Hormones

Hormon (gr. hormao)

Napoleon Cybulski – discoverer

of adrenaline”, 1895)

Ernest Starling – introduced

the term ’hormone’ (1905),
discovered secretin
 Types of intercellular communication

• Autocrine

• Paracrine

• Endocrine

• Synapses

• Slot connections (nexus)

Systems of Internal Communication

– the nervous system

– the endocrine system

 Systems of Internal Communication

• The nervous system conveys high-speed electrical

signals along specialized cells called neurons.

• The endocrine system, made up of endocrine glands,

secretes hormones that coordinate slower but longer-
acting responses to stimuli.
 Hormones

• A hormone is a chemical signal that is secreted into the

circulatory system and communicates regulatory
messages within the body.

• Hormones may reach all parts of the body, but only

certain types of cells, target cells, are equipped to
respond.
 Hormones

Advantages of using chemical messengers:

– Chemical molecules can spread to all tissues through the blood.

– Chemical signals can persist longer than electrical ones.

– Many different kinds of chemicals can act as hormones; different

hormones can target different tissues.
 Hormone Action

• Secretion into the bloodstream by specialized cells

arranged in glands
• A specific biological effect occurs when hormone
combines with a receptor on the target cell

• Within 1 min after the secretion, hormon is throughout

the whole body
 Glands

• Many hormones are secreted by ductless endocrine

glands.

– Obtain raw materials from and secrete hormones directly into the
bloodstream

• Exocrine glands have ducts for discharging secretions

onto a free surface.
– Sweat glands, salivary glands, enzyme-secreting glands in the
digestive tract
 Hormone action
• All hormones act on cells by way of their ‘receptors’.

• Each hormone has its own receptor to which it binds,

matching rather like a lock and key. This is why
hormones circulating throughout the body in the blood
may leave capillaries to enter the extracellular fluid of
many tissues, but act only on those cells which possess
the appropriate receptor.
The role of receptors in hormone action
 Hormone classification

• Peptide hormones

• Amino acid-derived hormones (thyroid hormones,

biogenic amines)
• Cholesterol-derived hormones (adrenal hormones)

• Fat-soluble hormones
• Water-soluble hormones
• Proteins and peptides cannot enter the cell and therefore
they act via cell membrane receptors, producing their
effects by ‘second messengers’, which are activated in
the cell as soon as the hormone binds to the receptor.
Thus peptide hormones can produce quite rapid
responses.

• Steroid and thyroid hormones, by contrast, can enter the

cell and bind to intracellular receptors, producing their
effects by stimulating the production of new proteins.
There is therefore a relatively long lag period before the
response to these hormones is seen.
 Function of Receptor

• pick up signals which cell is interested in

• intensify the weak signals

• translate the language of hormones into language

understandable to cell
 The impact of the lipophilic properties on
Water-soluble hormones action
hormone

secondary
messenger

Fat-soluble
hormone
 Effects of hormones action

• metabolic changes in a cell (eg. increase of glucose

uptake in response to insulin)

• stimulation of cell division (eg. growth hormone)

• changes gene expression (stimulation or inhibition

production of specific protein products)
 Mechanism of hormone action

A hormone-receptor
complex can be
transcription factor of
particular genes PROTEIN
PRODUCT
 Membrane-Bound Receptors
• Many hormones are too
large, or too polar, to pass
through plasma
membranes.
– Bind to transmembrane
proteins that act as
receptor sites on target
cell membranes.
• Hormone is first
messenger.
• Causes activation of a
second messenger in
the cytoplasm.
– Ca2+
– cAMP
– triphosphate (IP3) and diac
ylglycerol (DAG)
 Nuclear Receptors
• Steroid hormones are
lipid soluble molecules
that bind to hormone
receptors in the
cytoplasm of the target
cell.
– Site of activity is the
nucleus.
• Steroids are
manufactured from
cholesterol.
• Estrogen, progesterone,
testosterone, cortisol.
 Nuclear Receptors
• Thyroid hormones
also act through
nuclear receptors.
– Binds to
transmembrane
protein that uses
ATP to move it into
the cell.
 Control Pathways and Feedback Loops

• A common feature of
control pathways is a
feedback loop connecting
the response to the initial
stimulus.

• Negative feedback
regulates many hormonal
pathways involved in
homeostasis.
The hypothalamic–pituitary–
adrenal axis (HPA axis or
HTPA axis), also known as
the limbic–hypothalamic–
pituitary–adrenal axis (LHPA
axis), is a complex set of direct
influences and feedback
interactions among three
endocrine glands: the
hypothalamus, the pituitary
gland (a pea-shaped structure
located below the
hypothalamus), and the
adrenal (also called
"suprarenal") glands (small,
conical organs on top of the
kidneys).
• The hypothalamus regulates the
neuroendocrine system, maintaining
homeostasis in the body.
– The hypothalamus can use motor
nerves to send short-lived electrical
messages or hormones to send
chemical messages with a longer
duration.
 The hypothalamus

Oxytocin and vasopressin – produced by the hypothalamus

and stored and secreted into the bloodstream from the
posterior pituitary gland

Releasing hormones (factors) or liberins

Inhibiting hormones (factors) or statins
 The Chain of Command
• The hypothalamus produces different
“releasing”/”inhibiting” hormones that
travel to the pituitary gland.

