuable basis for sex education at
the museum.

The BODY and SEX programs are intended as a sup-

plement to sex education in schools. Both based on the
competency of Gender, Body and Sexuality as outlined
in the booklet Fælles Mål for sundheds- og seksualun-
dervisning og familiekundskab (Common Objectives for
Health and Sex Education and Family Knowledge), the
programs cover the following competence objectives
and skill and knowledge objectives:

Norms and ideals Sexual rights

After grade 9. The student can The student can The student The student can The student has
assess norms and analyze gender, has knowledge discuss sexual knowledge about
rights for bodies, body and sexu- on cultural and rights in Denmark their rights in
gender and sexu- ality in contem- social norms and and globally. relation to body,
ality in a social porary, histori- ideal concerning gender, sexuality
perspective. cal and global gender, bodies and family.
perspectives. and sexuality.

From ”Fælles Mål for sundheds- og

seksualundervisning og familiekundskab”
[Common goals for health-, sexual and
family education], Ministry of Children and
Education 2019

140
EIGHT DIDACTIC AND PEDAGOGICAL PRINCIPLES ses from all over the country, we notice big differences
Sex education at KØN – Gender Museum Denmark is between the classes, depending on where in the country
based on eight fundamental didactic and pedagogical they come from. We must regard this diversity of stu-
principles. They are based on ‘principles for good sex dent voices as a strength. If we involve young people as
education’ drawn up by the Danish Family Planning As- co-creators of the educational process, sex education
sociation (DFPA) (a nationwide association that works to can pave the way for a diversity of experiences, values,
ensure the right to sexual well-being, reproductive health attitudes and norms (Simovska & Roin 2018, 236).
and sexual education) (see Stavngaard 2019) and the
teaching guide in the specialist booklet Fælles Mål for In specific terms, this means that for the teaching at the
sundheds- og seksualundervisning og familiekundskab museum pupil involvement is an integral part of its con-
(Common Objectives for Health and Sex Education and tent and structure. From the outset, pupils are invited to
Family Knowledge) (Danish Ministry of Education 2019). join in the teaching process. We tell them that we regard
Thereby, we ensure that the sexual education at KØN – them as experts in the life led by today’s youth. We know
Gender Museum Denmark lives up to today’s pedago- something about cultural history and we can imagine
gical and didactic expectations of sex education. The what it is like to be young today, but they are the exper-
basic principles have their origins in museum pedagogy ts. When pupils contribute their thoughts on a topic du-
and in object didactics – features of teaching at a cul- ring the lesson, the teacher welcomes their contribution
tural history museum. The basic principles thus reflect with genuine interest and curiosity. This involves asking
the vision, spirit and origin of this particular museum. In open questions (i.e., open questions that do not have a
addition to the principles mentioned below, sex educa- given answer, cf., Dysthe 1997), and the pupils’ contribu-
tion at KØN – Gender Museum Denmark is based on the tions are used in further discussions. The cultural history
broad positive concept of health, which presupposes an content of the teaching was selected to suit the life and
understanding that lifestyle and living conditions play a world of the pupils. Thereby, we open the pupils’ eyes to
role in health, regarding health not only as the absence cultural history and inspire them to contribute their own
of disease, but also as the promotion of physical, mental thoughts, attitudes and values.
and social well-being (Ministry of education 2019; Stavn-
gaard 2019). PRINCIPLE NO. 2: Teaching based on dialog, pupil invol-
vement and multivoicedness
The eight basic principles serve as guidelines and are The museum’s teaching is based on a socio-cultural view
used whenever the form and content of the museum’s of learning: Learning is fundamentally social. Learning
sexual education needs to be redeveloped or rethought. occurs in interactions and relationships between people
The principles are described below. situated in a specific context (Dysthe 1997; 2012). In the
context of teaching, this means that learning occurs in
PRINCIPLE NO. 1: Teaching based on a pedagogical the encounter between people and particularly in the
view of young people as competent agents encounter with other people’s perceptions and views.
The pupils are competent, knowledgeable agents. They The latter is referred to as “multivoicedness”: the diverse
are experts in their own lives, and they are co-interpre- voices of the pupils must be included and perceived as a
ters and co-creators of the social and societal norms and core value and a resource, rather than a threat (Dysthe
values of which they are a part, and which they experien- 2012). Based on this view of learning, we created a dia-
ce in their own bodies (Simovska & Roin 2018, 76). Their log-based, participatory program that prioritizes multi-
thoughts, opinions, experiences and attitudes are there- voicedness as an overriding didactic principle.
fore of crucial importance for the teaching.
We believe that the active participation of pupils in the
Regarding the pupils as competent agents is not just teaching is a prerequisite for the ability to develop skills
about making the teaching meaningful for them and that promote health and well-being. If you can create
granting them co-ownership in the teaching. It is equally space for dialogic communication with room for multiple
about the fact that, by participating actively, the pupils voices, this is already a major achievement. Pupils have
can enhance the teaching, elevating it to engage in dialog with each other, with the material and
to a higher level. In a class, there can be with the teacher. This dialog-based teaching paves the

141
big differences in the socio-economic, way for active participation and provides co-ownership
cultural and religious backgrounds of the and commitment.
pupils. Likewise, in our meeting with clas-
In specific terms, this participatory, dialog-based and embedded in a given social, cultural and historical
teaching and its focus on multivoicedness results in se- context (Roin & de la Motte Gundersen 2018, 276). Norm
veral didactic approaches in the museum’s sex educa- criticism views diversity and differences as a strength
tion: The pupils are considered competent agents who and aims to counteract exclusion and discrimination.
contribute a multivoicedness that is regarded as a re- Nowadays, several sexuality education courses, in va-
source (cf. Principle No. 1). They are invited from the start rying degrees, deploy a norm-critical approach to con-
to be co-creators of the teaching. The museum educator tent and method (see, for example, DFPA and LGBT
uses authentic questions, welcoming the contributions Denmark’s teaching programs). Similarly, Fælles Mål for
of the pupils and including them in the teaching. We limit sundheds- og seksualundervisning og familiekundskab
the time spent on one-way communication: for example, (Common Objectives for Health and Sex Education and
where the teacher instructs the class, or where the tea- Family Knowledge) outlines an approach focused on di-
cher speaks to individual pupils, while the rest are passi- versity as a resource:
ve. In the second phase of the teaching, which features
group work consisting of a Star Race in the exhibitions, The subject is based on a diverse approach to gender, body and
the teacher relinquishes control and allows the pupils to sexuality. In this context, a ‘diverse approach’ is rooted in the be-
enter into undisturbed discussion with each other as they lief that people are unique, recognizing the individual differences
encounter cultural history and the museum’s objects. We that characterize people’s ways of expressing their gender, body
have found that this facilitates fruitful conversations bet- and sexuality. A diverse approach is the opposite of a uniform,
ween the pupils. stereotypical approach to gender, body and sexuality. We regard
knowledge of diversity as an essential prerequisite for the pupils’
Participatory, dialog-based teaching mirrors the muse- opportunities to contribute to inclusive, democratic communiti-
um’s vision of creating dialog about the importance of es both at school and in society. (Danish Ministry of Education
gender, creating insight, engaging and boosting our de- 2019).
sire for an equal society.
A norm-critical approach to teaching content is not en-
PRINCIPLE NO. 3: Teaching based on a norm-critical tirely new for KØN – Gender Museum Denmark. Given
approach to the material its origins in the Red Stocking movement and women’s
Norms are unwritten and tacit – but generally recogni- history as its field of activity, the museum, has always in-
zed – expectations and rules that tell individuals what, volved some form of norm criticism. From the outset, it
within a given culture or subculture, they should look like, was the intention of the museum to focus on society’s
and how they should be and behave towards each other. power structures and provide a different perspective on
Norms set the framework for what we perceive as nor- history: an alternative to the traditional patriarchal sto-
mal and desirable within the given culture, and what we rytelling, in which the man is the human being, and the
perceive as abnormal and undesirable. While norms may woman is the gender. Like the Red Stockings, the muse-
serve to maintain social and societal communities, they um wanted to put paid to restrictive gender norms (which
can also restrict, discriminate and oppress (Roin & de la at the time, for historical reasons, mainly meant fighting
Motte Gundersen 2018, 276). A norm-critical approach to for women’s rights and opportunities, but also breaking
teaching is about making visible, and critically taking a with traditional male roles). In line with societal develop-
stand on the norms of which we are all a part. ment, the museum also expanded its field of activity and
focus, so that today it adopts a broader view of gender
Norm criticism originated in Sweden as a reaction against and gender roles.
the pedagogy of tolerance, which until recently was ap-
plied to sex education (Björkman et al. 2019). Tolerance The norm-critical approach is an overriding didactic
pedagogy is about the majority learning to tolerate the principle in sex education at KØN – Gender Museum Den-
minorities who are perceived as deviating from the norm. mark. In concrete terms, this means that the content and
In sex education, this meant, for example, treating LGBT+ subjects of the teaching pave the way for shedding light
as a separate topic, or inviting homosexuals to come and and taking a critical stance on norms of gender, body
tell the class their personal stories – so that the class and sexuality. We introduce pupils to the
would come to understand and tolerate gay people (Roin concepts of norm, taboo and ideal and, in

