Received: 28 March 2022 Revised: 13 July 2022 Accepted: 6 August 2022

DOI: 10.1002/er.8581

REVIEW PAPER

The role of power device technology in the electric vehicle

powertrain

Endika Robles | Asier Matallana | Iker Aretxabaleta | Jon Andreu |

Markel Ferna
ndez | José Luis Martín

Faculty of Engineering, University of the

Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Summary
Spain In the automotive industry, the design and implementation of power converters
and especially inverters, are at a turning point. Silicon (Si) IGBTs are at present
Correspondence
Endika Robles, Faculty of Engineering, the most widely used power semiconductors in most commercial vehicles. How-
University of the Basque Country ever, this trend is beginning to change with the appearance of wide-bandgap
(UPV/EHU), Plaza Ingeniero Torres
(WBG) devices, particularly silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN). It is
Quevedo 1, Bilbao 48013, Spain.
Email: [email protected] therefore advisable to review their main features and advantages, to update the
degree of their market penetration, and to identify the most commonly used
Funding information
Eusko Jaurlaritza, Grant/Award Number:
alternatives in automotive inverters. In this paper, the aim is therefore to summa-
IT1440-22; Ministerio de Ciencia e rize the most relevant characteristics of power inverters, reviewing and providing
Innovaci
on, Grant/Award Number: a global overview of the most outstanding aspects (packages, semiconductor
PID2020-115126RB-I00
internal structure, stack-ups, thermal considerations, etc.) of Si, SiC, and GaN
power semiconductor technologies, and the degree of their use in electric vehicle
powertrains. In addition, the paper also points out the trends that semiconductor
technology and next-generation inverters will be likely to follow, especially when
future prospects point to the use of “800 V" battery systems and increased switch-
ing frequencies. The internal structure and the characteristics of the power mod-
ules are disaggregated, highlighting their thermal and electrical characteristics.
In addition, aspects relating to reliability are considered, at both the discrete
device and power module level, as well as more general issues that involve the
entire propulsion system, such as common-mode voltage.

KEYWORDS
automotive, electric drive, IGBT, inverter, MOSFET, power electronics, power
semiconductors, wide-bandgap materials

1 | INTRODUCTION conversion and efficient energy management. Today,

there is a wide range of power semiconductor devices
Power semiconductors are key components of any mod- and technologies1 with constant improvements in both
ern system of power electronics that contribute to energy their electro-thermal characteristics and their packages.

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.
© 2022 The Authors. International Journal of Energy Research published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

22222 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/er Int J Energy Res. 2022;46:22222–22265.

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ROBLES ET AL. 22223

The choice of one type of semiconductor over another is produce devices with better features such as SOA,8,9
conditioned by the application for which it is intended. power density,10 oscillations,11 reliability,12 and tempera-
In this sense, the main criteria for selecting a device are ture.13,14 There are also alternative developments that
voltage-current ranges, switching speed, power losses, add additional characteristics to IGBTs (Reverse Blocking
maximum operating temperature, and cost, among (RB) and Reverse Conducting (RC)).15,16 However, it is
others. difficult to obtain a clear classification based on IGBT
The predominant semiconductor technology in an internal structures, because there are multitude of vari-
electric vehicle powertrain converter is the silicon (Si) ants and developments. Nevertheless, a general classifica-
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT).2,3 Each genera- tion is prepared in this literature review, based on the
tion of this device has significant electro-thermal advances relating to cell and vertical substrate technolo-
improvements, achieving considerable technological gies.17 This classification is also complemented by the
maturity, for use in automotive traction inverters* technological developments of some reference manufac-
(Figure 1). As silicon technology will dominate the semi- turers such as Infineon, Fuji Electric, and Mitsubishi. In
conductor market in the short term,4 and will probably this way, an overview of the IGBT families is obtained,
account for approximately 85% of the market by 2025 providing designers with additional information to better
(Figure 2A), understanding the development of these understand various comparative studies between Si
devices based on silicon technology and their improve- IGBTs and wide-bandgap (WBG) technologies.18,19
ments will provide useful insights into their future In general, discrete devices alone do not meet the strin-
developments. gent current rating requirements that are applicable to
There are several publications that describe the automotive power inverters. To do so, manufacturers have
advances of the IGBT structure,5,6 combining the developed different power module architectures,1,3,20
improvements that various manufacturers have added to where the bare dies are parallelized. The most widely used
semiconductor cathode and anode technologies,7 which architectures to form the inverter (commonly known as

F I G U R E 1 Electric vehicle
powertrain, highlighting power
converters, and their different
forms of integration via power
modules
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22224 ROBLES ET AL.

the Voltage Source Inverter [VSI]) of the electric vehicle Table 1 compares some converters, based on discrete
powertrain are the 2-in-1 or half-bridge and the 6-in-1 or devices or power modules, that are used in the power-
six-pack (Figure 1), although some manufacturers have train of commercial electric vehicles‡. In general, most
also developed some other custom designs. For example, vehicle manufacturers, such as Nissan, BMW, Audi,
Fuji Electric has developed an all-in-1 module for the Toyota, and Chevrolet use power modules with silicon
Honda Accord that consists of an Integrated Power Mod- IGBTs based on the aforementioned architectures (1-in-1,
ule (IPM) and includes a boost converter and two three- 2-in-1, etc.). However, there are also some commercial
phase inverters. This module is packaged with conven- vehicles that include discrete IGBT devices in their
tional technology but it includes a direct-cooling heatsink inverters, as in the case of Tesla (Roadster, Model S, or
with straight fins bonded to the substrate.2 Other examples Model X) models, which use International Rectifier semi-
are the inverters of the Chevrolet Volt and the Tesla Model conductors (AUIR family, TO-247 package) on a power
3, the designs for which were based on 1-in-1 architec- Printed Circuit Board (PCB). In addition, some examples
tures. Some notable features of the Chevrolet Volt inverter of vehicles already on the market that use SiC technology
are that wire bonds are replaced by a flip-chip soldering such as the BYD Han and the Lucid Air are also shown
technique to improve the current distribution and the reli- in Table 1.
ability of the die interconnection. In addition, ceramic sub- Regarding the semiconductor market, Figure 2B
strates are included with a Coefficient of Thermal shows the trend of the power modules between
Expansion (CTE) equal to the CTE of silicon, so as to miti- 2019-2025 where growth levels of 9.1% are expected.26
gate the thermal stress.2 Instead, the Tesla Model 3 inverter The market for electric vehicles has experienced the
has the notable feature of being the first inverter in a com- greatest growth of power modules, and is projected to rise
mercial vehicle to include silicon carbide devices.3,21 Fol- from some 1000 million units in 2019 to 3000 million
lowing the Tesla vehicle, other manufacturers have since units in 2025. In this context, the highest number of
included WBG technologies in the inverters of their own power-module sales corresponds to Si technology (US
vehicles, specifically made of SiC materials. Likewise, $19.13 million) while WBG technologies, especially SiC
other materials such as gallium nitride (GaN)22 are also and GaN, are expected to represent around US$3.4 billion
under consideration†. in 2025.4 Both technologies are likely to lead to a

FIGURE 2 Market trend for Si, wide-bandgap (WBG)semiconductors and power module packaging (source: Yole Développment)
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22225

T A B L E 1 Features of power modules or discrete devices with the inverter fitted in some commercial vehicles (sorted by year and
semiconductor technology)2,3,28,29

Inverter Used Number modules/ Semiconductor

Vehicle Brand Model Year manufacturer topology discrete devices technologyh
Nissan Leaf 2012 Nissan 2-in-1 3 Si IGBT

Renault Zoe 2013 Continental/ 6-in-1 1 Si IGBT

Infineon

Mercedes-Benz S550 2014 Hitachi 2-in-1 3 Si IGBT

Honda Accordc 2014 Fuji Electric All-in-1 1 Si IGBT

Tesla Roadstere 2014 Infineon TO-247 discrete 84 Si IGBT

Tesla Model S70 Dd 2015 Infineon- TO-247 discrete 36 Si IGBT

Audi e-Tron PHEV 2016 Bosch 2-in-1 3 Si IGBT

BMW i3 2016 Infineon 6-in-1 1 Si IGBT

Cadillac CT6a 2016 Hitachi 2-in-1 6 Si IGBT

Chevrolet Volta 2016 Delphi 1-in-1 12 Si IGBT

Tesla Model Xe 2016 Infineon TO-247 discrete 84 Si IGBT

Toyota Prius4Gf 2016 Denso/Toyota 2-in-1 6 Si IGBT

Audi e-Tron BEVa 2019 Hitachi 2-in-1 6 Si IGBT

Volkswagen ID.3 2020 Infineon 6-in-1 1 Si IGBT

Tesla Model 3 2018 ST Microlec. 1-in-1 24i SiC MOSFET

BYD Hanb 2020 BYD Semicond. 6-in-1 1 SiC MOSFET

g g g
Lucid Air 2020 SiC MOSFET

a
Two motors and one inverter for each motor.
b
Some models include two motors and therefore two inverters. Only the main inverter includes SiC MOSFETs.
c
Two motors with a DC/DC and one inverter in a single custom module for each motor.
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22226 ROBLES ET AL.

d
One inverter with six TO-247 discrete devices per switch.
e
84 discrete T0-247, 36 for each inverter (one inverter for each motor), and 12 for the DC/DC (6 per switch).
f
Classified as an all-in-one module, because it includes DC/DC and 2 inverters in its customized power control unit.
g
Data not provided by the manufacturer.
h
In most cases, manufacturers provide no reference to identify the semiconductor that they use in their inverters.
i
Using many modules may require 1-in-1 module parallelization. The positive temperature coefficient (PTC) of SiC MOSFETs is responsible for increasing the
resistance where the current is highest and the current is therefore reduced that makes parallelization easier.30

