Cell and Tissue Structure and

Organization
M. I. Auza
Department of Anatomy
Bingham University, Karu
 Cell: Definition
• Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living
organisms.
• They are the smallest units of life that can carry out all the processes
necessary for an organism's growth, reproduction, and maintenance.
Characteristics:
Structure:
• Cells consist of a membrane-bound structure containing cytoplasm,
organelles, and genetic material (DNA).
• Function:
• Cells perform various functions, such as energy production,
metabolism, and response to stimuli. They can be specialized for
specific roles, such as muscle contraction or nerve transmission.
 Tissues
• Tissues are groups of similar cells that work together to perform
a specific function.
• They are composed of cells that share a common structure and
function, and they form the building blocks of organs.
Types of Tissues:
• Epithelial Tissue: Covers body surfaces and lines cavities; involved in
protection, absorption, and secretion.
• Connective Tissue: Supports, binds together, and protects tissues and
organs; includes bone, blood, and adipose tissue.
• Muscle Tissue: Responsible for movement; includes skeletal, cardiac, and
smooth muscle.
• Nervous Tissue: Composed of neurons and glial cells; responsible for
transmitting signals throughout the body.
Cellular organization and its importance
• Cellular organization plays a crucial role in the overall
functioning of living organisms.
• Cellular organization is fundamental to the complexity and
efficiency of biological functions.
• It enables specialization, efficient metabolism,
communication, development, adaptation, and maintenance
of homeostasis.
• Understanding cellular organization is crucial for insights
into health, disease, and the overall functioning of living
organisms.
 Specialization of Functions
Cell Differentiation:
• In multicellular organisms,
cells differentiate into
various types, each
specialized for specific
functions (e.g., muscle cells
for contraction, neurons for
signal transmission). This
specialization allows for
efficient and effective
performance of various
biological tasks.
 Specialization of Functions
Tissue and Organ Formation:
• Specialized cells group
together to form tissues,
which then combine to form
organs.
• This hierarchical
organization enables
complex functions that
single cells cannot achieve
alone.
 Efficiency in Metabolism
Compartmentalization:
• Organelles within cells (e.g.,
mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum) provide distinct
environments for specific
biochemical reactions.
• This compartmentalization
1. Enhances metabolic
efficiency and
2. Prevents interference
between incompatible
processes.
 Efficiency in Metabolism
Localized Functions:
• Different organelles are dedicated to particular functions,
such as
• Energy production (mitochondria), Protein synthesis
(ribosomes), and Detoxification (peroxisomes)
• Allowing the cell to perform multiple functions
simultaneously.
 Communication and Regulation
Cell Signaling:
• Cellular organization
facilitates communication
between cells through
signaling pathways.
• This is essential for
coordinating activities,
responding to environmental
changes, and maintaining
homeostasis.
 Communication and Regulation
Regulatory Mechanisms:
• Organized cellular
structures enable precise
regulation of cellular
processes, such as the cell
cycle, gene expression, and
metabolism, ensuring that
the cell responds
appropriately to internal
and external signals.
 Adaptation and Evolution
Evolution of Complexity:
• The evolution of cellular organization has allowed for the
development of more complex organisms.
• Increased specialization and organization enable more
sophisticated functions and adaptations to diverse environments.
Adaptive Responses:
• Organized cellular structures enable organisms to adapt to
changing environments by modifying cellular functions and
behaviors, such as altering metabolism in response to nutrient
availability.
 Homeostasis
Maintaining Balance:
• Cellular organization is essential for maintaining
homeostasis, as organized systems can regulate internal
conditions (e.g., pH, temperature, ion concentrations)
effectively.
• This is vital for the survival and proper functioning of cells
and organisms.
 Organelles
• Organelles are specialized
structures within a cell that
perform distinct functions
necessary for maintaining
cellular life.
• They are often membrane-
bound and can be found in
both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells
• Although eukaryotic cells
typically contain more
complex organelles.
 Functions of major Organelles
Nucleus
• It is the control center of
the cell, containing the
cell's genetic material
(DNA).
Function:
• Regulates gene expression,
stores genetic information,
and coordinates activities
such as growth, metabolism,
and reproduction.
 Functions of major Organelles
Mitochondria
• It is a Double-membrane-
bound organelles known as
the "powerhouses" of the
cell.
Function:
• Produce adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) through
cellular respiration,
providing energy for cellular
processes.
 Functions of major Organelles
Golgi Apparatus
• It is a series of flattened
membrane-bound sacs.
Function:
• Modifies, sorts, and
packages proteins and lipids
for secretion or delivery to
other organelles.
 Functions of major Organelles
Ribosomes
• These are complexes made
of ribosomal RNA and
proteins, found either free
in the cytoplasm or
attached to the rough ER.
Function:
• Sites of protein synthesis,
translating messenger RNA
(mRNA) into polypeptide
chains.
 Functions of Major Organelles
Lysosomes
• It’s a Membrane-bound
organelles containing digestive
enzymes.
Function:
• Break down fatty acids and
detoxify harmful substances like
hydrogen peroxide.