142
& de la Motte Gundersen 2018, 277). their encounter with cultural history and
cultural historical objects, they become
Norm criticism regards norms as socially constructed familiar with the origin and changeabi-
lity of norms and discover examples of norm-breakers a diet.” In these answers, the pupils focus on the indivi-
in history. The content of the teaching reflects diversity dual level and direct the problem towards themselves.
in relation to the view of gender, body and sexuality, en- We want pupils also to see the structures and norms in
couraging new ways of looking at the subjects. We are society that may make us feel ashamed of our bodies,
also aware of the way we communicate with the pupils, thereby realizing that a given problem (for example, body
and of the language both they and the educator use to shaming) is not merely an individual problem, but can be
describe themselves and each other. viewed, debated and solved on a societal level. In this
context, we aim to make the pupils aware of their role
The norm-critical approach is challenging and requires as agents in society and history-makers – based on the
continuous reflection on our language, the content of choices they make.
the teaching and the educator’s and pupils’ reactions.
Educators are known – quite unconsciously and with no ill Teaching that focuses on developing pupils’ action com-
will – for reiterating restrictive gender, body and sexuality petence reflects the vision and work of the museum. As
norms. For example, we often find that the teacher com- a child of the Red Stocking movement, the museum is
pliments a girl’s slimmer appearance when she puts on fundamentally activist and makes no secret of wanting
the corset (which is one of the cultural history hands-on to change the world. The museum’s teaching must also
objects we use in our sex education), while they laugh at reflect that.
a boy’s hourglass figure if he dares to try the corset. The
educator thereby reiterates the notion of gendered body PRINCIPLE NO. 5: Rights-based teaching
ideals. Human sexual rights (which are based on the UN’s 1948
Declaration of Human Rights) are part of the conditi-
PRINCIPLE NO. 4: Teaching that develops the pupils’ ons of life that affect a society’s health and well-being.
action competence Rights-based sex education concentrates on making pu-
According to Fælles Mål, the purpose of sex education pils aware of their rights in relation to their gender, body
is for pupils to develop skills to promote health and well- and sexuality. The focus is also on a respect for diversity.
being for themselves and others (Ministry of Education This approach enables pupils to promote both their own
2019). This purpose is referred to as “action competen- health and well-being and those of others. Rights-ba-
ce” (Roin & Simovska 2018, 70). If teaching is to develop sed sex education also contributes to pupils’ democratic
pupils’ action competence, it must not only be based on formation and citizenship (Danish Ministry of Education
giving pupils knowledge about consequences and cau- 2019).
ses, but also give pupils knowledge about action strate-
gies and alternatives: in other words, to boost the pupils’ In terms of sex education at the museum, this means that
ability to see new possibilities for action for themselves pupils investigate and discuss gender, sexuality, diversi-
and others and increase their competence and motivati- ty and sexual rights in Denmark. Sexual rights are pla-
on to create change (Stavnsgaard 2018). ced in a cultural-historical context – we have not always
had rights with regard to our gender, body and sexuality.
In terms of the museum’s sex education, this means that, For certain topics, we provide a global perspective (for
together with the educator, the pupils discuss vario- example, abortion rights and homosexuality).
us issues and come up with suggestions for options for Rights-based teaching reflects the subject area and
action that can solve or tackle these issues. Our aim is mission of the museum.
to illustrate that a given problem can be handled on se-
veral levels and in several ways. What can a pupil do by PRINCIPLE NO. 6: Teaching that incorporates cul-
themselves and together with their peers? What can the tural-historical objects
educator/school/parents do? And what can society/po- Its objects are a cultural history museum’s greatest
liticians/legislation do? We find that generally pupils tend strength, and the use of these in teaching is perhaps the
mainly to address the issues on the individual level, rather most visible example of the difference between museum
than on the structural level. Here is one example. When teaching and school teaching. Objects serve as testimo-
asked (on the subject of body shame), ny to our ways of thinking and living, and they make the
“What can be done to make young people people, history or material of the past alive and present

143
feel less ashamed of their bodies?”, many (Fisher & Langlands 2017). Objects add a degree of sen-
pupils answer: “Learn to be satisfied with suousness to teaching that is difficult to recreate when
yourself” or “Eat healthily, exercise, go on teaching in a school context. They are visually and tacti-
lely stimulating, providing a kind of immediate, non-ver- What can a historical perspective do? People act in the
bal encounter with the past. Nor do they require any spe- present based on experiences from the past. History
cial prior knowledge. They can be “read” by everyone in can give us ideas as to where today’s gender, body and
different ways and experienced on a cognitive, physical sexuality norms come from. History is full of accounts
and emotional level (Boritz 2011; 2018). Objects create not only of people who had to conform to the norms of
attention, empathy and imagination, and arouse curiosi- society at the time, but also of people who broke with
ty and wonder. There is something insistent and self-as- them. A historical perspective can provide pupils with
sertive in the way they reach out to us – they want so- insight into, and create an understanding of our current
mething from us. society’s norms, taboos and values (Fisher & Langlands
2017). Thus, cultural history gives pupils an experience of
In sex education, historical objects can open up topics cultural anchoring: the fact they are both products of hi-
that feel specific to the individual, but which at the same story – created by history.
time have a general character. With the objects as a
common reference point, a safe distance can be crea- Society’s gender, body and sexuality norms are often re-
ted, which makes it easier to talk about sensitive topics garded as natural and self-evident. But in the encounter
such as gender, body and sexuality (Fisher & Langlands with cultural history and history’s norm-breakers, pupils
2017). The objects can tell stories about how others have can recognize that this obviousness was not always the
gone through the same thing as you, about the norms of case. On the contrary, attitudes towards, and thoughts
other times and how people broke with them, and about about gender, body and sexuality also changed throug-
those who dared to lead the way. Historical objects rela- hout history (Fisher & Langlands 2017). In this way, hi-
ted to gender, body and sexuality can reveal cultural and story can also show pupils a historical change: the fact
historical diversity and movement, which can provide that they are history makers by virtue of the choices they
young people with a new perspective on today’s views make.
on the same subjects.
In terms of the museum’s sex education, this means that
KØN – Gender Museum Denmark bases its sex educa- the cultural-historical perspective forms the basis of its
tion on the museum’s objects. In the ‘Star Race’ – the content. Each cultural history account that we present to
second stage of the BODY and SEX programs – pupils the pupils has been carefully selected. What do we want
are introduced to a series of items that deal with different the pupils to use the story for? What can it tell us about
themes. In each entry, the theme opens up with an obje- the lives we lived back then and today? How is the story
ct. Each station in the Race contains a number of histo- relevant to the world of the pupils?
rical or contemporary objects that the pupils can touch,
try out or explore. Sex education at KØN – Gender Museum Denmark is that
it works in the field of tension between past, present and
If an object cannot be touched, we use artefacts (i.e., co- future. The past is put into a contemporary context, be-
pies) or demo objects (authentic objects that are not re- coming relevant to the world of the pupils, and together
gistered in the museum’s collection). We do this because we reflect on the future. How do we imagine it will be and
objects have a particularly powerful effect when hand- what do we want from it?
led. Tactile experiences provide a sensory experience
and are embedded as memory in the body. For examp- We are aware that historical accounts of norm-breakers
le, when we run into pupils several years after a teaching must not simply serve as “stories of heroes”. We must all
program at KØN – Gender Museum Denmark, they can be able to or need to see ourselves in them. Breaking with
often still remember the bodily sensation of being laced society’s gender, body and sexuality norms, and the re-
into a 19th-century corset. sponsibility to do so must not rest solely on the individual.
We often find that the pupils are very individualized (see
PRINCIPLE NO. 7: Teaching rooted in cultural history examples of this under Principle No. 4). They turn the is-
In terms of subject, the remit of KØN is the cultural hi- sues inward and take the blame (for not being equal, for
story of the sexes from the Middle Ages to the present. example). When we use the norm-brea-
Cultural history looks at how society, its people and the kers of cultural history to shed light on the