CAGR2019–2025 (compound annual growth rate) in the sec- from WBG materials can cause some problems such as
tor of 4.3%. oscillations and electromagnetic interferences (EMI),49,50
According to this data, silicon will continue to domi- higher harmonic content,51 cross-talk effects,52 and the
nate the market over coming years, although a WBG effect of overvoltages on semiconductor shutdown.53,54 In
large-scale and sudden change will also be likely, espe- the literature, many works can be found in which
cially in SiC technology. This trend change is shown in attempts to solve the aforementioned problems are
Figure 2C. In fact, Yole Développement states that the SiC described through solutions that are mainly based on
power devices in electric vehicles are set to grow beyond reducing the negative effects of parasite inductances in
US$1.5 Billion in 2025.27 This growth in the demand for discrete devices55-58 or power modules (embedded bare
silicon and some WBG§ semiconductor technologies, and dies).59-62 Taking into account the new trends and techni-
their use, and production, implicitly entails increased cal requirements on this topic (in addition to others such
production of the various power-module technologies. as efficiency, losses, power density, cost, and size-weight
Considering the above, Figure 2D shows the expected ratio), the main features of power modules and discrete
development of each layer of the power modules, leading devices are explained in this review. At this point, the
to a CAGR2019–2025 of 10.7%, which means going from US benefits of using power modules compared to discrete
$1.47 billion in 2019 to US$2.71 billion in 2025.26 How- devices are highlighted, summarizing the main solutions
ever, although GaN inverter prototypes are also being for the electric vehicle.
tested,36 short-term forecasts show that SiC will coexist The implementation of WBG technology not only pre-
with Si and that both will prevail over GaN in relation to sents challenges at an electrical level, but also at a ther-
electric vehicle inverter technologies. mal level. One of the most important is the heat
A new paradigm is therefore emerging in the automo- evacuation capacity of power modules.63 For this reason,
tive powertrain industry,37,38 making it necessary to iden- the technical characteristics64-66 of the main solutions
tify the technological characteristics of WBG (stack-up layers, assembly techniques, materials, pack-
semiconductors compared to Si, thereby identifying their ages, etc.) are presented in this work. In addition, the
strengths and weaknesses.39,40 In many research works, technical limitations are described and summarized (λ
WBG devices,41 substrate technology,39 device operation and CTE), pinpointing the main technical solutions
mode,42 conduction and switching losses,43,44 reverse adopted by the manufacturers and the trends arising
conduction capacity and operating ranges,45 have been from recent experimental innovations (overmold,29,67,68
analyzed, among others. Such information is supplemen- double-sided DBC,69-72 IPM,73-75 and 3D structure65,76,77).
ted in this comprehensive literature review that is Likewise, the technical characteristics of the cooling sys-
focused on WBG devices of electric vehicle powertrains tems are also addressed, indicating the proven technolo-
and changing trends and usage over the medium-to-long- gies and the most advanced concepts to evacuate the heat
term,1,46 highlighting the most suitable SiC and GaN from the power modules, essential to prevent overheating
alternatives for future electric vehicles. Moreover, and device destruction.
changes within the automotive market are technically It is moreover to be highlighted that a significant per-
compared through an exhaustive analysis of WBG centage of powertrain system failures are due to power
manufacturers. electronic converter failures, which compromise system
Although the characteristics of WBG devices continue reliability. From the point of view of the designer of
improving to reach their maximum theoretical perfor- power converters, one of the main challenges to improve
mance, there is another great limitation linked to current reliability is to understand the causes behind the failure
package technology. The stray inductances (Lstray) intro- of semiconductor devices and power modules. In this
duced by the package have notable effects when attempt- sense, this paper provides an overview of the latest devel-
ing to operate at high switching frequencies with very opments that are being investigated to improve power
fast switching transients.47,48 For this reason, the leap electronic devices integrated into the vehicle powertrain,
from silicon technology to other semiconductors derived thereby covering the main aspects of switch
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22227

reliability.12,78-81 Moreover, complete operation of the

inverter is considered, reviewing reliability aspects such
as common-mode voltage.82-84
In summary, the main aim of this work is to provide
a global vision of the trends and challenges of semicon-
ductor devices and power modules that incorporate the
inverter of the electric vehicle propulsion systems,
emphasizing semiconductor technology, the device struc-
ture, different characteristics that influence the optimal
operation of the inverter, as well as other aspects that
affect the reliability of semiconductors and the power-
train system. Furthermore, it should be said that the
exhaustive review carried out in this document is focused
on the point of view of the electronic designer and engi-
neer, while other works in the literature address some of
these aspects from a more physical point of view. Bearing
in mind the above, the structure of this paper is as
follows.
FIGURE 3 IGBT internal structure and equivalent Darlington
Firstly, Section 2 focuses on the Si IGBT device tech-
circuit
nology, reviewing how its internal structure has evolved
and why it has been necessary to exploit other technolo-
gies. In addition, the power modules for the electric vehi- electric vehicle powertrain). Throughout its development,
cle market that include these devices are also analyzed. each innovation was based on the parts that form the
Subsequently, the highlights of WBG technology are IGBTs, mainly the cell and the vertical structure
reviewed in Section 3, analyzing the types of devices on (Figure 3).
the market, and focusing on devices that can compete
directly with the Si IGBT, which are the most suitable for
use in an electric vehicle. Then, the design aspects of 2.1 | Cell and vertical IGBT structure
power modules and discrete devices are reviewed in technologies
Section 4, such as packages, mechanical aspects, and
thermal behavior, among others. Moreover, the main The IGBT cell¶ or IGBT upper surface is where the emit-
cooling technologies used for heat dissipation in semicon- ter (E) and gate (G) terminals are located. The cell has
ductor devices in electric vehicles are included. In undergone considerable improvements throughout its
Section 5, critical aspects of semiconductor devices and development, and four different cell types have now been
power modules are explained, such as the effect of stray advanced85:
inductances and other reliability problems. Finally, the
most relevant conclusions of this study are presented in 1. Planar cell, Figure 4-①: the first IGBT cell structure,
Section 6. this conventional Planar cell had the limitation of
obtaining a high conduction voltage drop (VCES) and,
therefore, higher conduction losses.17 The dimensions
2 | SILICON TECHNOLOGY: of the cell structure and the doping profiles were opti-
SI IGB T mized, to resolve this problem, thereby reducing the
conduction losses.86 However, these improvements
IGBTs are devices that combine Metal-Oxide- were not sufficient and, as a result, new cell structures
Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) gating were proposed.
characteristics with the high current carrying capability 2. Enhanced Planar cell, Figure 4-②: to improve the cell
of the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). This semicon- technology, the IGBT was designed with a lightly
ductor is also characterized by low conduction voltages doped n-layer, known as a hole barrier, so that the
(low conduction losses) and short switching transients VCES is further reduced. The result is a reduction of
(low switching losses). Since its launch (around 1979 at conduction losses of up to 30% compared to conven-
General Electric), the device has undergone continuous tional technology.86 In addition to increased robust-
development, to the point where it is now the main semi- ness against overcurrents, as well as the ability to
conductor used in medium power applications (eg, the withstand short circuits. However, the main
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22228 ROBLES ET AL.

disadvantage of this cell alternative was the reduction forward voltage drop (VCES) and, consequently, the
in the blocking voltage of the IGBT.86 Even so, manu- conduction losses are as high as 30-40% compared to
facturers such as Hitachi in its HiGT device87 and the original Planar cell devices.89
ABB with the SPT+88 are committed to this technol- 4. Enhanced Trench cell, Figure 4-④: current IGBT
ogy, whose performance they expect to rival and even- designs combine the concepts of the enhanced Planar
tually outperform other cell architectures with better cell and the Trench cell. This enhanced Trench cell
performance, which is the case of the Trench cell and architecture adds a carrier hole barrier to the Trench
its respective developmental stages.86 cell to improve the carrier store.6,20 For example, the
3. Trench cell, Figure 4-③: this development broke with manufacturer Mitsubishi Electric uses this type of
the main limitations of conventional Planar technol- enhanced Trench cell in its CSTBT structure, achiev-
ogy, with which the generation of sufficient carriers in ing a 25% reduction in comparison with the turn-off
the emitter to reduce the conduction voltage and losses of the conventional Planar cell.90,91
power losses was not possible. For this purpose, a ver-
tical MOS channel was integrated over the Planar cell Besides, the vertical structure of the IGBT** encom-
structure, giving rise to the Trench cell. The main passes the drift region, the buffer layers (optional), and
characteristic of this technology is that it reduces the the IGBT collector terminal (Figure 4). There are two

FIGURE 4 Development of the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) structure

 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22229

main alternatives during their fabrication: (i) using an Recent IGBT developments are focused on combining
epitaxial wafer or (ii) using a Float Zone (FZ) wafer††. variants of the enhanced Trench cell with the most recent
These alternatives define the development stages that evolutions of the FS vertical structure.85 For example, the
characterize the various IGBT vertical structures85: Micro Pattern Trench (MPT) technology,97,98 developed
by Infineon, attempts to implement a further increase in
1. Punch Through (PT), Figure 4-⑤: here the vertical the width of the IGBT channel, which can be achieved by
structure is manufactured on an epitaxial substrate. narrow parallel trenches‡‡. It is of enormous benefit for
The first IGBTs employed such a structure (along with applications requiring no short-circuit withstand capabil-
Planar cells) and were characterized by having a ity, since a higher channel width directly lowers the on-
buffer layer that controls the IGBT electric field. The state voltage drop. Another relevant enhanced Trench FS
technology was developed for 300 to 1700 V ranges, as solution is the Carrier Stored Trench Gate Bipolar Tran-
it was complicated to obtain voltages above 2 kV due sistor (CSTBT),99,100 developed by Mitsubishi, which
to the limitations introduced by the epitaxial sub- reduces turn-off losses and provides greater tolerance to
strate. In fact, the PT structure required a large short-circuits, due to LPT§§ technology and the insertion
amount of silicon, increasing the device size and price. of the enhanced Trench cell with the CS layer.
In addition, this structure presented a high depen- Although the main research and evolution lines of
dence on the temperature of its electrical parameters IGBTs consist of obtaining improvements from the
and problems with device parallelization.5 Even so, enhanced Trench FS structure, there are also other
PT-IGBTs dominated in up to 600 V blocking voltage research lines to integrate new features, such as Reverse
applications for several years.92 Blocking (RB) and Reverse Conducting (RC). In this
2. Non-Punch Through (NPT), Figure 4-⑥): this structure sense, the IGBTs work together with an anti-parallel
was developed by a division of Siemens that is now diode, called a FreeWheeling Diode (FWD), which pro-
part of Infineon.92 For that purpose, an FZ substrate tects the IGBT and permits the flow of reverse current. It
was used, which improved short-circuit robustness is a totally necessary condition in applications such as
and made it possible to control carrier life span.5 electric vehicles, because a path is needed for inductive
Although NPT devices have higher conduction and currents when the IGBT is turned-off and, in addition, it
switching losses than PT devices, semiconductors for facilitates battery recharching from the motor during
ranges between 600-4500 V can be manufactured regenerative braking. As an example, Figure 5 shows the
using a smaller amount of silicon, breaking with the incorporation of the diode inside the Trench FS IGBT,¶¶
limitations of PTs. Another benefit of this structure is forming a RC IGBT device.20 This solution, which inte-
the lower dispersion of its electrical parameters grates the FWD into the IGBT structure, consists of divid-
between devices in the same batch, which is not the ing the anode p of the diode into several sections and the
case with PTs. Likewise, this structure has a positive cathode n is integrated in the IGBT emitter. In this way,
temperature coefficient, which makes its parameters the antiparallel diode uses the same silicon wafer as the
more stable when facing temperature variations, facil- IGBT,101 although there is no possibility of optimizing
itating the device parallelization (an absolutely neces- the diode independently of the IGBT. There is also the
sary condition in medium power applications such as
the electric vehicle powertrain).
3. Field Stop (FS), Figure 4-⑦: this structure is the result
of combining the advantages of PT and NPT technolo-
gies with the aim of improving conduction and
switching losses. Depending on the manufacturer, the
FS structure is also known by other names: Soft
Punch Through (SPT)86 and Light Punch Through
(LPT), from ABB and Mitsubishi respectively.20 The
optimization of the n-type layer is fundamental for
the FS structure, as well as the implementation of the
buffer layer to reduce the thickness of the device. This
minimizes conduction resistance without affecting the
blocking voltage. In addition, the turn off speed is also
improved, reducing switching losses, which therefore
permits higher switching frequencies.86 FIGURE 5 Structure of the RC-IGBT technology
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22230 ROBLES ET AL.