 Functions of major Organelles
Cytoskeleton
• It’s a network of protein
filaments and tubules.
Function:
• Provides structural support,
facilitates cell movement,
and organizes organelles
within the cell.
 Functions of major Organelles
Plasma Membrane
• Its a lipid bilayer with
embedded proteins
surrounding the cell.
Function:
• Regulates the entry and exit
of substances
• Maintains the cell's internal
environment and
• Facilitating communication
with other cells.
 Functions of major Organelles
Chloroplasts
• It’s a Double-membrane-
bound organelles containing
chlorophyll.
Function: Conduct
photosynthesis, converting
light energy into chemical
energy (glucose) and
producing oxygen as a
byproduct.
 Chloroplasts
• Chloroplasts are plant specific organelles
enclosed by a double membrane.
• Inside, these organelles contain a series
separate, internal membrane structures
arranged like stacked pancakes
called grana.
• Each “pancake” within the grana is called
a thylakoid; thylakoids are filled with a
specialized, green-colored pigment
called chlorophyll which captures sunlight.
• The green color of chlorophyll accounts for
the green coloration found in most plants.
• Enzymes present in the space surrounding
the thylakoids use the captured energy,
water, and carbon dioxide to produce
carbohydrates.
 Importance of organelles in cellular
processes
Organelles play a vital role in cellular processes by
• Compartmentalizing functions
• Facilitating communication, and
• Maintaining the overall efficiency and organization of
the cell.
 Compartmentalization of Functions
Specialization:
• Organelles allow for the specialization of
cellular functions.
• For example, mitochondria are dedicated to
energy production
• This specialization increases efficiency
and effectiveness in carrying out metabolic
processes.
Controlled Environments:
• Each organelle maintains its own
environment (e.g., pH, ion concentration),
which is optimal for the specific reactions
occurring within it.
• For instance, the acidic environment of
lysosomes is ideal for enzyme activity in
digestion.
 Energy Production and Metabolism
Mitochondria:
• It is the "powerhouses" of
the cell, mitochondria
generate ATP through
cellular respiration, utilizing
substrates provided by the
cytoplasm and other
organelles, providing energy
needed for various cellular
activities.
 Energy Production and Metabolism
Chloroplasts:
• In plant cells, chloroplasts
convert sunlight into
chemical energy through
photosynthesis, producing
glucose and oxygen, which
are crucial for life on Earth.
 Protein Synthesis and Processing
Ribosomes:
• These organelles are the sites of protein
synthesis, translating mRNA into
polypeptides.
• Proper protein synthesis is essential for
cell function, structure, and regulation.
Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi
Apparatus:
• The rough ER synthesizes proteins, while
the Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and
packages them for transport.
• This process is crucial for delivering
proteins to their correct destinations and
ensuring proper cellular function.
 Protein Synthesis and Processing

Endoplasmic Reticulum and

Golgi Apparatus:
• The rough ER synthesizes
proteins, while the Golgi
apparatus modifies, sorts,
and packages them for
transport.
• This process is crucial for
delivering proteins to their
correct destinations and
ensuring proper cellular
function.
 Waste Management and
Detoxification
Lysosomes:
• These organelles digest
excess or worn-out
organelles, food particles, and
engulfed viruses or bacteria,
recycling cellular components
and maintaining cellular health.
Peroxisomes:
• They break down fatty acids
and detoxify harmful
substances, such as hydrogen
peroxide, thus protecting the
cell from oxidative damage.
 Structural Support and Cell Shape
Cytoskeleton:
• Composed of microtubules,
microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments
• The cytoskeleton provides
structural support,
maintains cell shape, and
facilitates cell division and
intracellular transport.
 Structural Support and Cell Shape
Cell Membrane:
• The plasma membrane, while
not an organelle itself,
interacts with organelles to
regulate the entry and exit
of substances, maintaining
homeostasis and
communication with the
external environment.
 Cell Communication and Signaling
Organelles in Signaling:
• Certain organelles, such as
the endoplasmic reticulum,
play roles in cellular
signaling pathways that
regulate processes like
growth, metabolism, and
apoptosis (programmed cell
death).
 Cell Communication and Signaling
Intracellular Communication:
• Organelles communicate
with each other through
vesicles and signaling
molecules, coordinating
cellular activities and
responses to environmental
changes.
 Development and Differentiation
Role in Development:
• Organelles support the processes of cell growth,
differentiation, and development.
• For instance, stem cells rely on specific organelle functions
to differentiate into specialized cells.
Adaptation to Conditions:
• Organelles can adapt their functions in response to changes
in the environment
• Playing a critical role in how cells respond to stress and
maintain homeostasis.
 Organelle Interactions and cellular
function
• Organelle interactions are fundamental to cellular function,
as they enable the coordination and integration of various
biochemical processes within the cell.
• The dynamic relationships between organelles facilitate
essential activities that sustain life.
 Protein Synthesis and Processing
Ribosomes and Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
• Ribosomes synthesize proteins based on the genetic code
carried by mRNA.
• When ribosomes are bound to the rough ER, they translate
proteins meant for secretion or for use in the cell
membrane.