144
relationships between people have changed over time. In struggle for, say, sexual rights, it is there-
our sex education, we use cultural historical content from fore important to shift the focus from the
the 19th century until today. individual level to a structural level, and
then talk to the pupils about the possible communities BODY AND SEX - STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
that can create change. We find that raising the conver- In order to make the above principles more specific, the
sation from an individual to a structural level gives pupils following section describes the structure and content
a new perspective on their lives. of the museum’s two current sex education programs:
BODY and SEX. The BODY program (offered to 7th-10th
PRINCIPLE NO. 8: Teaching in an alternative learning graders) and the SEX program (offered to 8th-10th gra-
environment ders) both last 90 minutes and are based on the same
The museum space is often described as an alterna- overall model, consisting of three parts. We outline the 3
tive learning environment. But what can this space do parts of the KROP program below.
differently from a classroom? The building and exhibi-
tions of the museum are not merely passive backdrops PART 1: Initiation, contextualization and clarification of
for teaching but play a key role in terms of the learning concepts (25-30 minutes)
and experiences the pupils have during their visit to the The educator welcomes the pupils in the museum’s loun-
museum. It is said that the museum space voices pupils ge. The pupils are briefly introduced to the museum and
(Boritz 2018, 197). What “voices” a room is what our sen- to the content and structure of the program. We also
ses perceive in the moment – light, colors, sounds, smells, discuss how cultural history can be used to help us un-
materials and proportions. The encounter with the mu- derstand our present and relate to our future. The educa-
seum building sparks many immediate impressions and tor creates a framework for the dialogical space and the
initiates reflection even before the educator starts tal- participation of the pupils in it, and we discuss the role of
king to the pupils. In this perspective, the museum space the pupils in the teaching and their importance for its qu-
is far more than just words and content – it is a setting for ality and content. The class teacher has previously divi-
the perception and awareness of the pupils. The museum ded the pupils into five groups. We hand out a key hanger
space can have both a positive and a negative effect on with a distinct color to each group, so that the pupils, the
the learning experience. (Boritz 2018, 197-199). teacher and the educator can see which pupils belong to
which group.
In terms of sex education at the museum, this means that
we are aware of both the desired and undesirable effects We then proceed into the exhibit Sexual Education Th-
of the different spaces in the museum on the pupils. The roughout the Times. We introduce the pupils to the room,
exhibits play a key role in the teaching and, together with giving them time to look at the numerous objects. The
the objects, create the setting for the experience and le- doors are closed to the public, so the teaching room be-
arning of the pupils. comes the pupils’ room and the base for sex education.
Together with the pupils, the educator conducts a short
We soon discovered that the large, publicly accessible body-based icebreaker, which addresses the overall to-
exhibition spaces hampered a safe, rewarding discussion pic (body), and helps activate the pupils. The icebreaker
about gender, body and sexuality. Sex education, which also provides the educator with valuable knowledge of
aims to do far more than simply provide information, re- the dynamics of the class. Are the pupils secure or in-
quires a space, in which pupils can meet with each other secure with each other, and do they or do they not have
and with the teacher without disturbances and common the desire and courage to participate?
“rules”. At the same time, we did not want to reprodu-
ce a traditional classroom that the pupils already know. Afterwards, everyone (including the class teacher) sits in
Accordingly, we converted one of the exhibition rooms a circle in the room. For this purpose, we use stools that
into an exhibit and learning environment, which we use can easily be stacked so that the floor can become free
as a base for the teaching base and which is closed to again. Through dialog and based on authentic questions,
the public when the pupils are in class. This became the pupils address the concepts of norm, taboo and ideal. At
Sexual Education Throughout the Times exhibit, which the end of Part 1, we introduce the pupils to Part 2 of the
has dual function: on one hand, kindling reflection on the program – the ‘Star Race’. We stipulate the rules and ob-
importance of sex education in a contemporary and hi- jectives of the game. We also introduce the pupils to the
storical context for our adult museum vi- exhibits they will be using in the Star Race.
sitors; on the other, serving as a teaching

145
space for our pupils. In the first and last PART 2: Group work in the exhibits (40-45 minutes)
stages of the program, we use the room In the Part 2, the groups go on a Star Race featuring
and close the doors. items among the museum’s exhibits. In the Run, at the
Fra forløbet KROP, hvor eleverne
blandt andet reflekterer over historien
og vor tids kropsnormer
base, each team has its own round board – a bit like a to the base (The Sexual Education Through the Times
Trivial Pursuit board. Every time the pupils complete a room), where the pupils stand in groups at their station.
particular station, the educator hands them a “wedge of Each group now selects the item they think was the most
pie”, which they can hang on their board. interesting. On the back of the piece that belongs to the
item, there is an action competence-based question that
The stations direct the pupils to selected objects in the the pupils have to address. They are asked to come up
museum’s exhibits. The objects create the framework for with their take on what is needed to change the norms,
the pupils’ discussions about the subject. The content is taboos and ideals for the body that may restrict us (cf.,
based on the criteria shown in the illustration on the fol- Principle No. 4 in the section on basic pedagogical and
lowing page. didactic principles). The educator moves from group to
group, motivating, challenging and helping them. Finally,
The stations in BODY address the following topics: we have a short joint summary.
• Body ideals
• Body norms for masculinity and femininity THE CHALLENGES OF SEX EDUCATION IN A CULTURAL
• The tabooing of genitals HISTORY MUSEUM
• Gender and clothing norms In what follows, we look at our concerns regarding some
• Transgenderism of the conditions that the above text either did not de-
• Hair and hair removal norms scribe or only slightly touched upon. These concerns are
• Skin norms based on our experience of sex education in a museum
• Nakedness and shyness space and may serve as a series of reflection points, to
• The tabooing of bodily fluids which cultural institutions can relate, if developing a sex
• Body activism education program.
• The body in the public space and on social me-
dia How much should pupils be allowed to take over in the
• The pornographic body exhibits?
Sex education that focuses on dialog, mutivoicedness
The stations in SEX address the following topics: and pupil participation contains a certain degree of cha-
• Sexual equality os and noise when pupils’ discussion gets going. The
• Boundaries objects and subjects often lead to loud conversations
• Masturbation between the pupils, who giggle, laugh and exclaim loud-
• Contraception ly – even in the public exhibition spaces. This can create
• First sexual experiences dilemmas in a museum. To what extent are the pupils and
• Porn other guests allowed to take over and disturb the exhibi-
• Sexual orientations tion spaces?
• Seksual practices
• Digital sexual assault How to illustrate norms without reiterating norms and
• Abortion rights creating stereotypes?
• Sexual assault Pupils arrive with diverse attitudes, values and experi-
ences, and we cannot expect them to experience gen-
Pupils choose stations based on their interest. Each group der, body and sexuality norms in the same way or in the
usually manages 3-4 stations. The educator stands in a same way as us. We do not know the pupils in advance.
central place in the exhibit and distributes the hands-on This creates a number of dilemmas and requires careful
objects that the pupils need to use along the way, also consideration in terms of what cultural history can and
motivating and helping the pupils whenever necessary. should be used for. How to discuss and introduce cultural
history’s gender, body and sexuality norms without reite-
PART 3: rating them?
Action competence-based questions (20 minutes)
In the final part of the process, we return

147
Star race stations

Krop

Based on a historic object in the exhibition

Contains a tounching/doing exercise

Has at least one activist or action-oriented question

Rrepresents minority groups

Challanges existing bodily norms without simply rearticulating other,

similar restrictive norms

Breaks with and clarifies norms and taboos without offending the
pupils

Graphics: Signe Uldbjerg Mortensen,

© KØN – Gender Museum Denmark.
What is the role of the teacher, and how do we include all pupils in a publicly accessible museum space with a
them in the teaching process? museum educator whom the pupils do not know? What
The teacher’s approach to museum teaching is very im- framework can you offer the pupils, and how does the
portant vis-à-vis the benefits and motivation of the pu- exhibition space affect them – for better or for worse?
pils. By participating, the teacher also has the opportunity And how do you create a safe space in a class where the
to create a bridge between the teaching that took pla- pupils do not feel very secure with each other?
ce before the museum program, the museum teaching
itself and the teaching that will take place afterwards. How much can we actually achieve when we only have
Thereby, the pupils experience the museum teaching in a the pupils for 90 minutes?
larger, non-fragmented context, which makes an impact Pupil participation and dialog-based activities take time.
on their engagement and response to the material. So do cognitive processes, so it would be wonderful if a
class visited us several times. There are also some clas-
Although the museum’s educator is responsible for sexu- ses that do, but for the most part we only have them for
al education at KØN – Gender Museum Denmark, the the 90-minute duration of the class. Although we have
class teacher has an active role throughout the process. high hopes about what the teaching can achieve, we
The educator constantly informs the teacher of their role have to ask ourselves: How much can we achieve when
and function. Nevertheless, we often find that the tea- we only have the pupils for a very short time? We do not
cher opts out – for example, by visiting the museum’s exactly change the pupils’ world, but we hope we can
exhibits while the pupils are engaged in group work, or by give them a number of distinctive impressions and spark
assuming the role of passive spectator while the muse- open discussion about, and reflection on gender, body
um educator talks to the pupils. How do you ensure that and sexuality, which will extend beyond the museum visit.
the teacher is included in the teaching process from start This also includes everyday activism and the museum’s
to finish? desire to change and create new understanding.