FIGURE 6 Development stages of Infineon 1200 V @75 A IGBT generations20,93-96

possibility of integrating the diode by placing both struc- has undoubtedly been driven by the requirements of one
tures, the IGBT and FWD, in parallel within the same particular application or another. In the specific case of
wafer (pilot diode102). A technique that improves the per- electric vehicles, manufacturers have been demanding
formance of the FWD, although it also increases the sur- increasing power densities, operating temperatures, effi-
face of the RC IGBT.103,104 ciencies, and better reliability characteristics. All these
Manufacturing costs also depend on the bare die size. developments have the aim of improving such aspects as
In this sense, the reduction of their size has also been an robustness, power ratings, dynamic response, and vehicle
objective in recent years, leading to the different IGBT autonomy. For this reason, among others, most manufac-
generations. During the stages of their development, turers opt to use power modules in their vehicles, as
along with the increase in power density, the maximum higher power densities are provided from systems that
operating temperatures have also increased at the same are, generally speaking, increasingly optimized. All these
time as the conduction voltage drop has been reduced. aspects are analyzed in greater detail in the following
An example is shown in Figure 6, which represents the sections.
stages and trends of bare die sizes for the different IGBT
generations of 1200 V/75 A from Infineon. As can be
seen, there has been a reduction in saturation voltage of 2.2 | IGBT-based power modules
approximately 55% and a 6-fold increase in power den-
sity. However, it should be noted that the reduction in The range of products on the market is very wide (both
device size reduces their robustness and short-circuit in discrete devices and power modules) and multiple var-
capability,105 so a compromise must be reached between iants of IGBT technologies may be found. In addition,
power losses, price, and robustness at each stage of its these variants are embedded in very diverse packages
development. (Section 4) and there is no specific regulation that deter-
Each stage in the development of IGBT technology, in mines the housing of each device/module. Although
which there has been an improvement in the device fea- there are a large number of manufacturers, as an exam-
tures (reduction of chip size and better usage of the sili- ple and in order to understand their differences, this
con surface, reduction of conduction voltage and work reviews the information provided by some of the
therefore reduction of conduction losses, improvement of major power semiconductor manufacturers, including
the shutdown process and reduction of the tail current Infineon, Fuji Electric, and Mitsubishi Electric. In this
(Itail), increase of the maximum blocking voltages and sense, Figures 7 and 8 show each main stage in the devel-
increase of the operating temperatures, among others) opment of the Si IGBTs that have been incorporated into
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22231

(A) Infineon [96, 106]. (B) Fuji Electric [96,107,108]. (C) Mitsubishi Electric [96,109-111].

F I G U R E 7 Development stages of turn-off energy in relation to conduction voltage for different generations of Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistor (IGBT) modules (based on information from Manufacturers)

their power modules. The main differences between each upon the characteristics of third generation modules
manufacturer's technologies are set out below: by up to 35% for conducting voltage and by up to 55%
for turn-off losses. The manufacturer also incorporates
• Infineon, Figure 8A: the IGBT technology that Infineon RC IGBT developments based on Trench FS (X series)
is currently using for its power modules is based on technology. In this case, the pilot diode technique is
Trench cell variants with FS vertical structure implemented to achieve the union between the IGBT
(Section 2.1). This manufacturer has named the power and FWD in the same substrate device.
modules according to their main characteristics (power • Mitsubishi Electric, Figure 8C: the fifth generation of
range, losses, switching speed, etc.) Some examples of power modules from this manufacturer, the vertical
these names are: E3 for its standard series, T3 for low LPT structure (equivalent to Infineon's FS), is imple-
loss devices, or T4, E4, and P4 for low, medium, and mented together with the enhanced Trench cell, yield-
high power series respectively. In this regard, ing the CSTBT device (Section 2.1). This device, also
Figure 7A shows the trend and evolution (in terms of considered as an enhanced Trench FS solution,
turn-off losses and conduction voltages) of some cur- achieves a significant reduction in power losses com-
rent modules. It is important to highlight the T7 tech- pared to previous generations. In addition, as with the
nology, which uses MPT technology (inside the power modules from Infineon and Fuji Electric, the
category enhanced Trench FS), as considerable latest CSTBT generations also have lower switching
improvements have been achieved, reducing the losses losses and conduction voltage. In fact, according to
by approximately 40% and the conducting voltage by Figure 7C, the seventh generation is superior to the
20% compared to the P4 series. Moreover, other devel- fifth generation by, approximately, 25% in both con-
opments are also presented such as the Reverse Con- ducting and switching losses. In addition, it also has
ducting Drives Automotive-Insulated Gate Bipolar RC IGBT developments, using the pilot diode tech-
Transistor (RCDA-IGBT), which includes the FWD nique on a CSTBT device (seventh generation) that
within the same substrate, thereby reducing the total optimizes the FWD and improves the thermal perfor-
area of the IGBT and diode assembly by more mance of the device.
than 60%.
• Fuji Electric, Figure 8B: this manufacturer has labeled Regarding the operating ranges of the available power
its power modules technologies with letters for each modules that the above-mentioned manufacturers are
series as each IGBT generation was innovated. As with currently marketing, Figure 9 shows the series/
Infineon, the commercial power modules consist of generations (classified by voltage -VCES- and current
the Trench cell combination with the FS vertical struc- -I cnom - ranges***) of the power modules (2-in-1 and 6-in-1)
ture (Section 2.1), as these have lower power losses, as marketed by some of the leading semiconductor manu-
shown in Figure 7B through the fifth, sixth, and sev- facturers (Infineon, Fuji Electric, Mitsubishi Electric, and
enth S Trench Cell device generations, using an MPT- Semikron).
like technology for the combination of the Trench cells Figure 9 also indicates the modules that are classified
with the vertical FS structure. In fact, looking at the as “automotive grade”††† (rounded technologies) or that
graph, some seventh generation modules improve are otherwise recommended by the manufacturer for use
1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL.

Development of the IGBTs used in various power modules according to the manufacturer
(B) Fuji Electric IGBT modules [104, 108, 125–128].

(C) Mitsubishi Electric IGBT modules [129–134].

(A) Infineon IGBT modules [104, 106, 120–124]

FIGURE 8
22232
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22233

F I G U R E 9 Operating range
of the IGBT module technologies
offered by the manufacturers
Infineon, Fuji Electric,
Mitsubishi Electric, and
Semikron, considering the
nominal current and the
blocking voltage

(A)

(B)

in electric vehicle applications. As can be seen, all manu- Conidering the classification of power module volt-
facturers offer solutions intended for electric mobility in ages, (600 to 750 V and 1200 V, Figure 9), the wide range
the “400 V" and the “800 V" ranges and for 2-in-1 and of modules (regardless of the automotive grade) that
6-in-1 configurations. Besides, this figure shows how cover the demand for vehicles categorized as “400 V" and
most of the power modules on offer reach the typical cur- “800 V" systems can be seen (most light electric vehicles
rent ranges (100 to 400 A) required by electric vehicles.2,3 are generally equipped with battery packs with a nominal
In this context, several examples confirming the latter voltage range between 250 V and 450 V, known as
can be found on the market: (i) vehicle manufacturers “400 V" systems; whereas in heavy electric vehicles
such as Toyota with 650 V-180 A modules, Honda Insight where most vehicles operate with nominal voltages close
with 600 V-300 A, Chevrolet Volt with 430 V-325 A, Nis- to 600-650 V and, in some sports cars, the voltage may
san Leaf with 600 V-340 A, and Mercedes Benz with slightly exceed 900 V, in which case they are known as
700 V-325 A2; and (ii) automotive traction inverter manu- “800 V" systems).1,114-119 Thus, 600 to 750 V rated mod-
facturers such as Cascadia-Rinehart112 with their prod- ules are suitable for “400 V" systems, while 1200 V rated
ucts in the “400 V" (PMX100DX 400 V-300 A; CM200DX modules‡‡‡ are suitable for “800 V" systems.
480 V-300 A) and “800 V" range (PM100DZ 820 V-150 A; On the other hand, Figure 9 shows that manufac-
CM200DZ 840 V-200 A); and BorgWarner manufacturer turers continue to rely on silicon technology (unlike SiC
(Gen4-Size10 800 V-200 A).113 technology where solutions for the automotive sector
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22234 ROBLES ET AL.

tend mainly to respond to the “800 V" systems), to cover Devices based on GaN have also improved their perfor-
the range of “400 V" and “800 V". mance in recent years. GaN material has higher electron
Finally, no notable trends are observed with regard to mobility than SiC, which means that GaN devices are better
the topology of the modules (2-in-1 and 6-in-1). Thus, suited for high-frequency switching operations. In general,
topologies in relation to both silicon technology although most parameters of GaN technology show supe-
(Figure 9) and SiC (Figure 14) have been designed for the rior characteristics to SiC devices (Figure 10), although the
inverter of the electric vehicle powertrains. Vehicle man- lower thermal conductivity of SiC technology makes it more
ufacturers usually opt for the three-phase inverter challenging for the high power density applications,141 used
(m = 3), in which case one 6-in-1 or three 2-in-1 topolo- in electric vehicles. Furthermore, unlike SiC devices, GaN
gies should be used. At this point, it is worth mentioning technology is manufactured on other substrates such as Si,
that multiphase machine technology (m > 3) brings with SiC and, even, sapphire, due to difficulties and low quality
it a series of advantages§§§ that make it attractive for materials for pure GaN substrates. Various GaN layers are
next-generation electric vehicles. In this case, and epitaxially grown on these substrates (Figure 11A), resulting
depending on the number of phases of the machine, mul- in lateral devices (current flows laterally) instead of vertical
tiphase inverters should normally be formed from 2-in-1 devices (current flows vertically) as with SiC devices¶¶¶.
topologies, in order to optimize the number of Commercially speaking, there are different SiC and
semiconductors. GaN devices,1 whose main characteristics are summarized
in Table 2. However, among all these devices, semiconduc-
tor manufacturers have mainly focused their efforts on SiC
3 | WIDE- BANDGAP ( WBG) MOSFET and GaN High-Electron-Mobility Transistor
T E C H N O L O G I E S : S I C AN D G A N (HEMT) devices as alternatives to the Si IGBT.
SEMICONDUCTORS