• The rough ER then folds and modifies these proteins,
adding carbohydrate groups (glycosylation) that are crucial
for their function.
Golgi Apparatus:
• After processing in the ER, proteins are transported to the
Golgi apparatus, where they are further modified, sorted,
and packaged into vesicles for transport to their final
destinations (e.g., secretion, lysosomes).
 Energy Production and Metabolism
Mitochondria and Other Organelles:
• Mitochondria generate ATP through cellular respiration,
utilizing substrates provided by the cytoplasm and other
organelles.
• Interactions with the endoplasmic reticulum are crucial, as
the ER can supply lipids and calcium ions that influence
mitochondrial function and energy metabolism.
Chloroplasts (in Plant Cells):
• In plant cells, chloroplasts convert light energy into chemical
energy during photosynthesis.
• The glucose produced can then be transported to
mitochondria for cellular respiration, illustrating a direct
interaction between energy production in chloroplasts and
mitochondria.
 Detoxification and Waste Management
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes:
• Lysosomes contain enzymes for degrading waste materials and
cellular debris.
• They can receive materials from endocytosis (via vesicles from
the plasma membrane) or from autophagy (degradation of
damaged organelles).
• Peroxisomes detoxify harmful substances, such as hydrogen
peroxide, and can interact with lysosomes to dispose of
byproducts generated during metabolic processes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum:
• The smooth ER is involved in lipid metabolism and detoxification.
• It works closely with peroxisomes to manage lipid synthesis and
breakdown.
 Cellular Signaling and Communication
Nucleus and Cytoplasmic Organelles:
• The nucleus houses genetic material and regulates gene
expression.
• Signals from the cytoplasm can influence transcription factors in
the nucleus, integrating cellular responses to various stimuli.
• Organelle interactions facilitate signaling pathways; for example,
calcium ions released from the ER can act as secondary
messengers in signaling cascades.
Cytoskeleton:
• The cytoskeleton provides structural support and facilitates
movement within the cell. Organelles can be anchored to the
cytoskeleton, allowing for organized transport and positioning. For
example, motor proteins travel along microtubules to transport
vesicles between the ER, Golgi apparatus, and other organelles.
 Cell Division and Growth
Interactions During Mitosis:
• During cell division, organelles interact to ensure proper
distribution.
• The mitotic spindle, formed from microtubules, organizes
chromosomes and helps segregate them into daughter
cells.
• Mitochondria and other organelles replicate and
redistribute to ensure that each daughter cell receives
the necessary components for survival and function.
 Response to Environmental Changes
Adaptation Mechanisms:
• Cells can adapt to stressors (e.g., oxidative stress)
through the coordinated actions of various organelles.
• For example, when exposed to high levels of reactive
oxygen species (ROS), peroxisomes can increase in
number to enhance detoxification, while lysosomes may
degrade damaged organelles.
Inter-organelle Signaling:
• Organelles communicate through signaling pathways to
coordinate responses to environmental changes, ensuring
cellular homeostasis and survival.
Stem Cells and Their
Differentiation
 Definition of Stem Cells
• Stem cells are
undifferentiated cells with the
unique ability to develop into
various cell types in the body.
• They have the capacity for
self-renewal, meaning they can
divide and replicate themselves
• They can differentiate into
specialized cells, which makes
them crucial for growth,
development, and tissue repair.
 Types of Stem Cells
• Stem cells can be categorized based on their source and
differentiation potential.
• Here are the main types:
• Embryonic Stem Cells (ESCs)
• Adult (Somatic) Stem Cells
• Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)
• Perinatal Stem Cells
 Embryonic Stem Cells (ESCs)
Source
• Derived from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst, an early-
stage embryo (typically 4-5 days post-fertilization).
Potency
• Pluripotent, meaning they can differentiate into nearly all
cell types in the body (except for extraembryonic tissues).
Characteristics
• They have unlimited self-renewal potential and can give rise
to any cell type, making them valuable for research and
regenerative medicine.
Embryonic Stem Cells (ESCs
 Adult (Somatic) Stem Cells
Source
• Found in various tissues in the body, such as bone marrow,
skin, and fat (adipose tissue).
Potency
• Multipotent, meaning they can differentiate into a limited
range of cell types related to their tissue of origin. For
example, hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow can
become various types of blood cells.
Characteristics
• They play a vital role in tissue maintenance, repair, and
regeneration throughout an organism's life.
Adult (Somatic) Stem Cells
 Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
(iPSCs)
Source
• Adult cells (such as skin or blood cells) that have been
genetically reprogrammed to an embryonic stem cell-like
state by introducing specific transcription factors.
Potency
• Pluripotent, similar to embryonic stem cells, allowing them to
differentiate into nearly any cell type.
Characteristics
• iPSCs provide a valuable tool for research and potential
therapeutic applications, as they can be generated without
the ethical concerns associated with embryonic stem cells.
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)
 Perinatal Stem Cells
Source
• Found in the tissues associated with the perinatal period,
such as the umbilical cord blood, placenta, and amniotic fluid.