How to train a museum educator? THE POTENTIAL OF MUSEUMS IN A TIME OF CHANGE

Norm-critical, dialogic and pupil-centered sex education Contemporary studies on young people’s perceptions
places high demands on the skills of a museum educa- of gender, body and sexuality show that there is still a
tor. In addition to comprehensive professional knowled- long way to go in terms of sexual health and well-being.
ge of cultural-historical and contemporary perspectives For example, in a study carried out by VIVE (The Danish
on gender, body and sexuality, the museum educator Center for Social Science Research) 64% of young pe-
must have knowledge of the pedagogy, didactics and ople state that they are unhappy with their bodies (Dahl
methodology of sex education. Sex education is a com- et al. 2018). This study also points out that young peop-
plex field to teach, and this means the museum educa- le are subject to different norms vis-à-vis how they can
tor must be thoroughly trained. How to equip a museum and should use their bodies and sexuality (both online
educator to tackle sex education, and how to ensure the and offline) depending on their gender. In other words,
quality of that education? young people find that there are more restrictive norms
regarding how girls can show off their bodies and how
Is it possible to create a safe space within a museum many people they can have sex with than there are for
space? boys (ibid). At the same time, a brand-new report shows
Gender, body and sexuality are difficult and sensitive that almost four out of ten LGBT+ pupils do not suc-
topics, and sex education is by nature unsafe to partici- ceed in elementary school (Juhl 2021). Likewise, almost
pate in. The didactics of sex education therefore speak on a daily basis, the media publish stories about digital
of “the safe space”, which is all about creating a safe or sexual harassment of young people (see e.g., Birk 2021),
safer learning space for the pupils (cf., Stavngaard 2019). about frustrated teachers who do not feel equipped to
It is the educator’s task to create such a learning spa- handle sex education (see e.g., Sørensen 2019) or about
ce. This can be done, for example, by ensuring that the high school pupils who go on strike to spotlight the need
pupils know what is going to happen, and together esta- for sex education in youth education programs (see e.g.,
blishing a number of rules that govern the Kudsk 2021). All of this proves that young people today
way we talk to each other. We also do this really need topics within the fields of gender, body and

149
in our sex education programs at KØN – sexuality to be articulated.
Gender Museum Denmark. But is it ac-
tually possible to create a safe space for
Sex education is more important than ever before and
should be regarded as one of the most important forma-
tive subjects in school. Even in a country like Denmark,
which is historically a first mover when it comes to the
right to abortion, women’s lib and sexual liberation, and
which foreign countries often perceive as an equal and
open-minded country, the studies make it crystal clear.
We need to improve the standard of sex education in
elementary and secondary schools and youth education
programs. Currently, the quality and scope of sex educa-
tion is attracting great political attention in Denmark, and
it will be interesting to see what the future brings.

In this context, museums can play a major role. With its

subject area, exhibition space and professional experti-
se, KØN – Gender Museum Denmark has great potential
in terms of addressing, qualifying and mobilizing acti-
on with regard to societal issues related to gender and
equality (Birch 2019), thereby contributing to the sexu-
al health and well-being of children and young people.
Other museums could benefit from taking a leaf out of
the same book.

The museum also has a role in an international perspec-

tive. Like the sexual rights of women and LGBT+ people,
in many countries sex education is under increased pres-
sure. In this context KØN – Gender Museum Denmark and
other Danish museums can serve as models for foreign
museums, because they dare to use their subject area to
support efforts for better sex education in their country.

Hereby, KØN – Gender Museum Denmark helps to achie-

ve Global Goals 4 (Quality Education) and 5 (Gender
Equality) and to create social change that can make an
enduring mark on society.
verdensmål 4 (kvalitetsuddannelse for alle) og 5 (ligestil-
ling mellem kønnene) og er således med til at skabe en
social forandring, som kan sætte et aftryk i samfundet.

150
151
 ' –
They See Us Rollin’
Mobile Museum from
Vision to Reality

SARAH BRADLEY
INTRODUCTION
Sarah Bradley, former curator, KØN – Gender Museum
Museums are dynamic. Though their most important task
Denmark
is to be relevant today, they may also be ahead of their
time, raising the bar for the future and using the past as
leverage. In 2014, the Women’s Museum (now KØN – Gen-
der Museum Denmark) was ready to take a giant leap. We
hired audience developers and gave the museum a new
visual identity. In 2016, something groundbreaking hap-
pened. The remit of the museum (the “constitution” of a
state-recognized museum) was expanded from the hi-
story of women to the history of genders. This expansion
was reflected in the exhibit Gender Blender in 2017 – the
very year that #MeToo reared its head and hit the United
States like a sledgehammer.

In 2017, according to the 2016 World Economic Forum

Gender Gap Index, the most gender equal country in the
world was Iceland, followed by Finland, Norway, Sweden
and Rwanda. Denmark, on the other hand, ranked 19th
(in 2021, 29th) (Schwab, Klaus et al. 2021). In tandem with
the wave, popularly referred to today as “fourth-wave
feminism”, that would restore gender and equality as a
key topic in public debate, KØN – Gender Museum Den-
mark upgraded its public engagement and interpretation
activities, based on a vision of being “the leading creator
of dialog on the importance of gender in society… past,
present and future.” Gender and gender equality must
remain on the agenda for a new generation – and not just
within a museum building.

152
THE VISION: A MUSEUM SATELLITE FOR
DIALOG ABOUT GENDER
In 2018, the Danish Agency for Culture
and Palaces defined non-museum users as persons “who to teach people about gender, gender equality and the
have not visited a museum in the last two years or more.” cultural history of the sexes, as an extension of the mu-
39% of the population were non-users: “…predominantly seum’s remit and public engagement activities, which
(…) people with a short educational background.” (Jessen were undergoing rapid development in late 2017, when
2018). Meeting non-museum users outside the museum we devised the mobile museum. The objective of a pop-
was paramount when devising KØN – Gender Museum up museum was also to increase the museum’s visibility
Denmark’s mobile, pop-up museum that same year. As and whet the appetite of new audiences for visiting the
a state-recognized museum and public service agen- museum. At the same time, though, the mobile museum
cy, KØN – Gender Museum Denmark has a wide-ranging should also work as a museum experience in itself, and
societal obligation. The museum must always strive to increase the range of the museum, meeting people on
be relevant to as many people in Denmark as possible, their own territory, with an eye to reaching new audien-
making its knowledge available and facilitating access to ces, expanding the opportunity for dialog and making
new knowledge. the gender debate relevant in new contexts.

In the years leading up to the 2018 pop-up project, the Designing contextual museum content was an important
museum had already dipped its toe in the outreach wa- priority. For example, when the museum popped up in an
ter. In 2016, the museum featured an installation at the event context, it needed to tap into the other interests
North Side Festival in Aarhus. In 2017, the museum set of that specific audience. Why had they gathered for this
up an exhibition section at the Classic Car Race motor particular event, and what would make the gender issue
event in the Memorial Park and at the Pride Parade on particularly interesting to them? So, for example, when
the Officerspladsen square in Aarhus. The museum also the museum popped up at the Aarhus Food Festival, it
created a laundry workshop – “vask som i gamle dage” featured the theme of “Food and Gender”, posing ques-
(laundry in the olden days) – at DOKK1 – Aaarhus’s Cen- tions such: Is the way to a man’s heart really through his
tral Library and multimedia center. The audience groups stomach? And should food preferably taste just like the
the museum encountered at the four different events food mum used to make? The conceptually adapted
varied immensely, and the experiences formed an inte- content should make it harder for the individual to say:
resting basis for the future. “Gender’s all very well, but what does it have to do with
me?” Instead, it should provide a surprising and curious
Just as out-of-house exhibitions had helped shape the take on a current field of interest that might lead visitors
museum and challenge the museum format when the to further reflect on the topic of gender and equality.
Women’s Museum was founded in 1982, there was now
a strong desire to create a more permanent mobile plat- PROCESS AND PRACTICE: THE NEED FOR WHEELS
form for meeting non-museum users and reconnecting The vision was crystal clear. KØN - Gender Museum
with that part of the museum’s historical roots. Once Denmark wanted a mobile, pop-up museum to present
again, the project made interaction with audiences out- the cultural history of the sexes. The creative challenge
side the museum a priority. was then: How? Looking at the Danish museum lands-
cape in 2017 revealed that a small handful of museums
The idea was a mobile pop-up platform: a museum ta- at this time had toyed with the same idea. However, most
ster and dialog satellite to spotlight the cultural history of the pop-up museums that the other museums at
of genders in the city’s streets. The platform could kind- the time had set up (e.g., Museum Ovartaci’s “Ovartaci
le thoughts and prompt audiences to ask inspiring and Fields”, the Museum of Copenhagen’s “Fortiden Frem-
challenging questions. What does it say about us when kaldt” (Evoking the Past) and Randers Museum’s “Kunst
we refer to “female cunning” and “masculine courage”? i kassen” (Art in the Box)) were large-scale initiatives and
Or cissies and tomboys? The idea of a new pop-up mu- accordingly limited in terms of mobility: for example, pla-
seum was to move the museum out of the building and ced in containers that provided space outside the mu-
get a real sense of the gender debate – if not spark it. seum, but were only mobile with the use of a crane and
heavy vehicles.
The multi-pronged description of the ob-
jective of the project hinged on several In the process, and with an ever-increasing desire for a