WBG devices have been improving their performance 3.1 | WBG alternatives to Si IGBT: SiC
thanks to innovations in their designs and manufacturing MOSFET and GaN HEMT
techniques.32,135 As a result of these advances, lower con-
duction voltage drops, higher operating temperatures, At present, there are no commercial solutions for IGBT
and better stability of all parameters may be achieved devices based on SiC and GaN materials. In the case of
with respect to temperature.
Today, SiC devices are an alternative to Si for medium-
power applications (ie, electric vehicles powertrain),136 as
the physical characteristics of SiC material (Figure 10) can
be used to manufacture smaller devices capable of with-
standing high blocking voltages, which switch more
quickly, thus reducing switching losses.137

(A)

(B)

F I G U R E 1 0 Physical properties of silicon and WBG materials F I G U R E 1 1 Layer structure and cascode configuration of GaN
based semiconductors32,34,35,138-140 HEMT for normally-off operation144-146
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22235

TABLE 2 Advantages and disadvantages of SiC and GaN devices1,32,144,150,155-161

Device Main advantages Main disadvantages

SiC diodes Lower reverse recovery charge than Si.
Lower switching losses than Si.
Positive temp. Coefficienta
PiN High Voltage (>3,3 kV). High reverse recovery current
Low leakage current (Temp. independent) High reverse recover charge
Low conduction resistance
SBD Typical voltage about 600 V Higher leakage current
Low reverse recovery current High variation with temperature
Low reverse recovery charge
JBS Hybrid device (SBD and PiN) 600 V-
3.3 kV
SiC BJT Normally-off Current controlled
Low conduction voltage drop Complexity of the driverb
Gate-emitter low conduction voltage
Fast switching dynamics
SiC JFET (lateral, High operation temp. Lateral JFET normally-onc
vertical) Threshold voltage no temp. dependency V TJFET normally-ond
e
Vertical JFET without parasitic diode
Low conduction resistance
SiC MOSFET Normally-off. Low robustness (gate reliability)
Gate charge similar to Si IGBTs
Same drivers as for Si IGBTs can be usedf
Ratings similar to Si IGBTsg
Higher switching frequencies
Positive temperature coefficienta
Higher thermal conductivity
GaN HEMT Conduction of current in both directions Normally-on
Active freewheeling diode Lateral structure (lower voltage blocking capacity)
Low conduction resistance Lower thermal dissipation than SiC
There are no GaN homogeneous substratesh
Cascode Normally-off (serial Si MOSFET) Conduction resistance increase (Si MOSFET)
Lower power losses than Si. Optimization of Si MOSFET cascode in each
application
Conventional MOSFET gate drivers
p-HEMT Normally-off Reliability issuesi
(No dielectric (insulator) issues Very complex gates, less voltage isolation
(Low resistance under the gate (channel)
MIS- Normally-off Critical impact of dielectric on device performancej
HEMT Large forward breakdown Very complex gates, less voltage isolation
High conduction resistance
a
Required for easy device parallelization.
b
Compared with the voltage controlled devices.
c
Compromising converter safety under transistor firing control malfunctions. Junction-Gate Field-Effect Transistors (JFET) devices are vertical. The term
lateral or vertical refers to the formation of the channel within the device.
d
VTJFET normally-on appears in cascode configuration to be normally-off.
e
Such parasitic diodes exhibit low performance, including high conduction losses.
f
Simplifying the migration from Si to WBG power conversion technology.
g
Taking into account that the SiC MOSFET is compared with the IGBT structure.
h
High quality of GaN substrates for vertical devices is under research (GaN-on-GaN technology159).
i
Optimization of p-GaN etching needed for low-access resistance and to prevent critical leakage current.158,159
j
New developments are necessary to optimize the gate dielectric interface, which affects conduction resistance and device reliability.160,161
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22236 ROBLES ET AL.

SiC, IGBT developments based on this technology are in anti-parallel JBS SiC diodes to improve power module
early research stages.147 In this context, the manufac- properties.
turers of semiconductors have committed themselves to 2. GaN HEMT: these devices are based on Si
the use of SiC MOSFETs and GaN HEMTs as competitors wafers142,143,162 (GaN-on-Si technology)**** on which
and alternatives to Si IGBTs. The highlights of these their AlGaN/GaN thin layers are placed (Figure 11A).
devices are reviewed below: Unlike previous devices, GaN HEMTs are turned on
by default (normally-on). In electric vehicles, as well
1. SiC MOSFET: these semiconductors are turned off by as in other power applications, it is very important, in
default (normally-off ) and provide a good balance terms of safety, to use normally-off devices.163 For this
between conduction and switching losses,137 mainly reason, the following two techniques are used, in
due to their low conduction resistance and gate charge order to obtain normally-off GaN HEMT devices:In
(Qg). Their introduction in power converters is inter- general, the low conduction resistance (eg, 25 mΩ
esting, as they reduce power losses compared to Si @650 V-60 A is the lowest value of an available 650 V
IGBTs (Figure 12). In addition, similar driver circuits single package) and fast switching speed achieved by
can be used as for Si IGBTs, which facilitate the tran- the GaN devices make them good candidates for cer-
sition between both technologies. On the other hand, tain electric vehicle applications. However, HEMTs
they can work without an external anti-parallel diode, are lateral devices with very narrow gates to ensure
because they incorporate an intrinsic diode (body their blocking ability (either for devices on and off by
diode) in their structure.137,148,149 However, the use of default, or for p-HEMT and MIS-HEMT). These struc-
this diode must be analyzed for each application, as tural characteristics determine the behaviour of GaN
the incorporation of external Junction Barrier HEMT. Firstly, narrow gates, lateral current conduc-
Schottky (JBS) diodes can offer better performance, tion, and low thermal conductivity mean that these
due to a more highly optimized design and manufac- semiconductors cannot evacuate heat as efficiently
ture.150 In fact, SiC power modules generally include (higher thermal resistance) in comparison with verti-
cal devices.170 Secondly, the blocking voltage must be
supported between the drain and the source, located
on the same surface (not within the volume of the
semiconductor, as with vertical devices).164 Significant
research is therefore underway to achieve high quality
GaN substrates, for developing GaN-on-GaN technol-
ogy.171-174 Besides, the current range of GaN HEMT
devices is at present insufficient for electric vehicle
applications. A large number of paralleled devices will
be required to achieve those current ranges, assuming
a higher cost, due to the use of more devices and
greater complexity in the design of the circuit, in order
(A) [151, 152]. to balance all the semiconductors.
a. Within the same encapsulation, connect the GaN
HEMT with a low voltage Si MOSFET (off by
default) in cascode configuration
(Figure 11B).145,164,165 This solution offers good
results, however, the maximum operating tempera-
ture of the Si MOSFET, lower than the GaN device,
limits the temperature of the cascode configura-
tion. In addition, it increases the conduction resis-
tance of the structure, as the resistivity of both
devices must be considered.
b. Include additional gate structures within the GaN
HEMT device to make it off by default. Today,
(B)
[153, 154]. manufacturers are working and commercializing
devices based on this trend, avoiding the cascode
FIGURE 12 Comparison of power losses of Si technology vs solution.166 To do so, there are two different tech-
SiC technology nological approaches: (i) use of a p-n junction
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22237

structure between the gate and the source of the for blocking voltages below 3.3 kV and their reverse
transistor (p-HEMT157,167,168), a solution that is recovery current causes greater power losses.46 Similarly,
commercialized by companies such as EPC and as for SiC power transistors, MOSFETs are preferred over
Panasonic158,159; and (ii) the introduction of a BJTs or JFETs, because they can switch at high frequen-
Metal-Insulating-Semiconductor (MIS) structure in cies, they are off by default, and they also require rela-
the gate (MIS-HEMT144,156,169), as some develop- tively simple driver circuits.175,176 As an example,
ments at NEC have done.158 Figure 13 shows the voltage and current levels of the SiC
JBS diodes and the SiC MOSFETs, considering discrete
In short, and considering the above, although the devices in this case. It should be noted that all the semi-
direct alternatives of the IGBT device are the SiC MOS- conductors taken into account for the figure data are
FET and the GaN HEMT, it is worth reviewing other encapsulated in TO-247 or D3PACK packages whose
more general aspects, such as other alternatives of WBG junction-to-case thermal resistance is equivalent. Taking
devices and power modules that are based on these into account the latter, the typical voltage and current
technologies. ranges of SiC JBS are shown in Figure 13A, highlighting
4 voltage levels: 600 V, 650 V, 1200 V, and 1700 V, with
current ranges between 10 A and 50 A. Similarly, the
3.2 | WBG discrete devices and power voltage and current ranges of the SiC MOSFETs are
modules for the electric vehicle shown in Figure 13B. These devices have a voltage range
between 650 V and 1700 V, with a higher number of
3.2.1 | WBG discrete devices devices for 1200 V. The usual current ranges of these SiC
MOSFETs are between 2-90 A.
Regarding SiC devices, JBS diodes are preferred among With regard to GaN devices, GaN Schottky diodes are
the diodes available for the electric vehicle powertrain, in an experimental phase, presenting a lateral or quasi-
because they carry higher voltages and present lower vertical structure. The quality of the material is crucial in
leakage currents than Schottky Barrier Diodes (SBD) the design of this semiconductor, because defects affect
(Table 2). Furthermore, SiC PiN diodes are not suitable the Schottky barrier and, therefore, the maximum

(A) (B)

(C)

FIGURE 13 The most widely marketed WBG devices and their current and voltage ranges, based on information from the
manufacturers
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22238 ROBLES ET AL.