• Each releasing/ inhibiting hormone

stimulates or inhibites the pituitary to
release a corresponding hormone which
travels to an endocrine gland and causes
it to start producing a particular endocrine
hormone.
 Liberins/statins
Hypothalamic releasing Effect on pituitary
hormone
Corticotropin releasing hormone Stimulates ACTH secretion
(CRH)
Thyrotropin releasing hormone Stimulates TSH and Prolactin
(TRH) secretion
Growth hormone releasing Stimulates GH secretion
hormone (GHRH)
Somatostatin Inhibits GH (and other
hormone) secretion
Gonadotropin releasing Stimulates LH and FSH
hormone (GnRH) a.k.a LHRH secretion
Prolactin releasing hormone Stimulates PRL secretion
(PRH)
Prolactin inhibiting hormone Inhibits PRL secretion
(dopamine)
 Releasing Hypothalamus Nervous
hormones
Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary

Thyrotropin
Somatotropin FSH Vasopressin
LH Prolactin Oxytocin
ACTH

Adrenal Adrenal
Thyroid Cortex Pancreas Ovary Testis Medulla

T3, T4 Cortisol Insulin, Estradiol Testosterone Epinephrine

aldosterone glucagon,
somatostatin

Muscles Liver, Reproductive Mammary

liver Tissues muscles organs glands
 The Pituitary
• The pituitary gland
is located below the
hypothalamus.
• Nine major hormones
are produced here.
• These hormones act
primarily to influence
other endocrine
glands.
 Pituitary
Somatotropin (GH)

Prolactin (PRL) Vasopressin (ADH)

Liberins/Statins
Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) hormones Oxytocin

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Thyrotropin (TRH)

Peptide hormones
 The Pituitary
• The posterior lobe of the pituitary regulates water
conservation, milk letdown, and uterine contraction in
women.

• The anterior lobe regulates the other endocrine glands.

 The Anterior Pituitary

• Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) – stimulates the

thyroid gland to produce thyroxine which stimulates
oxidative respiration.

• Luteinizing hormone (LH) plays an important role in

the menstrual cycle. It also stimulates the production
of testosterone in males.
 The Anterior Pituitary

• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) – plays an

important role in the menstrual cycle. In males,
it causes the testes to produce a hormone that
regulates sperm production.

• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) –

stimulates the adrenal gland to produce steroid
hormones. Some regulate glucose production,
others balance sodium & potassium in the blood.
 The Anterior Pituitary

• Growth hormone (GH) – stimulates the growth of

muscle and bone.

• Prolactin – stimulates milk production.

 The Posterior Pituitary
• Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) regulates the
kidney’s retention of
water.
• Oxytocin initiates uterine
contraction during
childbirth and milk
release in mothers.
• These hormones are
actually synthesized in
the hypothalamus and
stored in the posterior
pituitary.
 Biological Clocks

• The pineal gland is

located in the brain
of most vertebrates.
– Evolved from a light
sensitive “third eye”.
– Primitive fish &
some reptiles still
have a third eye.
 Biological Clocks
• In other vertebrates it functions as an endocrine
gland secreting melatonin.
• Melatonin controls color change in amphibians &
reptiles.
• Release of melatonin is controlled by light/dark
cycles.
• The primary functions of melatonin appear to be
modulation of sleep patterns in both circadian
and seasonal cycles
– Circadian rhythms – 24 hours long.
 The thyroid gland

- The thyroid gland produces three hormones in response to TSH release by

thyrotroph cells of the anterior pituitary:
1) Triiodothyronine (T3) - made in follicle
2) Thyroxine (T4) - made in follicle
T3 and T4 are dependent on iodine for synthesis
T4 is the more prevalent in humans (98% of circulating iodinated thyroid hormone)
T3 and T4 regulate body growth and metabolism, and are important in development and
maturation of the brain and nervous system
3) Calcitonin - made by C cells
- decreases blood calcium levels and blood phosphate levels (by helping them get
deposited in bone, and by stimulating excretion of them by kidneys)
thyrotropin-releasing hormone
thyrotropin-releasing hormone

The Thyroid
• The hypothalamus
and anterior pituitary
control the secretion
of thyroid hormones
through two negative
feedback loops.