153
potentially positive effects. high degree of mobility and flexibility, it gradually beca-
me clear: the museum needed wheels. But what form
The main goal of a pop-up museum was should they take? A trailer, a caravan, a cargo bike, a
scooter van or something completely different? These external partners is invaluable: being curious and open to
considerations led to more conceptual and theoretical asking for advice, and listening to accounts of other pe-
questions. What can a museum be? How small can a mu- ople’s processes. Cultural institutions can collaborate to
seum be? What actually is a museum? These, and many help make each other better. That was exactly what Aar-
more questions had been dealt with elsewhere on many hus Libraries and the Mobile Library team did when our
occasions before (ICOM 2007). During the development museum approached them. They opened up, generous-
phase, the new pop-up format provided us with an op- ly invited us in, and even offered driving lessons in their
portunity to revisit fundamental questions about muse- scooter van. Their generosity was exemplary. After our
um practice: meta-questions that are fruitful for an insti- driving lessons, there was no doubt. A Piaggio Ape would
tution to ask at any time, if they wish to develop. form the physical framework for the pop-up project and
give the project its wheels.
The museum ended up outlining three principles for the
upcoming platform: Having decided on the platform, the museum was now
ready to proceed with the content of its public engage-
• The pop-up museum had to be a changeable ment and interpretation initiatives. How could the pop-
platform that would enable us to design and up museum present the themes of gender and gender
completely reshape content according to the equality and make them relevant, fascinating and refle-
exhibition context, thereby guaranteeing a high ctive, with a modest exhibition space of just 2 m3? The
degree of relevance. museum laid down three principles for exhibitions and
public engagement/interpretation content in the pop-up
• The pop-up museum should have a high degree museum:
of mobility – to move around freely in urban spa-
ces and small streets, away from the physical • Relevant cultural-historical objects should al-
building of the museum and its central location ways be integrated as part of any exhibition
in the city center. The pop-up museum should concept, in order to anchor the public engage-
also be flexible enough to scale the format up ment/interpretation in history, which should in
and down to suit the location and the space turn be used to spark reflection on the present
day.
• The design of the pop-up museum needed to
facilitate the use of historical objects from the • Activities and interaction should always be in-
museum’s collection. This specifically meant cluded, inviting the audience not merely to “vi-
an integrated glass-covered display case that sit a museum”, but to “touch/make a museum”,
could safeguard the objects. Given that colle- kindling a new kind of museum experience and
cting and objects are the essence of the muse- approach to knowledge.
um’s work, it was important for the museum to
qualify the pop-up museum as a “real” museum • The foundation of the pop-up museum should
by being able to include items from the collecti- be the creation of new knowledge and reflecti-
on. on among audiences. While the format should
provide an entertaining experience, it should
By 2017, the small Italian, Piaggio Ape scooter van had also generate new knowledge about gender
become a familiar sight in major Danish cities, fitted out and equality for our visitors. Entertainment and
as sales vehicles serving takeaway coffee in the stre- knowledge should go hand in hand.
et. The format had a visual and practical appeal for the
pop-up project. If it was possible to turn the enclosed Work then started on “taking the museum out of the
truck bed of a scooter van into a coffee bar, why would it museum’, condensing a powerful museum concentrate
not also be possible to turn it into a museum? The same – the tiny part of the museum we could take out into pub-
idea had cropped up elsewhere in Aarhus’s cultural life, lic spaces – that would still be recognized as, and refer
and a few months before our pop-up museum, Aarhus to KØN - Gender Museum Denmark and
Municipality Libraries had launched their Mobile Library – its exhibitions, atmosphere, sensory per-

154
a mini travelling library in a Piaggio Ape van. ception, tone of voice, visual identity, etc.
When devising its exhibition concepts, the
In any development work, exchanging experience with museum was methodologically inspired
The Pop-up museum at Pride 2018
by the processes of design thinking, which is also well In specific terms, the pop-up museum consisted of a
described by other museum professionals (Silvers 2014). converted motorized scooter van. On the truck bed,
which had been adapted so that one side could be ope-
In this context, the creative development process takes ned, we had built a white wooden interior – a white cube
place continuously in interaction with, and with the ob- insert with fold-out solutions, shelves, walls and boxes.
servation of users. A good idea quickly leads to a mock- A large, glass-covered display case for objects could
up – a trial balloon – put to the test in dialog with users be pulled out, and a screen for film and digital content
at an early stage in the process. The encounter between could be folded out from the side. On the truck bed, we
fledgling editions of the mobile museum and the audi- could also transport separate exhibition walls, public en-
ence formed the basis for further development. Public gagement/interpretation posters, roll-ups, sandwich bo-
engagement/interpretation texts were rewritten, activi- ards etc., so we could expand an exhibition beyond the
ties adapted and along the way, certain elements were public engagement/interpretation options provided by
removed completely. The pop-up museum was usually the space of the vehicle itself. The set-up was designed
staffed with a museum educator, who not only observed to be scalable. The mobile museum could be expanded
the audience’s interaction with the museum van from a or minimized. We could transport as much or as little as
distance, but also entered into dialog with the audience we needed. It could be adapted to suit the physical, si-
about their experience. At the same time, though, the te-specific space.
museum van could also serve as an installation, parked
unstaffed in indoor locations such as libraries. The phy- From the start, the exhibition concept was an extract of
sical presence provided an invaluable feedback loop for our major Gender Blender exhibition for use in more con-
further development. text-neutral locations such as town squares, malls etc.
The exhibition concept thus emulated the kind of per-
As a concept, the pop-up museum needed to be suffi- manent basic exhibition featured in museums in general.
ciently flexible to facilitate the ad hoc planning that was In addition, we constantly devised new exhibition content
necessary, if we were to respond to current public deba- as we entered into new agreements for participation in
te on the subject of gender and ongoing requests from events and visits to different partners – providing, as it
external stakeholders for collaboration and invitations were, ongoing special exhibitions.
to participate in events. Our ambition to vary and adapt
exhibition concepts meant that we would need to produ- The pop-up museum rolled out for the first time on a vi-
ce all content in house. It became an ongoing task and sit to the Bruuns Galleri shopping mall (where we could
creative challenge to get a lot out of a little, and a little to simply transport it up on the goods elevator!). Over the
look at out of a lot. The project was rooted in the basic next few days, visitors could pop by and get answers to
conviction that even more mini, analog formats with the various questions. Does your shampoo have a gender?
right idea and concept could have a wow effect and pro- What does “queer” mean? How far has gender equality
vide the Eureka moments that are the mainstay of any come? What does being born a girl, boy – or something
meaningful museum experience. The personal encoun- else – mean? They could see cultural history objects rela-
ter and discussion should also complement and enhance ted to gender and body (and we could tell them the story
the public engagement/interpretation. In an increasingly behind them), read the latest gender news from the daily
professionalized museum world, many of today’s muse- press in billboard format, use a crank handle to roll th-
ums present advanced technological and spatial total rough a historical timeline of events in gender cultural hi-
experiences. As a result, audiences expect a lot from a story, win a gender quiz or play the Gender Blender board
museum visit. So, it was a challenge to consider whether, game specially devised for the pop-up museum. They
with its mainly analog devices and micro aesthetic, our could sketch their gender, get a gender tattoo, give their
mobile museum could actually capture visitors’ interest. opinion on current political gender debates by throwing
a ball into the appropriate plastic pipe, try on a 19th cen-
THE FINAL RESULT. 3, 2, 1… HERE WE COME! tury corset – you name it. For anyone who wished to find
On April 20, 2018, the museum issued a press release tit- out more about gender, they could take home postcards
led They see us rollin’. About two weeks later, the then listing the top five TED talks, books and
Deputy Mayor of Aarhus, Camilla Fabricius, cut the red podcasts.

