A74 ■ APPENDIX H POLAR COORDINATES

(b) Find an approximate polar equation for the elliptical orbit of the planet Earth
around the Sun (at one focus) given that the eccentricity is about 0.017 and the
length of the major axis is about 2.99  108 km.
8. (a) The planets move around the Sun in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus. The
positions of a planet that are closest to and farthest from the Sun are called its peri-
helion and aphelion, respectively. (See Figure 2.) Use Problem 7(a) to show that the
perihelion distance from a planet to the Sun is a共1  e兲 and the aphelion distance
is a共1  e兲.
planet

r
¨
aphelion perihelion
Sun

FIGURE 2
(b) Use the data of Problem 7(b) to find the distances from Earth to the Sun at perihe-
lion and at aphelion.
9. (a) The planet Mercury travels in an elliptical orbit with eccentricity 0.206. Its mini-
mum distance from the Sun is 4.6  10 7 km. Use the results of Problem 8(a) to find
its maximum distance from the Sun.
(b) Find the distance traveled by the planet Mercury during one complete orbit around
the Sun. (Use your calculator or computer algebra system to evaluate the definite
integral.)

I Complex Numbers ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

A complex number can be represented by an expression of the form a  bi, where a

Im
and b are real numbers and i is a symbol with the property that i 2
1. The com-
2+3i
plex number a  bi can also be represented by the ordered pair 共a, b兲 and plotted as
_4+2i
a point in a plane (called the Argand plane) as in Figure 1. Thus, the complex number
i
i
0  1 ⴢ i is identified with the point 共0, 1兲.
0 1 Re The real part of the complex number a  bi is the real number a and the imagi-
_i
nary part is the real number b. Thus, the real part of 4  3i is 4 and the imaginary
_2-2i 3-2i
part is 3. Two complex numbers a  bi and c  di are equal if a
c and b
d,
that is, their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal. In the Argand
plane the x-axis is called the real axis and the y-axis is called the imaginary axis.
FIGURE 1 The sum and difference of two complex numbers are defined by adding or sub-
Complex numbers as points in tracting their real parts and their imaginary parts:
the Argand plane
共a  bi兲  共c  di兲
共a  c兲  共b  d兲i

共a  bi兲  共c  di兲
共a  c兲  共b  d兲i

For instance,

共1  i兲  共4  7i兲
共1  4兲  共1  7兲i
5  6i

 APPENDIX I COMPLEX NUMBERS ◆ A75

The product of complex numbers is defined so that the usual commutative and dis-
tributive laws hold:
共a  bi兲共c  di兲
a共c  di兲  共bi兲共c  di兲

ac  adi  bci  bdi 2

Since i 2
1, this becomes

共a  bi兲共c  di兲
共ac  bd兲  共ad  bc兲i

EXAMPLE 1

共1  3i兲共2  5i兲
共1兲共2  5i兲  3i共2  5i兲

2  5i  6i  15共1兲
13  11i

Division of complex numbers is much like rationalizing the denominator of a

rational expression. For the complex number z
a  bi, we define its complex con-
jugate to be z
a  bi. To find the quotient of two complex numbers we multiply
numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator.

1  3i
EXAMPLE 2 Express the number in the form a  bi.
2  5i
SOLUTION We multiply numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of
2  5i, namely 2  5i, and we take advantage of the result of Example 1:

1  3i 1  3i 2  5i 13  11i 13 11

ⴢ
2 2
 i
2  5i 2  5i 2  5i 2 5 29 29

Im The geometric interpretation of the complex conjugate is shown in Figure 2: z is

z=a+bi
the reflection of z in the real axis. We list some of the properties of the complex con-
i jugate in the following box. The proofs follow from the definition and are requested
in Exercise 18.
0 Re
_i Properties of Conjugates
–
z=a-bi
zw
zw zw
z w zn
zn
FIGURE 2

ⱍ ⱍ
The modulus, or absolute value, z of a complex number z
a  bi is its dis-
Im tance from the origin. From Figure 3 we see that if z
a  bi, then
z=a+bi
bi b„@
„„
ⱍ z ⱍ
sa
„@ +
œ„a
2  b2
=
|z| b
Notice that
0 a Re
zz
共a  bi兲共a  bi兲
a 2  abi  abi  b 2i 2
a 2  b 2
FIGURE 3

and so zz
z ⱍ ⱍ 2
A76 ■ APPENDIX I COMPLEX NUMBERS

This explains why the division procedure in Example 2 works in general:

z zw zw



w ww ⱍwⱍ 2

Since i 2
1, we can think of i as a square root of 1. But notice that we also
have 共i兲2
i 2
1 and so i is also a square root of 1. We say that i is the prin-
cipal square root of 1 and write s1
i. In general, if c is any positive number,
we write
sc
sc i
With this convention the usual derivation and formula for the roots of the quadratic
equation ax 2  bx  c
0 are valid even when b 2  4ac
0:

b sb 2  4ac
x

2a

EXAMPLE 3 Find the roots of the equation x 2  x  1
0.