Potency
• Multipotent or oligopotent, capable of differentiating into a
limited number of cell types.
Characteristics
• These stem cells have shown promise for use in regenerative
medicine and tissue repair.
Perinatal Stem Cells
Mechanisms of stem cell differentiation
• Stem cell differentiation is a complex process that allows
stem cells to develop into specialized cell types.
• This transformation is influenced by various intrinsic and
extrinsic factors, including signaling pathways,
transcription factors, and the cellular microenvironment.
• The key mechanisms involved in stem cell differentiation
include:
• Intrinsic Factors
• Extrinsic Factors
• Signaling Pathways
• Microenvironment and Niche
• Temporal Dynamics
 Intrinsic Factors
• Gene Expression:
• The differentiation process
begins with changes in gene
expression.
• Specific genes are
activated or repressed,
leading to the production of
proteins that guide the
cell’s development.
 Intrinsic Factors
Transcription Factors:
• These proteins bind to DNA
and regulate the expression of
target genes.
• Different transcription
factors are responsible for
driving stem cells toward
specific lineages.
• For example, the transcription
factor Oct4 is critical for
maintaining pluripotency, while
others like MyoD are involved
in muscle differentiation.
 Intrinsic Factors
Epigenetic Modifications:
• Changes in the epigenome (e.g.,
DNA methylation and histone
modification) can alter gene
expression without changing
the DNA sequence.
• These modifications can
stabilize the differentiation
state and influence the
potential of stem cells to
become specific cell types.
 Extrinsic Factors
Cell-Cell Interactions:
• Stem cells receive signals
from neighboring cells
through direct contact or
through secreted signaling
molecules.
• These interactions can
promote or inhibit
differentiation.
 Extrinsic Factors
Growth Factors and Cytokines:
• Soluble factors released by
surrounding cells or the
extracellular matrix can
influence stem cell fate.
• For instance, signals such as
fibroblast growth factors
(FGFs) and transforming
growth factor-beta (TGF-β)
play critical roles in guiding
stem cells toward specific
lineages.
 Extrinsic Factors
Extracellular Matrix (ECM):
• The ECM provides
structural and biochemical
support to surrounding cells.
• It can influence stem cell
behavior through mechanical
signals and by presenting
specific cues (like adhesion
molecules) that promote
differentiation.

Role of ECM in regulating stem cell fate

 Signaling Pathways
• Various signaling pathways are crucial in directing stem cell
differentiation:
1. Wnt Pathway
2. Notch Signaling
3. Hedgehog Pathway
4. Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs)
 Signaling Pathways: Wnt Pathway
• This pathway is involved in
numerous developmental
processes, including cell
fate determination.
• Wnt signaling can promote
the differentiation of stem
cells into various lineages,
depending on the context.
 Signaling Pathways: Notch Signaling
• This pathway is important for lateral
inhibition, where a signaling stem cell
inhibits neighboring cells from
adopting the same fate, thus promoting
differentiation into distinct cell types.
• After Notch receptor and its ligand
interact at the cell-to-cell surface
• Notch receptor is cleaved twice by
ADAM metalloprotease and gama-
secretase.
• Notch ICD (NICD) translocates into
the nucleus and then binds to the DNA
binding protein CSL and recruits several
co-activators to initiate Notch target
genes transcription.
Notch signaling pathway
 Signaling Pathways: Hedgehog
Pathway
• This pathway regulates cell
growth and differentiation
during development.
• It plays a critical role in
specifying cell fates in
various tissues.
 Signaling Pathways: Hedgehog
Pathway
• The Hedgehog signaling pathway
is inactive in the absence of
sonic Hedgehog (SHH) ligand.
• In the presence of Shh, HH
pathway can be activated.
• Ptch1-induced SMO repression is
relieved, thereby allowing the
activation of SMO.
• This initiates Gli release from
SUFU.
• Further promoting the increased
Gli-target gene transcription.
 Signaling Pathways: Bone
Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs)
• BMP signaling is involved
in the differentiation of
mesenchymal stem cells
into bone and cartilage,
highlighting its role in
skeletal development.
 Microenvironment and Niche
Stem Cell Niche:
• Stem cells exist within
specialized microenvironments
called niches
• Niches provide essential
signals and support for
maintaining stemness and
regulating differentiation.
• The niche can influence the
balance between self-renewal
and differentiation.
 Microenvironment and Niche
• During normal homeostasis, stem cells
in the niche undergo an asymmetric
division (red arrows) in order to both
self-renew and produce a transit-
amplifying population of progenitors
(green arrows) that proliferate and
then differentiate to replace or repair
normal tissues.
• In the case of cancer (lower panel),
progenitor expansion and
differentiation contribute to the
growth of the tumor.
• Lineage conversions can also occur
from fully differentiated cells (blue
arrows), either to a less differentiated
state or between different types of
differentiated cells.
 Temporal Dynamics
Developmental Timing:
• The timing of signals and the sequence of gene expression
during development are critical for proper differentiation.
• Temporal regulation ensures that stem cells differentiate at
the right time and in response to the appropriate
environmental cues.