156
ribbon around the mobile museum in Mathilde Fibigers
Have behind the museum building. The pop-up museum When we attended the week-long Aar-
was now a reality and ready to roll out into urban life. hus Children’s Theatre Festival, the pop-
up museum was upscaled and completely different. The CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
museum van was located outdoors and there was a room Experience from the project reveals that its high degree
for another exhibit. Visitors could discover a miniature of interaction enabled the mobile museum to engage
world, with the home as a backdrop for everyday scenes, audiences outside the museum for spontaneous dialog
while the pop-up exhibit presented dollhouses from an and museum use. The project has not formally identi-
entire century. The oldest dollhouse dates back to 1890. fied how many visitors to the pop-up museum could be
An extra layer of public engagement/interpretation dealt defined as non- museum users. So, we do not know how
with gendered toys, the cultural-historical origin of the many visitors to the pop-up museum have also visited
dollhouse and its socializing effect, channeling the inte- KØN - Gender Museum Denmark. However, the nume-
rest of girls in the direction of home and interior design. rous one-to-one interactions between visitors and mu-
seum educators led to informal, conversation-based
Conversely, for the student Regatta in Aarhus University encounters, which indicate that the museum was defini-
Park, the museum had to downsize so much that the for- tely in touch with new target groups and expanded their
mat again changed shape. There was no museum van, knowledge and awareness of the museum. The project
and visitors were treated to a pop-up activity. Content also had other positive effects. The dynamic nature of
and interactions were taken out of the museum van and the pop-up museum boosted our brand in general, crea-
transported on a cargo bike, so the museum educators ted physical visibility in the city, generated content for
could cycle slowly through the crowd. We devised a uni- the museum’s online platforms, formed new collabora-
versity-based gender quiz, and the museum educators tions with other cultural stakeholders and, most impor-
rewarded any contestants who wanted them with gender tantly, kindled meaningful conversations for reflection on
tattoos. These temporary tattoos, specially produced for the topic of gender in the encounter between museum
the pop-up museum, provided a tremendous opportuni- users and educators.
ty to get close to the audience. The intimacy that arose,
as the educator pressed the transfer and cloth against
the guest’s skin and waited for it to take, led to further
questions and answers about gender and equality, usu-
ally based on the quiz, often leaving visitors astonished.

From the outset, the goal of the mobile museum proje-

ct was to pop up in every conceivable and unimaginable
place. Variety of location and target groups was a sub-
sidiary goal in itself. We wanted the pop-up museum to
feature an element of surprise that would pique people’s
curiosity – at events, street parties and festivals, in libra-
ries, large firms, markets, and in urban spaces both cen-
tral and tucked away etc.

In its first season from April to October 2018, the pop-up

museum managed to visit 17 different locations, some-
times for single days, sometimes for several weeks at a
time, attracting around 4,500 visitors. From places such
as the Bruuns Galleri shopping mall, the Dome of Visions
incubator, the DOKK1 central library, other cultural attra-
ctions such as the Ovartaci Museum and the Tivoli Frihe-
den amusement park to urban spaces such as Kloster-
torv, Bispetorv, Godsbanen and events such as 1 May, the
Regatta, Ladywalk, Pride Parade, the North Side Festival,
Aarhus Volume Street Party, the Headroom Festival and
Aarhus Children’s Theatre Festival.

157
The Pup-up exhibit ati Bruuns galleri,
where guests could vote on political
topics, 2018
159
Everyday Life, Nuances and
Representation An Exhibit
About and By Muslim Women in
Denmark

LOUISE ROGNLIEN
INTRODUCTION
PhD student at the Department of Philosophy and Hi-
Muslim Women – Everyday Life, Nuances and Represen-
story of Ideas at Aarhus University
tation was all about being a Muslim woman in Denmark
today. The objective was to present a genuine, nuanced
and diverse narrative about the everyday life of Muslim
women, authentically and informatively.35 I coordinated
the exhibit in collaboration with a working group of five
Muslim women who served as curators of the exhibit,
as part of the research and public engagement project
Gender Blender and my PhD project.36 In this text, I will
address both the work that went into the exhibit and the
final result as part of contemporary museal and aca-
demic trends and an expression of a tendency among
young Muslim women to seek nuanced self-representa-
tion.37

The basis of the project was an investigation of the

self-representation of Muslim women, both as a met-
hodological study of the negotiation process in the
co-creation of knowledge production, and as a political
compensation for the stereotypical objectifications and
simplifications that Muslim women experience in con-
temporary, public discourse (see e.g., Cooke 2007; Farris
2017; Hussein 2019; Scott 2007). I view this as part of a
growing trend, in which minority women and Muslim wo-
men are speaking out in an attempt to correct, expand
and nuance the simplistic representation that “sticks” to
their bodies (see e.g., Cooke 2007; Abu-Lughod 2013;
Jamil 2019).38

160
The exhibit and the project expanded on
a growing trend within the research world,
where terms such as “practice”, “action”
and “artistic” have become key methodological bases generation. It embraced diversity and ambiguity, and
(Nelson 2013): for example, in the context of museums the numerous individual elements all underscored the
and work on exhibits, in which the practices, methods and overall themes.
knowledge of a museum become an integral part of the
research process (Bjerregaard 2019). This was also one MUSEAL TRENDS AND THE ISSUE OF CO-CREATION
of the primary objectives of the Gender Blender project. Det var vigtigt for mig som projektkoordinator og for To
me as project coordinator and to the women in the wor-
THE GOALS AND CONTENT OF THE EXHIBIT king group, it was important that they should be the ac-
From the outset of the process, the working group had tual curators of the exhibit, and thereby responsible for
several themes and wishes, principally related to their designing and selecting its overall framework, the indi-
desire to present “a totally normal everyday life”. The idea vidual sections and the aesthetic look of the selected
was that everyday life should include the real nuances material. The key elements of the work on the exhibit
and internal differences among Muslim women, which – co-creation and democratization of knowledge – are
could thus nuance the notion of “the Muslim woman”, part of a number of trends within today’s museum wor-
and the fact that intimate, small and mundane aspects ld, which over the last few years have paved the way for
of life could help demystify and provide insight into their greater inclusion in museums, examining the limitations
lives, as a basis for knowledge sharing and bridge buil- and exclusionary framework of museums with a more
ding, all with the purpose of reaching “majority Denmark’ critical eye.
and providing representative opportunities for minorities
to view themselves. During the summer of 2019, in collaboration with the
KØN – Gender Museum Denmark, I posted an an-
On one hand, the working group wanted the exhibit to nouncement, seeking volunteer curators. The sole re-
speak to other young Muslim girls, by selecting and fra- quirement was that they should be able to define them-
ming things they had missed when younger – particular- selves as “young Muslim women”. The announcement
ly the lack of mirroring opportunities in culture. On the was shared on the museum’s website and on social
other hand, they wanted to speak to “majority Denmark”, media, and I quickly received a number of declarati-
demystifying, complicating and nuancing established ons, support emails and applications from interested
simplified notions, by sharing knowledge in an easy, ac- women. The five women I was lucky enough to include
cessible format. With this twofold purpose and target in the working group – Ella, Shaymaa, Sahar, Fareshta
group in mind, three terms – everyday life, nuances and and Shabnam – were all very different, acute and crea-
representation – played a key role when selecting the tive, and totally aware of the potential pluses and pit-
elements and materials for the exhibit. All the curators falls of the exhibit. I discovered that in many ways they
wanted to include as many voices as possible, focus on had been preparing for a long time – long before I even
intimate and interpersonal aspects, reiterate stereotypes posted the announcement. At the first meeting, one of
humorously and ironically, and to provide information the women said: “Muslims become aware very early on
and maybe indicate where one could learn more about that they are Muslims [in Denmark]”, expressing how
the different themes. Muslims today are compelled at an early stage to be
aware of their identity and position in society. This un-
The exhibit featured objects that in different ways repre- derpinned the justifiably concurring self-awareness of
sented the everyday life of the women. Women from the the working group, their analytical reading of their own
working group were present to answer some of the ques- situation, and thereby also their responsibility vis-à-vis
tions Muslim woman in Denmark are frequently asked. their work. You can read more about the experience of
Visitors could explore virtual knowledge production in the women in the working group in The Museum Is One
a selection of Instagram profiles and Snapchats that Who Remembers in Section 2 of this book.
were sent to us. Visitors could read poems, and letters
written to their younger selves sent in by Muslim women During the autumn of 2019, the working group met about
from across Denmark, read relevant literature, tried on every other week, usually at the museum, to discuss all
a scarf or tried their hand at a quiz. The sorts of issues, form and content etc. The exhibit ope-
final exhibit was light, accessible and invi- ned on 18 December that same year and was actual-