• TRH- thyrotropin-releasing
hormone
• TSH - thyroid-stimulating hormone
• Triiodothyronine (T3)
• Thyroxine (T4)
 The Thyroid
• The thyroid hormones
play crucial roles in
stimulating
metabolism and
influencing
development and
maturation.
 Thyroid hormones

TSH

T3

T4
 Thyroid hormones

Graves-Basedow disease

T3 ↓TSH
↑T3
T4
↑T4
 Thyroid hormones
Hashimoto disease

TSH

T3 ↑TSH
↓T3
T4
↓T4
 The Parathyroids

• The parathyroid glands are

four small glands attached
to the thyroid.
• The hormone they produce
is parathyroid hormone
(PTH) which regulates the
level of calcium in the blood.
– Essential that calcium is
kept within narrow limits
for muscle contraction,
including the heart.
 Calcium Homeostasis
• Two antagonistic
hormones,
parathyroid
hormone (PTH) and
calcitonin, play the
major role in calcium
(Ca2+) homeostasis in
mammals.
 Calcium Homeostasis
• Calcitonin, secreted by the thyroid gland,
stimulates Ca2+ deposition in the bones and
secretion by the kidneys, thus lowering blood
Ca2+ levels.
• PTH, secreted by the parathyroid glands, has
the opposite effects on the bones and kidneys,
and raises Ca2+ levels.
– Also has an indirect effect, stimulating the kidneys to
produce activate vitamin D, which promotes intestinal
uptake of Ca2+ from food.
 The Adrenals

• Mammals have an adrenal gland above each kidney.

– Adrenal medulla is the inner core which produces
adrenaline (epinephrine) and norepinephrine.
– Adrenal cortex is the outer shell that produces the
steroid hormones cortisol and aldosterone.
 The adrenal glands
Adrenal medulla (catecholamines):
• epinephrine & norepinephrine - increase basal
metabolic rate (blood glucose and pressure)

Adrenal cortex (corticoids):

• glucocorticoids (corticosterone, cortisol,
hydrocortisone) – inhibit incorporation of amino
acids into protein muscles, stimulate formation
and storage of glycogen, help maintain normal
blood sugar level

• mineralocorticoids (aldosterone,
deoxycorticosterone) – regulate metabolism of
Na+ and K+

• sex hormones (especially androstenedione) –

regulate facial and body hair
 Adrenal Medulla

• The adrenal medulla releases adrenalin (epinephrine)

and norepinephrine in times of stress.
– Identical to the effects of the sympathetic nervous system, but
longer lasting.
• Accelerated heartbeat, increased blood pressure, higher levels of
blood sugar and increased blood flow to heart and lungs.
 Adrenal Cortex

• The adrenal cortex produces the steroid hormone

cortisol (hydrocortisone).
– Reduces inflammation.
• Synthetic derivatives such as prednisone are used as anti-
inflammatory agents.
– Stimulates carbohydrate metabolism.
 Adrenal Cortex

• The adrenal cortex also produces aldosterone.

• Aldosterone acts in the kidney to promote the uptake of
sodium & other salts from the urine.
– These salts are important in nerve conduction.
• Aldosterone and PTH are the only two hormones
essential for survival.
 The Pancreas

• The pancreas is located

behind the stomach and
is connected to the small
intestine by a small tube.
• It secretes digestive
enzymes into the
digestive tract (exocrine
function).
• Endocrine function –
production of insulin
and glucagon.
 The pancreas
The endocrine cells of the pancreas
exist in islets of tissue that are
surrounded by exocrine cells.

1. Islets of Langerhans
• Alpha cells:
- glucagon - raises blood glucose levels
• Beta cells:
- insulin - lowers blood glucose levels

2. Other cells (delta cells) of the

pancreas produce somatostatin, SS,
SOM) – lowers secretion of insulin
and glucagon
 insulin:
- stimulates uptake of glucose (and amino acids) by muscle
and liver cells
- inhibits production of glucose in liver (gluconeogenesis,
glycogenolysis)
Prevents hyperglycemia
- stimulates incorporation of fatty acids in fats
- stimulates protein synthesis in muscle and liver

glucagon:
- stimulates production of glucose in liver (gluconeogenesis,
glycogenolysis)
- stimulates lipolysis (breakdown of fats to free fatty acids +
glycerol) Prevents hypoglycemia

Note: glucagon and insulin work in opposition,

and their combined effects control blood glucose
 Diabetes

• Diabetes mellitus, perhaps the best-known endocrine

disorder, is caused by a deficiency of insulin or a
decreased response to insulin in target tissues.
– Marked by elevated blood glucose levels.
 Diabetes

• Type I diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent

diabetes) is an autoimmune disorder in which
the immune system destroys the beta cells of
the pancreas.
• Type II diabetes mellitus (non-insulin-dependent
diabetes) is characterized either by a deficiency
of insulin or, more commonly, by reduced
responsiveness of target cells due to some
change in insulin receptors.
 The gonads

Steroid hormones: precursor is cholesterol

• Testes:
Androgens (testosterone, dihydrotestosterone) – stimulate development and
maintenance of male primary and secondary sexual characteristics and
behavior

• Ovaries:
Estrogens (estradiol, estrone, etc) - stimulate development and maintenance
of female secondary sexual characteristics and behavior
Progestins (progesterone) - stimulate female secondary sexual
characteristics and behavior, maintain pregnancy
Thank you for your
attention!!!