 Applications of stem cells
Regenerative Medicine
• Tissue Repair and Regeneration: Stem cells can be used to
regenerate damaged tissues and organs.
• For example, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are used in
bone marrow transplants to treat blood disorders such as
leukemia and anemia.
• Organ Regeneration: Research is underway to use stem cells
to regenerate organs like the heart, liver, and pancreas. For
example, stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (heart muscle
cells) are being explored for treating heart disease.
 Applications of stem cells
Treatment of Diseases
• Genetic Disorders: Stem cells offer the potential for gene
therapy, where defective genes in stem cells can be
corrected and then differentiated into healthy cells to
replace defective ones (e.g., in conditions like sickle cell
anemia).
• Neurodegenerative Diseases: Stem cells are being
investigated for treating conditions such as Parkinson’s
disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and multiple sclerosis.
• The idea is to replace damaged neurons or support brain
repair through the introduction of neural stem cells.
 Applications of stem cells
Cancer Treatment
• Cancer Research: Stem cells are used to create cancer
models that help in understanding tumor biology and testing
new anti-cancer drugs.
• Cancer stem cells, which have the ability to self-renew and
differentiate, are being studied to develop targeted
therapies.
• Bone Marrow Transplants: This is a common treatment for
hematological cancers, where HSCs are transplanted to
restore the patient’s blood cell production after
chemotherapy.
 Applications of stem cells
Drug Development and Testing
• Pharmaceutical Research: Stem cell-derived cells can be
used to test the efficacy and toxicity of new drugs. For
example, human iPSCs can be differentiated into specific
cell types to assess drug responses, reducing reliance on
animal models and providing more relevant human data.
• Disease Modeling: Stem cells can be used to create cellular
models of diseases. This allows researchers to study disease
mechanisms, screen for potential drugs, and understand the
effects of mutations in specific genes.
 Applications of stem cells
Personalized Medicine
• Tailored Therapies: iPSCs derived from a patient’s own cells
can be used to create personalized models for drug testing
and disease understanding. This approach minimizes the risk
of immune rejection and allows for therapies that are
specifically tailored to an individual’s genetic makeup.
 Applications of stem cells
Tissue Engineering
• Bioprinting and Scaffolding: Stem cells are used in tissue
engineering to create bioengineered tissues and organs.
They can be seeded onto scaffolds that provide structural
support for tissue growth, potentially leading to the
creation of functional tissue for transplantation.
 Applications of stem cells
Clinical Trials and Research
• Ongoing Clinical Trials: Numerous clinical trials are
exploring the efficacy of stem cell therapies for various
conditions, including spinal cord injuries, heart disease, and
autoimmune disorders. The outcomes of these trials are
critical for advancing stem cell applications in clinical
settings.
 Applications of stem cells
Potential in Other Fields
• Cosmetic Applications: Stem cells are being researched for
their potential in cosmetic treatments, such as skin
regeneration and anti-aging therapies.
• Veterinary Medicine: Stem cell therapy is also being
explored in veterinary medicine to treat injuries and
diseases in animals, providing insights that could enhance
human therapies.
 Extracellular Matrix
(ECM) and Cell Adhesion
 Introduction
• The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex network of
proteins and carbohydrates that provides structural and
biochemical support to surrounding cells.
• It plays a critical role in
1. Tissue development
2. Maintenance
3. Function
 Structure of the Extracellular
Matrix
Composition:
• The ECM is composed of
various macromolecules,
including proteins,
glycoproteins,
proteoglycans, and
polysaccharides.
• The specific composition
varies depending on the
tissue type and its
functional requirements.
Structure of the Extracellular Matrix
Organization:
• The ECM has a highly organized arrangement that can vary
in density, composition, and mechanical properties.
• This organization allows it to fulfill different roles in
various tissues, such as providing tensile strength in
tendons or flexibility in cartilage.
Layers:
• In some tissues, the ECM is organized into layers, such as
the basement membrane found beneath epithelial tissues,
which provides support and filtration.
 Components of the Extracellular
Matrix
Fibrous Proteins
Collagens: The most abundant proteins
in the ECM, collagens provide tensile
strength and structural integrity.
• There are several types of collagen,
with Type I being the most common
in connective tissues, such as bone
and skin.
Elastin: This protein provides
elasticity to tissues, allowing them to
stretch and return to their original
shape.
• It is particularly important in
tissues that require flexibility, such
as lungs and blood vessels.
 Components of the Extracellular
Matrix
Glycoproteins
• Fibronectin: A key glycoprotein that
facilitates cell adhesion and
migration.
• It helps anchor cells to the ECM and
is involved in wound healing and
tissue repair.
• Laminin: A major component of the
basement membrane, laminin plays a
crucial role in cell adhesion,
differentiation, and migration.
• It interacts with other ECM
components and cell surface
receptors.
 Components of the Extracellular
Matrix
Proteoglycans
• Proteoglycans consist of a core
protein with attached
glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains, which
are long, unbranched polysaccharides.
• These molecules help retain water and
provide a gel-like consistency to the
ECM, contributing to its hydration and
resilience.