161
ting, aimed at attracting a wide audience, ly supposed to tour Aarhus during 2020 – visiting high
though very much targeted at a younger schools, libraries, galleries and festivals. But this was
limited by the COVID-19 pandemic and the partial lock-
Udstillingsåbning, 2019
down of society. However, in the autumn of 2020, parts of working group had would be covered, and that there were
the exhibit were presented at Gellerup Library. food and certain benefits for them. Despite this real and
positional bias, I had no creative control over the process
What I had been looking for in my post was “curators” and tried my best to accommodate the ideas, wishes and
to work on an exhibit, and several of the women in the demands of the curators. The exhibit should therefore be
working group emphasized that it was this element of viewed as a result of the ideas of the curators.
autonomous management that appealed to them. From
the outset, they agreed that they did not want the exhi- Several researchers associate these recent trends in cri-
bit to be about them as private individuals. They did not tical museology with the reality of contemporary hetero-
want to come across as “representative role models” or geneous nations with a diverse population group, where
“institutional tokens” of established notions. They wan- a comprehensive, nuanced representation has become
ted to be responsible knowledge producers. As Sherry even more immediate for cultural institutions that wish
Arnstein expressed it in her term “ladder of participation” to be relevant to the entire population, thus including
(Arnstein 1969, 216–224), these nuances are key to the more voices, stories and worlds of experience (Johans-
question of what real democratic participation is actu- son & Bevelander 2018; Damsholt 2012, 33-46). This is
ally like. She elucidated how, for example, “consultation” also linked to a growing interest in, and recognition of, the
ended in a form of “tokenism” that was not really about historical role of museums in the consolidation of nati-
democratization and power distribution. By extension, onal narratives, which excluded and exoticized certain
the members of the working group were positioned and sections of a population (McLean 1998, 244-252).The
understood as “partners” in the preparation of the exhi- pre-history of museums is rooted in the so-called “cabi-
bit: for example, by stressing their title – “curators”. nets of curiosities” or “wunderkammer”: private, family-
or institutionally-owned collections, which contained,
In recent times, “curating” has been recognized as an for example, objects from European grand tours (Herle,
active, creative and political position, in which a cura- 2016; Bell 2017, 241-259). The process of collecting was
tor is increasingly viewed as a creative, controlling sub- inextricably linked to the self-declared right to collect
ject in the design – referred to as “the curatorial turn” and classify and, when public museums were created
(O’Neill 2012). This emphatic professionalization of the in the 18th century, these colonial forms of knowledge
role of curator helped clarify the women’s decision-ma- became consolidated (Bennett 1995).
king rights vis-à-vis the exhibit, shifting the focus away
from the members of the working group as individuals, The institutional setting for the Muslim Women exhibit
and underlining the fact that they were producing subje- was KØN - Gender Museum Denmark. As illustrated th-
cts. As mentioned, this can be read in the light of several roughout this book, from its inception the museum was
growing trends in the museum world and critical museo- all about criticizing norms and aimed to create space for
logy (Shelton 2013, 7), where “co-creation”, active parti- unheard, offbeat and marginalized people and issues. In
cipation and the democratization of knowledge produc- many ways, the original justification and foundation of
tion and public engagement initiatives are paramount to KØN was to correct the exclusionary flip side of museums
the work of a museum (see, e.g., Sandvik 2011; Carpentier as institutions (Hooper-Greenhill 1992; McLean 1998,
2011). 244-252), by working for the recognition of the relevance
and history of women and women’s lives. On that basis,
However, these recent trends also raise questions about KØN - Gender Museum Denmark was aware at an early
the persistence and real influence of hierarchies (cf., stage of mechanisms of oppression other than gender,
Sherry Arnstein). As initiator and coordinator of the pro- and included a diversity of women’s voices and stories.
ject, I was inevitably part of the process. I selected the Relevant to the story, of which the Muslim Women exhi-
curators, attended all meetings and was responsible for bit was a chapter, are: Bir Bakis – An Exhibit About and
the practical organization as a mediator between the By Turkish Women (1986), The Veil – Middle-Eastern
working group and the museum. As a PhD student, I Women’s Clothes (1996), Born in Europe (2003-2004)
was also paid during the process, while the members of and The Journey to Denmark (2008-9). The first, Bir Ba-
the working group were volunteers. This kis resulted from an initiative on the part of some Da-
disparity cannot be ignored, but it was a nish-Turkish women, just four years after the foundation

163
condition I was not in a position to chal- of the museum association and can best be described
lenge at the time. In financial terms, it was as a modern “take-over”, with the Danish-Turkish women
important to me that any expenses the occupying the museum’s rooms to paint a picture of their
everyday lives. The recognition of active participation objects, which could create intimacy, curiosity, under-
and co-creation can thus be said to have been part of standing and intriguing conversations around the display
the museum’s identity from the very beginning. case.

The material framework for the Muslim Women exhi- A display case or archive elevates a “traditional museum
bit was KØN’s mobile, pop-up exhibit format – a small object” from a “thing” into a particularly valuable, repre-
tuk-tuk designed by the curator Sara Bradley to crea- sentative, exotic or prehistoric “object”, regardless of its
te a mobile museum on wheels. This means the exhibit original purpose or value. This process and the arbitrari-
format can be transported around and quickly unpacked ness associated with it become explicitly and potential-
and repacked, so the museum can take exhibits out into ly parodic in a contemporary exhibit such as ours. The
the city – in new situations and with audiences other than working group also spoke about the paradox involved in
the museum can usually embrace. This fast, flexible exhi- their selection of objects for the display case, in that the
bition format can pave the way for smoother interaction selection ended up exoticizing elements of their normal
with audiences. It is far less controlled than the museum everyday lives. Several of them stressed the fact that it
by institutional and historically established regulatory felt strange to select things from their daily life, thereby
practices, which can easily come across as intimidating, lending them an elevated status as static “objects” in a
exclusionary or obsolete. display case. But it was also a fun process. In their sele-
ction, they caricatured the objectification, at once hig-
EVERYDAY OBJECTS hlighting the value of mundane things and insisting on
In the back of the museum van, we filled a display case their everyday application.
with various objects from the everyday life of Muslim wo-
men, selected by the curators. The motive of this section By juxtaposing mundane objects with cultural and religi-
was to continue the museum’s tradition of using objects ous ones, the “exotic” objects were demystified as part
and the recognizable exhibition element of the “display of everyday life, while the juxtaposition became a wry
case” (Sandvik 2011). At the same time, the objects they reiteration of the museum tradition and the cabinets of
selected juxtaposed mundane, cultural and religious curiosities. In the light of the theories of Judith Butler, one
aspects, to shed light on the diversity, complexity and could say that the wry reiteration and parody implicit in
normality of their everyday lives. the inclusion and juxtaposition of “strange” and everyd-
ay objects indicates and sheds light on the recognizable
Objects were part of the entire process – not only becau- framework of culture, and thus contains a subversive po-
se we discovered the power of objects to create dialog, tential (Butler 1990).
but also because the display case was a recognizable,
and not unproblematic, element in the museum space, SELF-REPRESENTATION, PLATFORM SHARING AND
connected to the history of the museum. EMOTIONAL LIFE
We chose to mix different types of objects, to create a The content and justification of the exhibit were reflected
“material conversation” between things that are often in an increasing production of knowledge by Muslim wo-
separated into different categories, but which tend to get men who speak up, nuancing, amending, expressing or
totally mixed up in everyday life. The display case con- expanding on the narratives that surround and “stick” to
tained various “halal products”, such as nail polish, can- them in everyday life (Rognlien 2020, 159-169). As coor-
dy and a notepad listing telephone numbers of halal re- dinator, I wanted to facilitate and engineer a genuine re-
staurants in Aarhus, all symbolizing the religious element presentation, facilitated by the fact that the Muslim wo-
of everyday practices. There were beauty and health men themselves were the senders and producers, rooted
products, such as henna, kohl and vitamin D pills, which in the thesis repeated by many young, Muslim women,
reflected cultural forms of expression and the simple that there is a lot of discussion about them, but rarely
challenges posed by the dark, Danish winters. Classic re- with them on their own terms.
ligious objects ranged from a prayer mat and a Koran to
non-alcoholic drinks, a job application, a wedding invita- The curators devised the overall framework of the exhi-
tion and sanitary pads, which denoted personal challen- bit, in accordance with the exhibit’s own
ges, structural problems and prejudices, and a scented defined objective and target group and