SOLUTION Using the quadratic formula, we have

1 s1 2  4 ⴢ 1 1 s3 1 s3 i
x



2 2 2

We observe that the solutions of the equation in Example 3 are complex conjugates
of each other. In general, the solutions of any quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c
0
with real coefficients a, b, and c are always complex conjugates. (If z is real, z
z, so
z is its own conjugate.)
We have seen that if we allow complex numbers as solutions, then every quadratic
equation has a solution. More generally, it is true that every polynomial equation

a n x n  a n1 x n1      a 1 x  a 0
0

of degree at least one has a solution among the complex numbers. This fact is known
as the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and was proved by Gauss.

Polar Form
Im
a+bi We know that any complex number z
a  bi can be considered as a point 共a, b兲 and
that any such point can be represented by polar coordinates 共r,  兲 with r  0. In fact,
r
b
a
r cos  b
r sin 
¨
0 a Re as in Figure 4. Therefore, we have

FIGURE 4 z
a  bi
共r cos  兲  共r sin  兲i

Thus, we can write any complex number z in the form

z
r共cos   i sin  兲

b
where ⱍ ⱍ
r
z
sa 2  b 2 and tan 

a
 APPENDIX I COMPLEX NUMBERS ◆ A77

The angle  is called the argument of z and we write 
arg共z兲. Note that arg共z兲 is
not unique; any two arguments of z differ by an integer multiple of 2.

EXAMPLE 4 Write the following numbers in polar form.

(a) z
1  i (b) w
s3  i
SOLUTION
ⱍ ⱍ
(a) We have r
z
s12  12
s2 and tan 
1, so we can take 
兾4.
Therefore, the polar form is

冉 冊
Im
1+i  
z
s2 cos  i sin
œ„
2 4 4
π

0
4
π
ⱍ ⱍ
(b) Here we have r
w
s3  1
2 and tan 
1兾s3. Since w lies in the
_
6
Re fourth quadrant, we take 
兾6 and

冋 冉 冊 冉 冊册
2
 
œ„3-i w
2 cos   i sin 
6 6

FIGURE 5 The numbers z and w are shown in Figure 5.

The polar form of complex numbers gives insight into multiplication and division.
Let
z1
r1共cos 1  i sin 1 兲 z2
r2共cos  2  i sin  2 兲

be two complex numbers written in polar form. Then

z1z2
r1r2共cos 1  i sin 1 兲共cos  2  i sin  2 兲

r1r2 关共cos 1 cos  2  sin 1 sin  2 兲  i共sin 1 cos  2  cos 1 sin  2 兲兴

Im
z™ z¡ Therefore, using the addition formulas for cosine and sine, we have
¨™

¨¡
1 z1z2
r1r2 关cos共1   2 兲  i sin共1   2 兲兴
Re
¨¡+¨™
This formula says that to multiply two complex numbers we multiply the moduli and
add the arguments. (See Figure 6.)
z¡z™ A similar argument using the subtraction formulas for sine and cosine shows that
to divide two complex numbers we divide the moduli and subtract the arguments.
FIGURE 6
z1 r1
Im
关cos共1   2 兲  i sin共1   2 兲兴 z2  0
z z2 r2

r
In particular, taking z1
1 and z2
z, (and therefore 1
0 and  2
 ), we have
¨ the following, which is illustrated in Figure 7.
0 _¨ Re
1 1
r z 1 1
If z
r共cos   i sin  兲, then
共cos   i sin  兲.
z r
FIGURE 7
A78 ■ APPENDIX I COMPLEX NUMBERS

EXAMPLE 5 Find the product of the complex numbers 1  i and s3  i in polar

form.
SOLUTION From Example 4 we have

1  i
s2 cos 冉 
4
 i sin

4
冊
and s3  i
2 cos  冋 冉 冊 
6
冉 冊册
 i sin 

6

Im So, by Equation 1,

冋 冉 冊 冉 冊册
z=1+i
zw
   
2
œ„ 2œ„2 共1  i兲(s3  i)
2s2 cos   i sin 
4 6 4 6

冉 冊
π
12
 
0 Re
2s2 cos  i sin
12 12
2
w=œ„
3-i This is illustrated in Figure 8.

FIGURE 8 Repeated use of Formula 1 shows how to compute powers of a complex number. If

z
r共cos   i sin  兲
then z 2
r 2共cos 2  i sin 2 兲
and z 3
zz 2
r 3共cos 3  i sin 3 兲

In general, we obtain the following result, which is named after the French mathema-
tician Abraham De Moivre (1667–1754).