blocking capacity. The breaking voltages of the lateral can be seen. However, this topology can be implemented
GaN diodes on sapphire substrates are around 9.7 kV, but using three HB modules, which a priori can lead to an
the forward voltage drop is still high. Moreover, GaN increase in stray inductances, due to a lower level of inte-
(Hydride Vapour Phase Epitaxy, HVPE) substrates have gration. Other manufacturers have started to introduce
been used to start up experimental 600 V GaN Schottky hybrid configurations by incorporating the SiC antiparallel
diodes that could compete in the market with SiC diode, although the predominant device is still the Si IGBT.
diodes††††. In any case, typical operating ranges for automotive power
Consequently, the main device on the market, is the modules containing SiC devices are usually 100-400 A, but
HEMT (Table 2).1 This device uses a Si substrate to with voltages of 1200 V. It can be understood from this
implement the 2DEG conduction layer with a low con- analysis that the number of available modules is not even
duction resistance. In fact, its null reverse recovery makes close to the number of modules using Si technology. How-
it possible to manufacture transistors with bidirectional ever, it can be seen that manufacturers are starting to offer
blocking and conduction voltage.144,155 There are several converter topology solutions based on this material, using
companies that develop discrete devices of GaN material SiC MOSFETs together with SiC JBS diodes. In addition, it
for energy applications, such as EPC, Exagan, GaN Sys- can be seen that the 1200 V modules are the alternative
tems, ST Microelectronics through Leti CEA, NTT, Pana- used by vehicle manufacturers. As previously mentioned in
sonic, and Transphorm, among others.1 Figure 13C the analysis of silicon modules, practically all light vehicles
shows the most common voltage ranges of the GaN were running off “400 V" battery packs systems. However,
HEMT technology, between 600 and 650 V with current they are now beginning to migrate to “800 V" battery
levels of 3-150 A‡‡‡‡. As some specific examples, EPC packs.
offers discrete semiconductors with 350 [email protected] A; and With this change, a substantial reduction in the con-
90 V@90 A; the discrete semiconductors in the GaN Sys- ductive wire weight will be achieved, as half the current
tems reach 650 V@150 A; the Panasonic discrete transis- will be handled for the same power.114 Increasing the
tors reach 600 V@10 A; and, finally, the Transphorm voltage of the battery pack will also reduce quadratic con-
discrete transistors reach 600 V with a drain current duction losses (P ¼ I 2rms R). The efficiency of the electric
of 20 A. vehicle will therefore be improved with this change in
battery voltage. 1200 V SiC power modules fit into this
range and may be more suitable for use in conjunction
3.2.2 | WBG power modules with “800 V" batteries. On the other hand, it should be
noted that the options in SiC with automotive grade are
As the current ratings of discrete semiconductors are, in less than those of Si. Although it is true that several man-
many cases, not high enough for the needs of power ufacturers propose their modules for the powertrain of
applications, parallelization of discrete devices and bare electric vehicles, most of them do not meet this grade.
dies is necessary to obtain high current levels. In this Infineon's FF08MR12W1MA1_B11 is an example of an
sense, as with Si technology, power module manufac- automotive-grade full-SiC module.
turers are developing module solutions based on SiC Another aspect to consider is the Power (P) of the
technology. In relation to Mitsubishi HB modules, motor, expressed in the following equation:
Figure 12B shows the advantages of using SiC semicon-
ductors compared to conventional Si semiconductors, P ¼ T  n, ð1Þ
which represent a significant improvement in switching
losses of approximately 75%. where the Torque (T) is a function of the motor current
Conducting the same comparative study as for Si power and the Speed (n) is a function of the frequency (fmod) of
modules, in addition to the information from the manufac- the modulating voltage synthesized by the converter. In
turers that is compared in Section 2.2, CREE/Wolfspeed, the case of SiC technology, which operates at signifi-
Global Power, Microsemi, and ROHM manufacturers have cantly higher switching frequencies (fsw) than silicon, the
been reviewed, which are specialized in WBG semiconduc- fmod can be increased (maintaining an adequate fre-
tors, as shown in Figure 14. This figure classifies the avail- quency modulation ratio and with reduced switching
able options for All-SiC and Hybrid-SiC power modules losses), so that the machine can operate at high speeds
according to voltage and current ranges for HB and VSI (eg, n ’ 15.000 rpm46,178). This increase in speed means
topologies§§§§. From this figure, it is observed that some that the inverter can be sized to operate at lower currents
manufacturers such as Infineon, CREE, or ROHM offer maintaining the same power ratings. In this way, the rat-
100% SiC material solutions, but only for some topologies. ing of the currents of the SiC power modules will never
For example, for the VSI topology only full-SiC solutions be as critical as the silicon modules (lower currents).
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22239

F I G U R E 1 4 Operating
range of power modules
incorporating SiC technologies
based on information from the
manufacturer, considering the
nominal current and the
blocking voltage

(A)

(B)

According to the scientific literature143,187-190 on GaN As there is a wide range of discrete devices and power
technology, this technology is expected to be competitive modules technologies, in the following, a review of differ-
against Si and SiC in future automotive and high power ent design aspects for power semiconductor technologies
density applications, which will require higher switching will be performed. Among these aspects, the most impor-
frequencies for medium voltages. However, with regard tant alternatives of packages and housings are shown, the
to GaN power modules for the powertrain of the electric different constituent layers of the power modules are
vehicle, at the moment there is no catalog of commercial analyzed (interconnection, substrate, base-plate, etc.), the
solutions (in general, there are only prototypes in the most important cooling types are reviewed and, finally,
experimental phase). Therefore, the same comparative parasitic effects such as stray inductances are analyzed.
analysis cannot be performed as in the case of Si and SiC.
As an example, the manufacturer of GaN Systems has
presented a prototype of a GaN module made by Silver- 4 | I NT E R NA L S T R UC T UR E AN D
micro (GS-EVM-3PH-650V300A-SM1). The module con- CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER
sists of a three-phase traction inverter—75 kW, 650 V, MODULES
and 300 A per - using 12 GS-065-150-1-D devices from
GaN Systems that theoretically permit a 99% reduction in Power semiconductors (bare dies) have to be integrated
switching losses compared to Si IGBT modules for auto- in packages to form a power converter, either in power
motive purposes.36 modules or discrete semiconductors. Usually, with some
 TABLE 3 Examples of some automotive power modules
22240

Package Vblock I @Tc 25o C LStray Rth (K/W)b

Topology Manufacturer Technology Part
(Tables 4 and 5) (V) (A) (nH) IGBT/MOSFET Diode
6-in-1 Fuji Electric Si 6MBI800XV-075 V-01 - 750 800 15 JF = 0.141 -
a
GaN Systems GaN GSEVM3PH650V300ASM1 ① 650 300 JC = 0.200 -
Hitachi Si MBB400TX12A ② 1200 400 40 JW = 0.138 JW = 0.168
Si MBB500TX7B ② 750 500 30 JW = 0.216 JW = 0.275
Si MBB600TV6A ② 650 600 30 JW = 0.145 JW = 0.210
Si MBB800TV7A ② 700 800 30 JW = 0.135 JW = 0.165
Si MBB900TX7B ② 750 900 30 JW = 0.138 JW = 0.165
Infineon Si FS650R08A4P2 - 750 650 15 JF = 0.170 JF = 0.230
Si FS75R07W2E3-B11A - 650 95 35 JC = 0.500 JC = 0.700
Si FS820R08A6P2B ③ 750 820 8 JF = 0.120 JF = 0.175
a
Microsemi Full-SiC APTMC120TAM12CTPAG ④ 1200 220 JC = 0.135 JC = 0.450
a a a
Mitsubishi Si CT600CJ1A060 ⑤ 650 600
Si SEMiX151GD066HDs - 600 150 20 JC = 0.210 JC = 0.360
Si SEMiX151GD126HDs - 1200 100 20 JS = 0.092 JS = 0.155
Si SKiM459GD12E4V2 ⑥ 1200 450 10 JS = 0.092 JS = 0.155
Semikron Hybrid-SiC SKiM459GD12F4V4 ⑥ 1200 450 10 JS = 0.099 JS = 0.172
ST Full-SiC ADP300120W2-L - 1200 290 10 JF = 0.120 -
2-in-1 Cree Full-SiC CAB011M12FM3 ⑦ 1200 105 11.4 JC = 0.553 -
Full-SiC CAB450M12XM3 ⑧ 1200 450 6.7 JC = 0.110 -
Full-SiC CAB530M12BM3 - 1200 530 11.1 JC = 0.065 -
Full-SiC CAB760M12HM3 ⑨ 1200 760 4.9 JC = 0.068 -
c a a a
Hitachi Si Customized ⑩ 700 325
Infineon Si FF450R08A03P2 ⑪ 750 450 15 JC = 0.090 JC = 0.145
Full-SiC FF8MR12W2M1-B11 - 1200 150 8 JH = 0.346 -
a
Microsemi Si APTGTQ200A65T3G ⑫ 650 200 JC = 0.310 JC = 0.350
Full-SiC MSCSM120AM02CT6LIAG - 1200 947 3 JC = 0.040 JC = 0.109
a a a
Mitsubishi Si CT600DJH060 ⑬ 650 600
ROBLES ET AL.

1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22241

exception, power modules are used instead of discrete

JC = 0.080
JS = 0.210
elements in electric vehicles. In this context, SiC devices
Diode
are also rapidly gaining prominence, while GaN devices
are hardly used; smaller devices are being manufactured

a
-
gaining power density; heat extraction is being optimized
and, at the same time, stray inductances reduced; manu-
IGBT/MOSFET

facturers are likewise developing customized power-

Rth (K/W)b

CS = 0.013
module designs to adapt to the needs of each
JC = 0.080

JC = 0.061
JS = 0.014

manufacturer.
Table 3 shows examples of some outstanding power
a

a
modules from different manufacturers, identifying the
module architecture, semiconductor technologies, and
LStray

(nH)

The current data are provided in rms values. However, it is not very precise, as it may in some cases be the nominal current and, in other cases, the maximum current.
operating ranges, as well as stray inductance and thermal
13

10
15
15

resistance coefficients of the modules. Likewise, Tables 4

a

and 5 show some examples of the most relevant power

module packages where Si, SiC, and GaN semiconductors
I @Tc 25o C

are used. Lastly, Figure 15 shows (including information

c

285c
c
(A)
300

576
200
485
180

100

about the voltage and current ranges of each package, as

well as the stray inductances179-186 and the thermal char-
Vblock

acteristics) some examples of discrete semiconductor

1200

1200
1200
1200
(V)

650
650
650

packages to be used for the electric vehicle powertrain.