164
candle, because it was a constant element in one of the decided which themes the exhibit should
curators’ homes. In the conversation, we aimed to crea- address and how they should be con-
te a multifaceted, nuanced picture of everyday normal veyed in different formats. From the very
Udsnit fra udstillingen, hvor gæsterne
kunne lære at style et tørlæde på flere
måder
first meeting, it was clear that a number of themes and of a longer literary tradition, in which poetry has provi-
challenges would be the mainstay of the exhibit, and they ded a language for stigmatized or marginalized groups,
remained with us throughout the process. We also chose but which also reflects the desire to talk about intimate,
to include them in the title of the exhibit: everyday life, emotional issues that bring us close together as human
nuances and representation. There was broad consensus beings. A poem becomes a desire to build interpersonal
that the exhibit should not be political or polemical, but bridges, or at least break down some barriers.
intimate and small, thereby hopefully creating recogni-
zability and kindling discussion. The curators themselves also had a very close relations-
hip with poetry. One of them stressed that all the things
A common feature of the process was the desire of the she lacked in her youth constituted the reason she wrote
working group to share the platform they had as cura- poems herself, and that she was especially inspired by
tors of the exhibit with other Muslim women. That desi- other minority women poets. At one of our first meetings
re was repeated in different situations, linked to different in the working group, all the curators brought an item that
elements of the exhibit, and for the curators the inclusi- meant something special to them. One of the curators
on was also a way to secure the nuances of the exhibit’s brought two poems – one she had written herself and one
narrative, by involving as many different voices as pos- by Tove Ditlevsen. A third wanted to contribute an arti-
sible. But it was also about enabling more women to get stic poem to the actual exhibit. On a canvas, in a network
their voices heard and represented. Honouring the desire of repeating sections, she had written in Afghan “mother,
of the curators, we created a new post on the museum’s daughter, sister, wife” in succession. The title of the work
website and social media, seeking contributions to the was Human. This critical, loving work featuring categori-
exhibit from Danish Muslim women. We received sever- es, names and identity, was a recurring feature in many of
al contributions, and several contributors emphasized the poems we received. Two examples include these po-
the fact that the reason they wished to contribute was ems by Madiha and Sadaf, the opening verses of which I
because the exhibit had been created by Muslim women. reproduce here:
As one contributor put it, it was “us by us.” We received,
poems, small stories, pictures, Snapchats, Instagram MADIHA: SADAF:
profiles and letters written to their younger selves. A Veiled Vision I Am a Muslim Woman
It was in the “poem” category that we received the most
contributions. Writers, Instagram poets and women who Human I am a Muslim woman.
had never before shared their scribbles sent us their po- Daughter I am loved. I am hated. I am oppressed.
ems. So, the curators agreed to exhibit as large a colle- Sister I am liberated.
ction as possible, and the van’s main compartment fe- Wife
atured a display of this extensive collection of poems. Girl friend
Muslim women from several places in Denmark sent us I am so much
their poems. While some were hung in frames like small I am a woman
works of art, most were framed in Perspex and placed
in a box so that you could take them out, hold them and What these, and many of the other poems in the exhibit
possibly read one, slightly apart from the other visitors. articulate is the friction and tension implicit in the cate-
gories of identity that “stick to” the bodies of Muslim wo-
Some of the curators emphasized how a depiction of the men. There is something confining about the prejudicial
emotional life a poem depicted – with its intimate, per- label, which can be restrictive but also transformed into
sonal quality – was one of the things they had missed in a form of empowerment or resistance (see, e.g., Braidotti
their upbringing. Meanwhile, other teenage girls could 2002, on “feminist figurations”; Cooke 2007, on the po-
see their emotional lives mirrored in poetry, art and film, tential of the “Muslimwoman” label). The interaction in
this was something the curators and many other mino- this productive discomfort was what the exhibit set out
rity women had lacked. According to them, herein lay to embrace. The poems served as a potential mirror and
a potential to fill a representational gap, and explained an experience of authentic representation for the target
why we received as many poems as we did. An increa- group of young Muslim women. At the
sing number of minority women and Muslim women in same time, they sparked dialog and a ba-

166
the Scandinavian region are also writing collections of sis for understanding aimed at the other
poems. We exhibited several of them both in the poetry target group – majority Denmark – who
collection and in our small library.39 This increase is part could see the universally human associa-
tions of the poems. are often expected to provide information for the majo-
rity, and this takes time, work and energy (Ahmed 2017).
THE POLITICS OF EVERYDAY LIFE The exhibit was about everyday life, which at first glance
As this text illustrates, both the exhibit and the work lea- may not seem political or activist, but since the Muslim
ding up to it expressed several contemporary trends in woman’s body and life are politicized in itself, displaying
the museum and research world and the production of their everyday life can become a subversive act. Femi-
knowledge by Muslim women. The exhibit itself contri- nism and the women’s movement showed how private
buted nuanced knowledge within a polemical field cha- things were and are political, and Marxist theory empha-
racterized by stereotypes and prejudices, and was thus sizes that “everyday life” is where ideology imperceptibly
an example of how, by including the voices of those in surrounds us. Despite the fact that the curators did not
the debate, one can create authentic representation. want the exhibit to be about “politics”, in the age in which
The exhibit included new voices that had not previously we live, this is in itself a political stance.
had a platform. Several women felt it was positive to be
seen and heard on their own terms or terms set by people
whose lives were similar. Thereby, the exhibition project
also contributed significant knowledge about a growing
field in the encounter between the museum world and the
world of research, which is associated with the co-crea-
35
tion and democratization of knowledge and knowledge Thanks to the anonymous peer revie-
production, and its activist or political potential. wer for their excellent and interesting
comments and suggestions for previ-
ous drafts of the article. Parts of this
However, it is important to be critical of the issue of real chapter will also appear in my PhD
thesis, in which I deal with the work
inclusion and the flattening of hierarchies, and the sub- on the exhibit and its result in more
detail, in the context of the issue of
versive potential of the project. As pointed out above,
representation and subversion. I also
bearing in mind Sherry Arnstein’s views, it is important discussed the exhibit in the article:
“A Curatorial Laboratory” in Mikkel
not to exaggerate the democratic and co-creative ele- Thorup, Rithma K.E. Larsen and
ment. The working group was relatively unified in terms Emma Helena Glasscock (ed.) Idéhi-
storie og Antropologi, Aarhus and
of age, education level and upbringing. Furthermore, Copenhagen: Background (expected
participation presupposed knowledge, or a network with publication 2022), in which I analyze
the process to more from a critical,
knowledge of KØN – Gender Museum Denmark in order methodological perspective.
to see the post. Herein lie the obvious pitfalls in terms of
36
consensus and negotiations. Gender Blender was a research and
public engagement/interpretation
project - a collaboration between KØN
The temporary nature and location of the exhibit should – Gender Museum Denmark, Aarhus
University and THE VELUX FOUNDA-
also be viewed with an element of caution. The format of TIONS, in which I was a PhD fellow.
the exhibit – using the museum’s pop-up concept – was
37
based on the desire to take the exhibit out into the city, The distinction between “self-presen-
in an accessible format. However, its small, to an extent tation” and “re-presentation” comes
from Mohanty (1984). She tackled
fragile expression, placed next to the beautiful, solid the objectification that takes place
brick building of the museum, inevitably sent certain sig- of “women from the third world” in
Western women’s representation of
nals. Naturally, we hope that the processes kindled by the them.
exhibit, and the insights we highlighted, will become an
38
integral part of the future work of the museum. The analytical term “stickiness” is
Sara Ahmed’s (2004).

Finally, there is the question of the bridge-building, ac- 39

Just think of Sumaya Jirde Ali, Kvin-
tivist, subversive potential of the exhibit. Is the respon- ner som hater menn, 2017; Melanin
sibility of Muslim women to build bridges to “majority hvitere enn blekemiddel, 2018; Når jeg
ser havet, slokner lyset, 2021; Naiha
Denmark” a relevant point for reflection? Khiljee, Kære Søster, 2020; Nilgün
Several people pointed out how minorities Erdem, Pudder og ph.d.er

167
- feministiske digte fra mine tyvere,
2017; Fatimah Asghar, If They Come
For Us, 2018; Sara Saleh, Wasting the
Milk in the Summer, 2016; Maryam
Azam, The Hijab Files, 2018.
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