• Examples include aggrecan (found in
cartilage) and decorin (found in many
connective tissues), which play roles in
maintaining tissue structure and
function.
 Components of the Extracellular
Matrix
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
• GAGs are negatively charged
polysaccharides that attract water,
contributing to the hydration and
viscosity of the ECM.
• They play critical roles in maintaining
the shape and integrity of tissues.
• Common GAGs include hyaluronic acid,
chondroitin sulfate, and heparan
sulfate.
• Hyaluronic acid, in particular, is
abundant in connective tissues and plays
a role in cell signaling and tissue
hydration.
 Components of the
Extracellular Matrix Integrins and Cell Adhesion
Molecules
Extracellular Matrix • Integrins are transmembrane
receptors that mediate the
Collagen
attachment between cells and the
ECM.
• They connect the ECM to the
Integrin Receptor cytoskeleton, facilitating
Extracellular
communication between the external
environment and the cell interior.
Plasma Membrane Intracellular • Other adhesion molecules, such as
cadherins and selectins, also play
roles in cell-to-cell and cell-to-ECM
interactions, influencing tissue
Integrin binding protein Cytoskeleton structure and function.
Functions of the Extracellular Matrix
• Structural Support: The ECM provides a scaffold that maintains
tissue architecture and supports cells within various tissues.
• Cell Adhesion and Migration: ECM components facilitate cell adhesion,
allowing cells to attach and migrate. This is essential for processes
such as wound healing and tissue repair.
• Regulation of Cell Behavior: The ECM influences cell proliferation,
differentiation, and gene expression through biochemical signaling and
mechanical properties.
• Mechanical Properties: The ECM contributes to the mechanical
strength and elasticity of tissues, allowing them to withstand various
physical stresses.
• Storage and Release of Growth Factors: The ECM can store signaling
molecules and growth factors, releasing them in response to specific
stimuli to regulate cellular activities.
 Cell Adhesion Mechanisms
• Cell adhesion is a fundamental
process by which cells
interact and attach to
neighboring cells or the
extracellular matrix (ECM).
• This mechanism is crucial for
A. Maintaining tissue
structure,
B. Facilitating
communication between
cells, and
C. Regulating various cellular
functions.
 Types of Cell Adhesion Mechanisms
Cell-Cell Adhesion
Adherens Junctions:
• These junctions are formed by
cadherins, a family of
transmembrane proteins that
mediate calcium-dependent
adhesion between cells.
• Adherens junctions connect the
actin cytoskeleton of adjacent
cells, playing a crucial role in
maintaining tissue integrity and
facilitating communication.
 Types of Cell Adhesion Mechanisms
Cell-Cell Adhesion
Desmosomes:
• These are specialized cell-cell
junctions that provide strong
adhesion between cells,
particularly in tissues
subjected to mechanical
stress, such as skin and
cardiac muscle.
• Desmosomes are composed of
cadherins and intermediate
filaments, providing
structural stability.
 Types of Cell Adhesion Mechanisms
Cell-Cell Adhesion
Tight Junctions:
• Formed by claudins and
occludins, tight junctions
create a seal between adjacent
cells, preventing the passage
of substances through the
intercellular space.
• They are essential for
maintaining the integrity of
epithelial barriers, such as in
the intestines and blood-brain
barrier.
 Types of Cell Adhesion Mechanisms
Cell-Cell Adhesion
Gap Junctions:
• Are methods of communication between
cells. They are like tunnels that can be
used to transmit ions, molecules,
peptides or nucleic acid
• These specialized channels allow for
direct communication between adjacent
cells through connexins, enabling the
transfer of ions and small molecules.
• Each cell from half of the gap junction.
The two halves must match in order for
the junction to be formed
• Gap junctions are crucial for
coordinating cellular activities, such as
in cardiac muscle contraction.
 Types of Cell Adhesion Mechanisms
Cell-Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
Adhesion
Integrins:
• These are transmembrane
receptors that mediate the
attachment of cells to the ECM.
• Integrins bind to specific ECM
components, such as fibronectin,
laminin, and collagen, and connect
to the cell's cytoskeleton.
• This connection facilitates signal
transduction, influencing cell
survival, proliferation, and
differentiation.
 Types of Cell Adhesion Mechanisms
Cell-Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
Adhesion
Focal Adhesions:
• These are specialized structures
formed by the clustering of
integrins and associated proteins
at the cell-ECM interface.
• Focal adhesions anchor the
cytoskeleton to the ECM and serve
as signaling hubs, integrating
external signals and regulating
cellular responses to the
environment.
 Types of Cell Adhesion Mechanisms
Cytoskeletal Interactions
• The cytoskeleton plays a critical role in cell adhesion by
providing mechanical support and facilitating the movement
of adhesion molecules to the cell membrane.
• Actin filaments are particularly important for maintaining
the integrity of adherens junctions and focal adhesions.
 Types of Cell Adhesion Mechanisms
Actin Dynamics
• The polymerization and depolymerization of actin filaments
can regulate the strength and stability of cell adhesion.
• For example, actin reorganization can occur during
processes like migration, where cells must detach from their
current location and adhere to new substrates.