Thermal resistance (Rth) is within the range of 0.2 K/W
CS, case to sink; JC, junction to case; JF, junction to fluid; JH, junction to heatsink; JS, junction to sink; JW, junction to wind.

and 0.4 K/W for power modules and for discrete devices,
(Tables 4 and 5)

respectively, and stray inductances within the range of

around 10 to 15 nH and 15 to 25 nH for power modules
Package

and TO-247 packages respectively. Likewise, although

the highlights and the main innovations of each package
⑭

⑭
⑮
⑮
⑯
⑰
⑱

are shown in the above-mentioned tables and figures, all

these aspects are analyzed in greater depth in this
section and in the following one.
Taking into account the importance of the power
SKM200GB12T4SiC2
BSM600D12P3G001
BSM300D12P2E001

modules, their internal structure and the parameters that

SKM500MB120SC

most affect their performance are exhaustively analyzed

below.
Customized
Customized
Customized
Part

4.1 | Power module vertical structures

(stack-up)
Technology

Hybrid-SiC

Power modules have some structural advantages when

Full-SiC

Full-SiC

Full-SiC

compared with discrete devices, mainly due to the incor-

poration of inorganic substrates (usually DBCs).206,207 As
Si
Si
Si

a result, they generally have the ability to conduct high

Data not provided by the manufacturer.

currents¶¶¶¶. The highly integrated components provide

Manufacturer

Toyota/Denso

a high power density.208 In addition, their robustness and

Cree/Delphi
Semikron

mechanical stability make them an ideal solution for the

(Continued)

ROHM

use of bare dies, as they can withstand thermal cycle vari-

ST

ations and evacuate heat flows efficiently. These attri-

butes are due to their high thermal conductivity (low
thermal resistance, Rth) and their high capacity to dissi-
Topology
TABLE 3

pate the heat generated by the semiconductors through-

1-in-1

out the substrate*****,208 mainly vertically. Moreover,

they can be easily assembled with cooling systems, since
b
a

c
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22242 ROBLES ET AL.

TABLE 4 Examples of some standardized and customized electric vehicle power module housings and their main innovations (1/2)

No. Photo of package Manufacturer and package Main innovations of the modules of each package Refs.
① GaN Systems HybridPack The novelty of this power module is the use of GaN 191

technology, as there are not many commercial

modules of this material. It has the advantage of ultra-
low switching losses, zero QRR, and ultra-high dV=dt
ruggedness. The package is a modified well-known
HybridPACK, although it includes such features as
press-fit pins for ease of assembly and high thermal
conductivity base-plates (Figure 16-⑥)
② Hitachi Suijin Series This package provides high function 6-in-1 modules 192

incorporating direct water-cooling with pin-fins

(Figure 18). Modules in the series use the same package,
so that the common mechanical design can be reused
with converters of different ratings. It includes the latest
generation Hitachi IGBT (≈MPT), which reduces energy
losses and improves controllability compared to
conventional trench IGBT. Likewise, it uses copper
sintering to improve die attach (Figure 16-③)
③ Infineon HybridPack Drive This package is commonly used in electric vehicles and 196

has been optimized for this purpose

It provides low stray inductance (Section 5.1), heatsink
with pin-fins (Figure 18) and press-fit signal terminals
to avoid additional time-consuming selective soldering
processes. There are a lot of different Si-based and SiC-
based (semiconductor technologies) solutions using
this package
④ Microsemi SP6-P This alternative is one of the most compact 6-in-1 194

configurations (reduced size), in addition to having a

low thermal resistance. It includes SiC technology
with an AlN substrate (Table 6-④b) to improve thermal
behavior. The terminals, both for power and for
control signals, are solderable for easing the
connection with a PCB
⑤ Mitsubishi J1-Series The power modules of this package use the 7th-generation 195

CSTBT chip technology (Figure 4-④). The package

includes Direct Lead Bonding (DLB) (wirebond-less)
which ensures high reliability (Figure 16-①). It also
includes a direct water-cooling structure with aluminum
cooling fins to prevent the devices from overheating. It
also stands out because of its reduced size compared to
other packages, which improves its power density
⑥ Semikron Skim 93 This type of power module is insulated in so far as it 196

uses a Al2O3 DBC ceramic substrate (Table 6-④b). It

implements solderless sinter technology (Figure 16-③),
pressure contact technology for terminals and has a
spring contact system to attach the PCB driver to the
control terminals. Likewise, it has a reduced stray
inductance compared to other power modules
⑦ Cree FM 3 This module package is a 2-in-1 with reduced size and 197

high power density. It includes SiC technology with

ultra-low losses and high-frequency operation.
Thermally speaking, there is no baseplate layer for this
option, so the module needs to include a Thermal
Interface Material (TIM) for its indirect cooling systems
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22243

TABLE 4 (Continued)

No. Photo of package Manufacturer and package Main innovations of the modules of each package Refs.
⑧ Cree XM 3 An outstanding aspect of this package is its reliability. It 198

provides greatly reduced stray inductance with a

dedicated drain Kelvin pin that enables direct voltage
sensing for gate driver overcurrent protection
(Section 5.1). It also includes a Si3N4 insulator and a
copper baseplate that provides small thermal
resistance (Table 6-④b and ⑥)
⑨ Cree HM 3 This package stands out for its high reliability. The stray 199

inductance is optimized more than the XM 3 package

(Table 3-⑧) and its thermal resistance is also reduced.
It includes a lightweight AlSiC baseplate (Figure 16-⑥)
and a high-reliability Si3N4 insulator (Table 6-④b).
Furthermore, the SiC technology in use provides very
low power losses compared to other modules

TABLE 5 Examples of some standardized and customized electric vehicle power module housings and their main innovations (2/2)

No. Photo of package Manufacturer and package Main innovations of the modules of each package Refs.
⑩ Hitachi DSC package used in This 2-in-1 module consisting of a trench silicon IGBT/ 2

Audi e-Tron diode significantly increases both the power density

and the cooling efficiency of the module, due to
double-sided cooling (Figure 17). By removing heat
from both the top and bottom side and eliminating
thermal grease and the baseplate, a better heat
dissipation is achieved. Cooling efficiency is also
improved by using resin and isolation sheets of high
thermal conductivity between the copper lead frame
(Figure 16-①) and the heatsink with pin-fins
⑪ Infineon Hybrid Pack DSC HybridPACK DSC is a very compact 2-in-1 package targeting 200

electric vehicles. The innovative and small package is

designed for double-sided cooling (Figure 17, double-sided
DBC) with superior thermal performance. Compared to
other single side solutions, the thermal resistance of
modules with this package is therefore reduced
⑫ Microsemi SP3F One of the main characteristics of this type of package is 201

its small size and reduced volume, as well as the fact

that it includes solder terminals for easing the
connection of both power and control signals with
PCB substrates for power and driver connections
⑬ Mitsubishi J-Series T-PM This type of module stands out as a very compact 202

solution that can increase power density. It has a high-

reliability Direct Lead Bonding (DLB) structure which
reduces wire resistance and inductance (Figure 16-①).
Likewise, semiconductor devices of modules with this
package also have a low collector-emitter saturation
voltage which improves conduction losses
⑭ Rohm E and G series This solution consists of 2-in-1 SiC half-bridge power 203

modules with fewer losses than Si IGBT modules

(Figure 12(B)), achieving switching frequencies of
50 kHz and parasitic inductance of 10 to 13 nH
(Table 3). The baseplate is connected to the heatsink
with a TIM layer, applying a constant torque over the
module. Likewise, the control terminals can be
soldered to a PCB or connected via pressure contact
(Continues)
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22244 ROBLES ET AL.

TABLE 5 (Continued)

No. Photo of package Manufacturer and package Main innovations of the modules of each package Refs.
⑮ Semikron Semitrans 3 The novelty of this series of power module is linked to 204

SiC technology: both hybrid and full-SiC solutions.

Furthermore, it is optimized to switch at higher
frequencies and reduce power losses. This solution
uses screw terminals which facilitate the
interconnection with external busbars
⑯ Toyota & Denso Prius fourth gen. This module is mainly targeted at improving power 2

densities and reducing parasitic inductance. The

module features double-sided cooling (Figure 17) with
isolated sheets and its dimensions improve
modularity. Instead of using wirebonds, the die is
attached thanks to the flip-chip soldering technique
(Figure 16-①) to a nickel (Ni) electrode. Likewise,
another interesting characteristic is the reduction of
conduction losses
⑰ Delphi & Cree Chevrolet Volt This 1-in-1 IGBT/diode module uses the flip-chip 2

soldering technique instead of wirebonds to improve

the current distribution and the lifetime of the die
interconnection (Figure 16-①). The AlSiC baseplate
layer is removed (Table 6-④b and ⑥) and the cooling
system is directly connected to the ceramic substrate,
whose materials have a CTE of greater similarity to the
die to mitigate thermal stress. Moreover, fewer layers
between the die and the coolant reduce the thermal
resistance
⑱ STMicroelectronics Tesla Model 3 The main novelty of the module was the incorporation 205

of SiC device. With a 1-in-1 custom design that

includes pin-fins as the heatsink. The package is
produced with silver sintering technology (Figure 16-
③) to improve the module reliability (<thermal
resistance) and wirebonds are replaced by copper lead
(ribbon bonding, Figure 16-①), which improves heat
dissipation and power capability

the substrate provides electrical insulation without the metallization layers (Figure 16②a), which increases the
need to incorporate additional insulating layers.209,210 manufacturing costs.213
The conventional power module structure, also • Layer 2: Semiconductors (Figure 16A-②). Dies
known as the vertical structure, is mainly defined by the (Figure 16②b) have metallization layers†††††
following layers (Figure 16A1 and Table 6): (Figure 16②a) on both surfaces to connect the top sur-
face of the semiconductors to the wirebondings and
• Layer 1: Interconnection (Figure 16A-①). It establishes the bottom surface of the semiconductor to the top
the connection between the top layer of the dies and layer of the substrate.1
the top layer of the substrate (Figure 16④a). The most • Layers 3 and 5: Attach-solder joint (Figure 16A-③ and
commonly used technology is aluminium wirebonding ⑤). A series of metallic alloys are placed between the
(around 300 μm in diameter).211 There are also alterna- dies (Figure 16②b) and the top layer of the substrate
tives to wirebondings, such as flip-chip, ribbon bond- (Figure 16④a), and between the bottom layer of the sub-
ing, direct lead bonding (DLB), and copper posts and strate (Figure 16④c) and the base-plate (Figure 16A-⑥),
areas,1,206 which increase the contact surface with the employing sintering or brazing processes,214 to provide
dies, increasing the current carrying capacity, and the necessary mechanical, thermal, and electrical bond-
reducing the thermal path Rth.212 However, the use of ing between these surfaces. In this way, these layers
these new solutions requires the modification of the bond the semiconductors to the substrate and the
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22245

FIGURE 15 Some of the most widely used packages in power converters and some of their most important characteristics179-186

(A) (B)