2 De Moivre’s Theorem If z
r共cos   i sin  兲 and n is a positive integer,

then

z n
关r共cos   i sin  兲兴 n
r n共cos n  i sin n 兲

This says that to take the nth power of a complex number we take the nth power of
the modulus and multiply the argument by n.

EXAMPLE 6 Find ( 12  12 i)10.

 12 i
12 共1  i兲, it follows from Example 4(a) that 12  12 i has the
1
SOLUTION Since 2
polar form

1
2
1
 i

2
s2
2
冉 cos

4
 i sin

4
冊
So by De Moivre’s Theorem,

冉 1
2
1
 i
2
冊 冉 冊冉
10


s2
2
10
cos
10
4
 i sin
10
4
冊
冉

25
2 10
cos
5
2
 i sin
5
2
冊

1
32
i
 APPENDIX I COMPLEX NUMBERS ◆ A79

De Moivre’s Theorem can also be used to find the n th roots of complex numbers.
An n th root of the complex number z is a complex number w such that

wn
z

Writing these two numbers in trigonometric form as

w
s共cos   i sin 兲 and z
r共cos   i sin  兲

and using De Moivre’s Theorem, we get

s n共cos n  i sin n兲
r共cos   i sin  兲

The equality of these two complex numbers shows that

sn
r or s
r 1兾n

and cos n
cos  and sin n
sin 

From the fact that sine and cosine have period 2 it follows that

  2k
n 
  2k or 

n

Thus 冋 冉
w
r 1兾n cos
  2k
n
冊 冉
 i sin
  2k
n
冊册
Since this expression gives a different value of w for k
0, 1, 2, . . . , n  1, we have
the following.

3 Roots of a Complex Number Let z
r共cos   i sin  兲 and let n be a positive

integer. Then z has the n distinct n th roots

冋 冉
wk
r 1兾n cos
  2k
n
冊 冉
 i sin
  2k
n
冊册
where k
0, 1, 2, . . . , n  1.

ⱍ ⱍ
Notice that each of the nth roots of z has modulus wk
r 1兾n. Thus, all the nth
roots of z lie on the circle of radius r 1兾n in the complex plane. Also, since the argument
of each successive nth root exceeds the argument of the previous root by 2兾n, we see
that the n th roots of z are equally spaced on this circle.

EXAMPLE 7 Find the six sixth roots of z
8 and graph these roots in the complex
plane.
SOLUTION In trigonometric form, z
8共cos  i sin 兲. Applying Equation 3 with
n
6, we get

冉
wk
8 1兾6 cos
  2k
6
 i sin
  2k
6
冊
A80 ■ APPENDIX I COMPLEX NUMBERS

We get the six sixth roots of 8 by taking k
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in this formula:

冉
w0
8 1兾6 cos

6
 i sin

6
冊 冉 冊

s2
s3
2
1
 i
2

冉
w1
8 1兾6 cos

2
 i sin

2
冊
s2 i

Im
2 i w¡
œ„ 冉
w2
8 1兾6 cos
5
6
 i sin
5
6
冊 冉 冊

s2 
s3
2
1
 i
2
w™ w¸
冉
w3
8 1兾6 cos
7
6
 i sin
7
6
冊 冉 冊

s2 
s3
2
1
 i
2

冉 冊
2
_œ„ 0 2 Re
œ„
3 3
w£
w4
8 1兾6 cos  i sin
s2 i
w∞ 2 2

FIGURE 9
_œ„2i
w¢
冉
w5
8 1兾6 cos
11
6
 i sin
11
6
冊 冉 冊
s2
s3
2
1
 i
2

The six sixth roots of z=_8 All these points lie on the circle of radius s2 as shown in Figure 9.

Complex Exponentials

We also need to give a meaning to the expression e z when z
x  iy is a complex

number. The theory of infinite series as developed in Chapter 8 can be extended to
the case where the terms are complex numbers. Using the Taylor series for e x (Equa-
tion 8.7.11) as our guide, we define


zn z2 z3
4 ez
兺
n
0 n!

1z
2!

3!
 

and it turns out that this complex exponential function has the same properties as the
real exponential function. In particular, it is true that

5 e z z
e z e z
1 2 1 2

If we put z
iy, where y is a real number, in Equation 4, and use the facts that

i 2
1, i 3
i 2i
i, i 4
1, i 5
i, ...