 Mechanisms of Adhesion
Molecular Recognition
1. Cell adhesion is often mediated by specific molecular
interactions between adhesion molecules on the
surfaces of cells and ECM components. For example,
integrins recognize specific sequences in ECM proteins,
facilitating adhesion.
2.Homophilic and Heterophilic Interactions: Adhesion
molecules can interact with identical molecules
(homophilic) or different types of molecules
(heterophilic) to promote cell adhesion. Cadherins
typically mediate homophilic interactions, while integrins
often mediate heterophilic interactions.
 Mechanisms of Adhesion
Signal Transduction
• Adhesion is not just a physical process; it also involves
signaling pathways that influence cellular behavior.
• When adhesion molecules engage with their partners, they
trigger intracellular signaling cascades that can affect gene
expression, cytoskeletal dynamics, and cell survival.
Integrin Signaling:
• Integrins activate various signaling pathways (e.g., focal
adhesion kinase, PI3K/Akt) that regulate processes such as
cell proliferation, migration, and survival by linking the
extracellular environment to intracellular responses.
 Mechanisms of Adhesion
Mechanical Forces
• Cells experience mechanical forces that influence adhesion.
• Mechanical tension can strengthen cell adhesion by
promoting the clustering of adhesion molecules and
enhancing their interaction with the ECM.
 Biological Importance of Cell
Adhesion
• Tissue Integrity: Cell adhesion is essential for maintaining
the structure and integrity of tissues. Proper adhesion
between cells ensures that tissues can withstand mechanical
forces and maintain their function.
• Development: During embryonic development, cell adhesion
plays a crucial role in organizing cells into tissues and organs.
Changes in adhesion can lead to processes such as epithelial-
to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which is important for
development and wound healing.
• Immune Response: Cell adhesion mechanisms are critical in
the immune system, allowing immune cells to adhere to and
migrate through blood vessels to sites of infection or injury.
 Biological Importance of Cell
Adhesion
• Wound Healing: Proper cell adhesion is vital for the repair
of damaged tissues. Cells must migrate to the wound site,
adhere to the ECM, and proliferate to restore tissue
integrity.
• Cancer Metastasis: In cancer, alterations in cell adhesion
can lead to increased cell migration and invasion,
contributing to metastasis. Understanding adhesion
mechanisms in cancer cells can provide insights into
potential therapeutic targets.
 Role of ECM and cell adhesion in
development and disease
• The extracellular matrix (ECM) and cell adhesion play
critical roles in both development and disease.
• They are essential for maintaining tissue integrity,
regulating cellular behavior, and facilitating communication
between cells.
 Role of ECM in Development
Tissue Formation and Morphogenesis
• The ECM provides structural support and scaffolding for
cells during tissue development. It guides the organization
of cells into specific tissue architectures, helping to form
organs and systems.
• Morphogen gradients in the ECM can influence cell fate
decisions and the spatial organization of developing tissues,
directing cells to proliferate, differentiate, or migrate to
specific locations.
 Role of ECM in Development
Cellular Signaling
• The ECM is not just a passive support structure; it actively
participates in signaling pathways that regulate cell
behavior. Growth factors and cytokines can be sequestered
within the ECM and released in response to specific cues,
influencing cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival.
• For example, the interaction between ECM components and
integrins can trigger intracellular signaling pathways that
affect gene expression and cellular responses.
 Role of ECM in Development
Stem Cell Niche
• The ECM plays a crucial role in creating and maintaining the
stem cell niche, where stem cells reside and receive signals
that regulate their behavior. The composition and
mechanical properties of the ECM can influence stem cell
fate, promoting self-renewal or differentiation.
• Changes in the ECM during development can influence the
transition of stem cells into specialized cell types,
contributing to tissue development.
Role of Cell Adhesion in Development
1.Cell-Cell Interactions
1. Cell adhesion molecules, such as cadherins and integrins,
mediate interactions between adjacent cells, which are
essential for tissue integrity and organization. These
interactions help establish tissue boundaries and maintain
the structure of epithelial layers.
2.During processes like gastrulation, cell adhesion allows
cells to adhere and rearrange, leading to the formation
of germ layers.
 Role of ECM in Development
Cell Migration
• Cell adhesion is vital for the migration of cells during
embryonic development.
• Cells must detach from their original location, migrate to
new areas, and adhere to the ECM or other cells to form
functional tissues.
• This is particularly important in processes like neural crest
migration and mesoderm formation.
 Role of ECM in Development
Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition (EMT)
• EMT is a process where epithelial cells lose their adhesive
properties and gain migratory characteristics, allowing them
to contribute to tissue remodeling and organ formation.
• This transition is critical in development and is regulated by
changes in cell adhesion and ECM composition.
 Role of ECM and Cell Adhesion in
Disease
Cancer
• Tumor Progression: Changes in the ECM composition and
alterations in cell adhesion molecules can contribute to
tumor progression. Cancer cells often exhibit increased
motility and invasiveness, allowing them to break away from
the primary tumor and metastasize to other tissues.