FIGURE 16 General vertical and horizontal structure for a typical power module1

substrate to the base-plate. The conventional materials layer. The most common solution is based on Direct
in the Si modules have to date been SnPb and SnAgPb Bonded Copper (DBC) substrate§§§§§.221 In terms of
(Table 6),206 which withstand temperatures within the innovations, Insulated Metal Substrate (IMS) has bet-
range of 150 C to 175 C.137 However, alternatives are ter thermal performance than PCB and lower
emerging to improve this performance based on gold manufacturing costs than traditional DBC sub-
alloys (>280 C)‡‡‡‡‡ and silver-indium alloys strate.223,224 New substrates are also evolving toward
(206 C).206,217 Although the main advances toward thinner structures, for both conductive layers (lead-
achieving better thermal conductivities and higher reli- frame technology)225 and ceramics (thin-film insula-
ability against thermal fatigue are associated with silver tion technology),226 thus improving the thermal behav-
sintering technique (>220 C),218,219 and the sintering of ior of the structure and facilitating component
nano-copper materials.220 integration.
• Layer 4: Substrate (Figure 16A-④). The inorganic struc- • Layer 6: Base-plate (Figure 16A-⑥). A metallic (copper
ture is formed of two conductive layers (Figure 16④a or aluminum alloy) surface, whose main function is to
and ④c) separated by either a dielectric or a ceramic provide mechanical support to the rest of layers, as
plate (Figure 16④b). The top conductive layer provides well as to absorb and homogeneously to distribute heat
a surface for electrical connections to power semicon- over the entire surface of the inorganic substrate, so as
ductors and other components (mainly passive ele- to transmit it to the cooling liquid.137,206
ments and power and control terminals), and to
provide good thermal conductivity to spread heat to All these layers (Figure 16A) determine the thermal
the ceramic substrate and to the bottom conductive behavior between the power semiconductors and the
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22246 ROBLES ET AL.

TABLE 6 Power modules vertical structures and cooling systems: main features1,85,206,215,216

Figure Layer Material Thickness Conductivity CTE Role

16A (mm) λ (W/mK) (ppm/oC)
① Interconnection Al 205–230 23.8–26.4
Cu 0.075 - 386–398 17.8 Connect the top terminals of the dies
Au 0.500 310 14 to the substrate top layer.
Ag 429 19
②a Metallization Al 0.004 - 205–230 23.8–26.4 Coating dies with alloys for
(Semiconductors) Ni/Ag 0.008 - - proper connection with other layers
②b Dies Si 0.250 - 170 2.6–3.3 Permit current blocking or
(Semiconductors) SiC 300–400 4–6 conduction according to polarization
GaN 0.380 130 3–6
③ Attach solder Sn96.5/Ag3.5 0.050 - 33 30 Provide electrical connection and
joint Sn10/Pb88/Ag2 27 29 mechanical joint between ②b and ④a
Sn10/Pb9 0.127 25 29
④a Top conductor Cu 386  398 17.8 Provide horizontal electrical
(Vertical) Al 0.127 - 205  230 23.8  26.4 connection and vertical thermal
Cu50/Mo50 0.600 250 10 conduction
Cu30/Mo70 195 7.5
④b Ceramics Al2O3 33 7.2 Provide electrical insulation
(Substrate) AlN 0.250 - 170 4.5 and vertical thermal conduction
BeO 1.000 270 7
Si3N4 60 2.7
④c Bottom conductor Same as the layer ④a Provide thermal conduction
(Substrate) and mechanical support
⑤ Attach solder Same as layer ③ Provide thermal connection
joint and mechanical join between ④c y ⑥
⑥ Base-plate Cu 2.000 386  398 17.8 Provide mechanical support and
Al 205  230 23.8  26.4 temperature diffusion over the entire
Mo85/Cu15 165 6.8 surface (heat-spreading)
AlSiC 180  200 7  12
⑦ TIM a
Standard 0.050 - - Improve thermal transmission
ZnO - - between layers ⑥ and ⑧ (as long as
Dow Corning - - this layer is necessary)
SE4422
⑧ Cold-plate Al >2.000b - - Cooling the power module
CoolPoly E5101 - - when in contact with
Graphite - - the coolant
AlSiC - -

Notes: Layers 7 and 8 are not part of the power module in Figure 16A. They are the cooling system layers of the module.
a
In some cases, such as direct cooling by means of pin-fins, this layer is unnecessary.
b
The thickness of this layer is determined by the power-module cooling system.

coolant, so materials with high thermal conductivity (λ) area unit of 0.3-0.4 Kcm2/W (70 KVA modules).206 In
are therefore essential to achieve a low thermal resistance the case of WBG devices, especially SiC devices, the smal-
(Rth).96 Usually, Si power modules are limited to a Rth per lest die sizes appear in the most compact designs
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22247

requiring a Rth around 0.2 Kcm2/W.206 Such a reduction are replaced by copper areas on conventional
in size also limits the number of wirebondings that can DBC†††††† substrates.236 These areas expand the con-
be placed on the die surface (Figure 16②a), which affects tact surface with the die, which results in a homoge-
the current that can circulate through the module¶¶¶¶¶. neous distribution on both sides, while the cooling
Regarding mechanical aspects, the thermal expan- system reduces any thermal peaks.237
sion coefficient (CTE or α) of a material is particularly 3. Integrated Power Module (IPM): this architecture inte-
relevant, as it indicates the expansion/contraction they grates the control driver and snubber capacitors of
may undergo due to temperature variations. In the power semiconductors within the same module.238 As
case of power modules, these CTEs (Table 6) should be a result, there are fewer stray inductances of the
as similar as possible to avoid mechanical fatigue switching loops and the switching speeds are therefore
between layers20,96 that causes reliability problems higher. However, these components are subjected to
and reduces the module's lifetime******.227,228 This higher operating temperatures‡‡‡‡‡‡239 and the lim-
problem is especially relevant in soldered and inter- ited space of the module limits the incorporation of
connection layers.229 The main power-module innova- these capacitors.
tions have been focused on new designs and 4. 3D structure: a structure that integrates various sub-
materials,230,231 to improve design reliability, to intro- strates in a vertical structure, such as inorganic sub-
duce WBG technology (mainly SiC) into new designs, strates, gate driver ICs, and heatsinks.206,240 In this
and to take advantage of their technological benefits way, stray inductances are reduced and the design is
(high temperature operation, etc.). The main power- endowed with great flexibility.241 However, thermal
module innovations are focused on new designs and management is much more complex, due to the differ-
materials.230,231 These can be divided into four catego- ent propagation paths and non-uniformity of tempera-
ries (Figure 17206): ture in each of the substrates.215

1. Overmold: this technology employs lead-frame and

thin-film insulation substrates that directly bind the
semiconductors, thus increasing the connection surface 4.2 | Cooling technologies
of the dies.29 Generally, modules using this technology
have lower stray inductances and the Rth is consider- The introduction of new devices, assembly methods,
ably reduced compared to the conventional DBC struc- and manufacturing techniques is contributing to the
ture. The latter structure ensures that the temperature increase in power density.232 Generally speaking, the
will be more evenly distributed over the surfaces. Even effects of constant heating/cooling cycles required by
so, it still uses wirebonding for the control terminals.235 the electric vehicle application need to be mitigated to
2. Double-sided DBC: this structure is very similar to the meet power-density and system-reliability require-
overmold, in this case, the interconnecting wirebondings ments making it necessary to use liquid cooling

FIGURE 17 New vertical designs for power modules206: Overmold29,67,68; Double-sided DBC69-72; IPM73-75; 3D integration65,76,77
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22248 ROBLES ET AL.

systems. Despite being more complex solutions com- resistance245) and makes direct cooling methods, in
pared to air cooling§§§§§§ due to the greater number which this intermediate element is not used, more
of components, volume, and weight that reduces the efficient.
overall power density, they are the most appropriate • Direct liquid cooling246: this technique eliminates the
solution, as the heat transfer capacity of liquid is much TIM layer, so that the coolant is in direct contact with
greater compared to air. The main liquid cooling the surface to be cooled (Figure 18-③a). Direct liquid
methods (Figure 18) that are in use are described cooling is the technique of choice in electric vehicle
below209,233,242: applications,247 as Rth is ostensibly reduced, resulting
in high energy density solutions. Several technologies
• Indirect liquid cooling243: compared to natural and are available:
forced air cooling, indirect liquid cooling reduces the • Direct cooling via pin-fins247-249 (Figure 18-③b): a
Rth. The cold-plates244 (Figure 18-②), a system where series of pin-fins of various geometries (diamond, cir-
there is no direct contact between the semiconductors cular, elliptical, etc.) are incorporated on the back of a
and the coolant, stand out. In this structure there is a base-plate. The pin-fins increase the contact surface
Thermal Interface Material (TIM, Table 6) layer that between the coolant and the module, resulting in
simplifies the assembly process, although it increases greater heat exchange. This type of cooling is the solu-
the Rth (it can contribute up to 30% of the total thermal tion employed by Infineon's HybridPACK family of