共iy兲2 共iy兲3 共iy兲4 共iy兲5

we get e iy
1  iy      
2! 3! 4! 5!
y2 y3 y4 y5

1  iy  i  i  
2! 3! 4! 5!

冉

1
y2
2!

y4
4!

y6
6!
   i y 
y3
3!
冊 冉

y5
5!
  冊

cos y  i sin y

Here we have used the Taylor series for cos y and sin y (Equations 8.7.16 and 8.7.15).
 APPENDIX I COMPLEX NUMBERS ◆ A81

The result is a famous formula called Euler’s formula:

6 e iy
cos y  i sin y

Combining Euler’s formula with Equation 5, we get

7 e xiy
e xe iy
e x共cos y  i sin y兲

EXAMPLE 8 Evaluate: (a) e i (b) e1i兾2

SOLUTION
(a) From Euler’s formula (6) we have

e i
cos   i sin 
1  i共0兲
1

(b) Using Equation 7 we get

e1i兾2
e1 cos 冉 

2
 i sin

2
冊

1
e
关0  i共1兲兴

i
e

Finally, we note that Euler’s formula provides us with an easier method of proving
De Moivre’s Theorem:

关r共cos   i sin  兲兴 n
共re i 兲n
r ne in
r n共cos n  i sin n 兲

I Exercises ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

1–14 ■ Evaluate the expression and write your answer in the 18. Prove the following properties of complex numbers.
form a  bi. (a) z  w
z  w (b) zw
z w
(c) z n
z n, where n is a positive integer
1. 共3  2i 兲  共7  3i 兲 2. 共1  i 兲  共2  3i 兲
[Hint: Write z
a  bi, w
c  di.]
3. 共3  i 兲共4  i 兲 4. 共4  7i 兲共1  3i 兲
19–24 ■ Find all solutions of the equation.
5. 12  7i 6. 2i( 12  i) 19. 4x 2  9
0 20. x 4
1
2  3i 5i 21. x 2  8x  17
0 22. x 2  4x  5
0
7. 8.
1  5i 3  4i
23. z 2  z  2
0 24. z 2  2 z  4
0
1 1

1 3 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

9. 10.
1i 4  3i 25–28 ■ Write the number in polar form with argument

11. i 3 12. i 100 between 0 and 2.

13. s25 14. s3 s12 25. 3  3i 26. 1  s3 i

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
27. 3  4i 28. 8i
15–17 ■ Find the complex conjugate and the modulus of the ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

given number. 29–32 ■

Find polar forms for zw, z兾w, and 1兾z by first putting z
15. 3  4i 16. s3  i and w into polar form.

17. 4i 29. z
s3  i, w
1  s3 i

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 30. z
4 s3  4i, w
8i
A82 ■ APPENDIX I COMPLEX NUMBERS

31. z
2 s3  2i, w
1  i 48. Use Euler’s formula to prove the following formulas for
cos x and sin x:
32. z
4(s3  i ), w
3  3i
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ e ix  eix e ix  eix
cos x
sin x

33–36 ■ Find the indicated power using De Moivre’s Theorem. 2 2i

33. 共1  i 兲20 34. (1  s3 i )

5
49. If u共x兲
f 共x兲  it共x兲 is a complex-valued function of a
real variable x and the real and imaginary parts f 共x兲 and
35. (2 s3  2i ) 36. 共1  i 兲8
5
t共x兲 are differentiable functions of x, then the derivative
of u is defined to be u共x兲
f 共x兲  it共x兲. Use this
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

37–40 ■ Find the indicated roots. Sketch the roots in the com- together with Equation 7 to prove that if F共x兲
e rx, then
plex plane. F共x兲
re rx when r
a  bi is a complex number.
37. The eighth roots of 1 38. The fifth roots of 32 50. (a) If u is a complex-valued function of a real variable, its
indefinite integral x u共x兲 dx is an antiderivative of u.
39. The cube roots of i 40. The cube roots of 1  i
Evaluate
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

共1i 兲x
41–46 ■ Write the number in the form a  bi. ye dx

41. e i兾2 42. e 2 i (b) By considering the real and imaginary parts of the inte-
43. e i3兾4 44. e i gral in part (a), evaluate the real integrals
45. e 2i 46. e 12i x x
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
ye cos x dx and ye sin x dx

47. Use De Moivre’s Theorem with n
3 to express cos 3 and Compare with the method used in Example 4 in Sec-
sin 3 in terms of cos  and sin . tion 5.6.