• Cancer Stem Cells: The ECM can influence the behavior of
cancer stem cells, promoting self-renewal and resistance to
therapy. Understanding the ECM's role in cancer can lead to
targeted therapies that disrupt these interactions.
 Role of ECM and Cell Adhesion in
Disease
Fibrosis
• In diseases such as pulmonary fibrosis and liver cirrhosis,
excessive deposition of ECM components leads to tissue
scarring and loss of function.
• This pathological remodeling is often driven by chronic
inflammation and activated fibroblasts, which produce
excess ECM.
• Altered cell adhesion properties contribute to fibroblast
activation and the progression of fibrotic diseases.
 Role of ECM and Cell Adhesion in
Disease
Wound Healing
• Proper ECM remodeling and cell adhesion are crucial for
effective wound healing.
• Disruptions in these processes can lead to chronic wounds or
improper healing responses, such as hypertrophic scars or
keloids.
 Role of ECM and Cell Adhesion in
Disease
Cardiovascular Diseases
• Changes in ECM composition and cell adhesion in vascular
tissues can lead to conditions such as atherosclerosis.
• The thickening of the arterial wall and changes in cell
adhesion can contribute to plaque formation and
cardiovascular complications.
 Role of ECM and Cell Adhesion in
Disease
Neurological Disorders
• In conditions like Alzheimer’s disease, the ECM and cell
adhesion molecules can influence neuroinflammation and
neuronal connectivity.
• Alterations in ECM composition may affect synaptic function
and contribute to cognitive decline.
Cytoskeleton
 Introduction
• The cytoskeleton is a dynamic and complex network of
filaments and tubules that provides structural support,
shape, and organization to cells.
• It plays crucial roles in various cellular processes, including
cell division, intracellular transport, and cell motility.
 Components of the Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton is primarily composed of three types of
protein filaments:
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate Filaments
• Microtubules
 Microfilaments
• Structure: Composed of actin, microfilaments are the thinnest
components of the cytoskeleton, with a diameter of about 7 nm.
They can exist in a single filament or form network
• Functions
• Cell Shape and Structure: Microfilaments provide mechanical
support and help maintain the cell's shape.
• Cell Motility: They are involved in cell movement processes such
as amoeboid movement and muscle contraction.
• Cytokinesis: During cell division, microfilaments form a
contractile ring that helps in the separation of daughter cells.
 Intermediate Filaments
• Structure: Intermediate filaments have a diameter of about
10 nm and are composed of various proteins, including
keratins, vimentin, and lamins. They are more stable and less
dynamic than microfilaments and microtubules.
• Functions:
• Mechanical Support: They provide tensile strength to
cells and help resist mechanical stress.
• Nuclear Structure: Nuclear lamins, a type of
intermediate filament, provide structural support to the
nuclear envelope and are involved in organizing the
chromatin.
 Microtubules
• Structure: Microtubules are hollow tubes with a diameter of
about 25 nm, composed of tubulin dimers (alpha and beta
tubulin). They can rapidly polymerize and depolymerize,
allowing for dynamic changes in cell shape and organization.
• Functions:
• Cell Shape: Microtubules help maintain the cell's shape
and provide tracks for intracellular transport.
• Cell Division: They form the mitotic spindle during
mitosis, facilitating the separation of chromosomes.
• Intracellular Transport: Motor proteins (e.g., kinesin and
dynein) travel along microtubules, transporting cellular
cargo such as organelles and vesicles.
 Functions of the Cytoskeleton
• Maintaining Cell Shape and Structure
• The cytoskeleton provides mechanical support to the cell,
helping to maintain its shape and resist external forces.
• Cell Motility
• The cytoskeleton is essential for cell movement, allowing
cells to crawl, swim, or change shape. This is particularly
important in processes like wound healing and immune
responses.
 Functions of the Cytoskeleton
• Intracellular Transport
• The cytoskeleton facilitates the movement of organelles,
vesicles, and proteins within the cell through a network of
tracks provided by microtubules and actin filaments.
• Cell Division
• During mitosis, the cytoskeleton plays a critical role in
chromosome alignment and separation, ensuring accurate
distribution of genetic material to daughter cells.
 Functions of the Cytoskeleton
• Cell Signaling and Communication
• The cytoskeleton participates in signal transduction
pathways by transmitting signals from the cell surface to
the interior, influencing cell behavior and response to
external stimuli.
• Tissue Organization
• In multicellular organisms, the cytoskeleton helps organize
cells into tissues by facilitating cell adhesion and
communication.
 Significance of the Cytoskeleton
• Development and Morphogenesis: The cytoskeleton is
crucial during embryonic development, shaping tissues and
organs through cell movement and differentiation.
• Pathological Conditions: Abnormalities in cytoskeletal
components can lead to various diseases, including cancer,
neurodegenerative disorders, and muscular dystrophies. For
example, alterations in actin dynamics can affect cell
migration and invasion in cancer metastasis.
• Drug Targets: The cytoskeleton is a target for various
therapeutic agents. For instance, drugs like paclitaxel
(Taxol) stabilize microtubules and are used in cancer
treatment.