FIGURE 18 Active cooling systems for power modules209,232-234

 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22249

power modules widely used in electric vehicle efficient maintenance and reliability improvement
applications. schemes.78,81 In any case, and regardless of the approach
• Double-sided direct cooling243,250,251 (Figure 18-③c): toward reliability, power semiconductors usually fail
heat is dissipated from both sides of the semiconduc- because they operate under conditions that stress beyond
tors, which are assembled between two substrates their maximum ratings. Moreover, there are many factors
(the double-sided DBC module structure described affecting reliability such as electrical faults, heat, chemi-
above is mandatory). Assembly becomes more com- cals, radiation, and mechanical stresses80 which can
plex due to the need for new interconnection tech- occur in different layers of discrete devices******* and
niques, the availability of semiconductors suitable for power modules258,259 (Section 4):
sintering on both sides, insulation requirements,
mechanical stability requirements (fatigue), thermo- 1. Interconnection - Figure 16A-①: In general, when a
mechanical mismatches (CTE) between the materials wire-bond connection fails, the device may cause
involved, etc. Even so, this technology is quickly severe failure and, even, open circuit faults.260 In fact,
developing, due to the increment in power density wire-bond degradation is one of the most common
and cost reductions.252 failure modes for power modules.252 In an overcurrent
• There are other cooling methods such as spray cool- condition, the wire temperature might rise to reach
ing209,253 (Figure 18-③d), jet impingement cool- the melting point, at which point the wire bond at one
ing209,254 (Figure 18-③e), and the use of of its two ends usually breaks. In view of the above,
microchannels255,256 inside cold-plates (Figure 18-③d), there has been significant research over the past few
although they are much more complex to implement years to move away from wire bonding as an intercon-
in electric vehicle applications. nection method and to introduce other alternative
• Two-phase immersion cooling209,253 (Figure 18-④): a interconnection technologies, especially in WBG
cooling system that involves the immersion of the devices where the space for the wire bonds is consid-
semiconductors in a container of dielectric liquid. It erably reduced.1,261 Likewise, there are several publi-
offers a high heat transfer coefficient¶¶¶¶¶¶ and con- cations that analyze how to improve reliability in
siderably reduces (compared to previous techniques) relation to this topic where the main causes that can
the thermal resistance between the semiconductor and produce a failure mechanism of this type are, among
the fluid. Despite these advantages, this technique others, thermal fatigue due to high current flow,
requires somewhat unconventional designs, limiting mechanical stress in the bond wire due to improper
its use in the electric vehicle powertrain. bonding, and cracks at the interface between the bond
wire and die.78,257,262
2. Metallization - Figure 16②a: these faults arise due to
the electromigration of the material (usually alumi-
5 | O T H ER DE S I G N AN D num) in the direction of current flow, due to high
O PE R A T I O N A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S electric fields; alloy breakdown, due to electrical over-
RE LATED TO RELI AB I LI TY voltage caused by high currents; metal corrosion and
wear caused by welding; and improper deposition,
Apart from the vertical stack-ups and the cooling systems and mounding and cracking of the metal at the con-
that are related to the thermal overstress, other tact surfaces.263,264
reliability-related aspects of discrete semiconductors and 3. Semiconductor - Figure 16②b: in addition to stress-
power modules need to be considered. It is worth men- related failures when operating above the maximum
tioning that the reliability enhancement of general- ratings of current, voltage, and temperature, the
purpose power converters and those particular inverters main causes of failure of the semiconductor device
of the automotive industry is usually based on multi- can be diffusion problems during its manufacturing
disciplinary approaches, among which stand out physics- process, defects in the semiconductor crystal, or the
of-failure, design-for-reliability, accelerated testing, and presence of impurities and contaminants in the
condition monitoring.79 These aspects are fundamental material.265,266 Moreover, there are other problems
for reliable systems and there are many studies on their related to the formation of semiconductor junctions,
advances.12,78-81 doping, and temperature, for example, avalanche
The reliability methods are usually focused on evalu- breakdown and latch-up effects.267-269 Other aspects
ating failure mechanisms,12,80,81 analyzing data and test- should not be overlooked such as high electric fields,
ing methods,78,80 accumulated damage modeling and transients, gate-oxide degradation, and body diode
lifetime prediction,12,81,257 and the implementation of degradation, which can also cause malfunction and
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22250 ROBLES ET AL.

the destruction of discrete devices and power the fundamental frequency is increased without losing
modules.78,79 signal quality, which also increases the electric motor
4. Attach-solder joint - Figure 16A-③: Usually, this failure speed. This relationship can be seen in (1). Considering
occurs when the die overheats due to inadequate con- such an expression, the faster the motor runs, the more
tact between the die and the substrate, which lowers power it can deliver for the same amount of torque,
the thermal conductivity between both elements and which is a function of current, and the latter determines,
leads to stress and cracking and, finally, device fail- to a large extent, the size of the motor.
ure.78,270 The novel improvements are focused on In addition to the switching frequency (fsw), the
obtaining new Ag sintering solutions with higher λ, switching speed (di/dt and dv/dt) of the semiconductor
and CTEs similar to adjacent layers.271 In addition, the also plays a crucial role in the behavior of the converter.
stabilization of silver microstructures, adding nanopar- In electric vehicles, this speed value is within the range
ticles of other materials (eg, copper), is fundamental to of 5 KA/μs, which depends on several factors, including
increase the service life of these joints.272 the semiconductor gate characteristic (Qg), the driver cir-
5. Substrate - Figure 16A-④: The conductor and ceramic cuit performance, and the stray inductance of the semi-
layers typically have different shapes and/or thick- conductor current commutation path. In power
nesses. Moreover, the CTE of each material varies converters, (2) is critical, which quantifies the over-
greatly†††††††; these problems generate asymmetri- voltage peak in a semiconductor switching. The total
cal distributions of stress/strain resulting in overall inductance (Lloop) that is formed in the power loop
warpage. Warpage variations can induce mechanical (Figure 19) is the sum of the values of all the inductances
fatigue during the lifetime and represent a limiting (3) that are in the commutation path where the current
factor for reliability.274,275 In addition, they can even flows. It must be taken into account that the different
cause cracking of the substrate and rupture of power converter components (Figure 19A) such as the capacitor
devices. (LESL), the busbar (LbbT , LbbB ), and the power module
(Lstray) can all add stray inductances.
Many of the problems of each layer are technological In the case of power modules, the terms related to the
limitations due to current materials and manufacturing MOSFET drain and source (LdT , LsT , LdB , LsB ) shown in
techniques. However, when dealing with the design of Figure 19B can be determined by the stray inductance
power modules, certain improvements can be made (Lstray) of the power module, given by the manufacturer.
through their electrical design. In this sense, it is impor- Lstray represents the sum of all the inductance from the
tant to reduce stray inductances as much as possible, and positive terminal to the negative terminal
L
to increase both the reliability and the durability of (Figure 19A  ⊖). In the particular case of design with
power semiconductors.181,182,276,277 This critical design discrete semiconductors, both the stray inductances of
aspect, and its implication in both discrete devices and packages (Figure 15) and the PCB paths must be taken
power modules, is discussed below. Later, other aspects into consideration.
that are not so well known, related to inverter reliability
and automotive propulsion systems are discussed. Specifi- V L ¼ Lloop di=dt: ð2Þ
cally, the problems derived from the common-mode volt-
X
age together with the switching of the devices are Lloop ¼ Lx ¼ LESL þ LbbT þ LbbB þ LdT þ
analyzed in this document.82-84 ð3Þ
þLsT þ LdB þ LsB :

5.1 | Oscillations during commutation The existence of these inductances causes other
and stray inductances unwanted effects, such as overvoltages, oscillations,
increased converter losses, and EMI, which can cause the
Power converters (Figure 16B) operate at switching fre- failure of a power semiconductor. Indeed, there are sev-
quencies (fsw) within the range of 10-18 kHz46 when sili- eral solutions related to reliability that are introduced
con IGBTs are used, and higher frequencies when SiC and discussed to improve the power device robust-
MOSFET converters are used, which can go above ness.207,276,277,281,282 In the particular case of a MOSFET,
100 kHz.278-280 Among other improvements, increasing the peak voltage (Figure 19B) is given by (4), which is
the switching frequency makes it possible to improve the directly related to the DC-bus capacitor voltage (VC), the
total harmonic distortion of the currents flowing through power loop inductances (Lloop), and the switching speed
the motor phases of the electric vehicle. In consequence, (di/dt).
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22251

(A)

(B)

FIGURE 19 Commutation loops and stray inductances on power converters

V DS ’ V C þ V L ’ V C þ Lloop di=dt: ð4Þ the encapsulation of the discrete semiconductors will

worsen the inverter performance. A fact that explains why
As an example, Figure 20 shows the results obtained for manufacturers are creating very low inductance discrete
a specific case with a 600 V source and a 10 A load current. packages (Figure 15) to rival the behavior of the power mod-
On the one hand, the oscillations that are created in the volt- ules. Even so, it is observed that the majority of manufac-
age during a switching in the case of an Lloop of 10 nH result turers continue to opt for power modules instead of
in a 50 V overshoot (8.33% of the nominal voltage). On the converters based on discrete semiconductors (Tables 3–5).
other hand, it can be seen that when the switching is carried There are several techniques to prevent the aforemen-
out in a converter with a 40 nH Lloop (ie, a typical value tioned adverse effects. One of the best ways to proceed is
when TO-247 packages are used), the overshoot consider- to try to reduce stray inductances acting on the power loop
ably increases up to 120 V (20% of the nominal voltage). (Lloop), for example, by adding snubber capacitors to
Compared to a power module with a good layout design (eg, reduce the power loop,276,287 using low inductance bus
an Infineon FS820R08A6P2B power module with an 8 nH bars,184,277,288,289 or using low inductance packages when
stray inductance), the additional inductance introduced by employing discrete semiconductors. Another technique in
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22252 ROBLES ET AL.

(A)

F I G U R E 2 0 MOSFET VDS voltage oscillations for 10 nH and

40 nH stray inductance power loops

use is to slow down the system (lower di/dt and dv/dt) by

increasing the gate resistances (Figure 21—RG) in the gate
driver circuit.290-292 In addition, there are some oscillation
attenuation methods that act on the gate loop, such as the
use of either ferrite beads293 or RLC filters.53 Otherwise,
there are Active Gate Drivers (AGD)294 circuits, a solution
that has proven to be very useful. Yet another example of (B)
improvement in this regard is the Kelvin connection
(Figure 21), a technique that allows the power loop to be F I G U R E 2 1 TO-247 package variants: with and without the
decoupled from the gate loop. In this context, an example Kelvin auxiliary connection283-285
of two devices can be seen: one without a Kelvin connec-
tion (Figure 21A) and another with a Kelvin connection
(Figure 21B).283 Some of the best known examples in this
sense are the SOT-227, TO-247-4, and TO-263-7 packages
(Figure 22), which significantly improve the inductances
that appear in the gate loop, and therefore the switching
losses.286 Kelvin connections can reduce common source
stray inductances for multichip power modules, but they
cannot totally decouple the gate-source loop and the
drain-source loop, because they are still in the loop of
drain currents, moreover, auxiliary-source connections are
able to mitigate the transient MOSFETs current imbal-
ances.284 In any case, whether a Kelvin connection is or is
not used, it is necessary to design the discrete device or the
power module considering the parasitic phenomenon of
inductances. Nevertheless, this aspect is already being
optimized to a great extent with each new power module F I G U R E 2 2 Kelvin connection switching loss comparison for
or discrete semiconductor solution that is launched on the TO-247-3, TO-247-4, and TO-263-7 packages286
market.

devices produces common-mode voltage patterns that

5.2 | Common-mode voltage issue create several problems for both the inverter and the
entire propulsion system. Figure 23 represents these
Another major reliability issue with electric vehicle pro- problems in a simplified way. Among them, the main
pulsion systems is the Common-Mode Voltage (CMV) ones are the bearing currents, the deterioration of the sta-
issue.83,84 Specifically, the switching of semiconductor tor winding insulation, and both the radiated and the
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22253

FIGURE 23 Common-mode voltage problems exacerbated by switching due to the high slew rates and high frequencies with WBG
devices

conducted EMI that are derived from this voltage pat- For example, multilevel converters improve the
tern.295-298 Increasing the switching frequency of discrete CMV-derived problems. However, to date, their use in
semiconductor devices and power modules, that is, electric vehicles has not been viable, mainly due to the
migrating towards new semiconductor technologies such high numbers of devices and their greater “complexity”.
as SiC and GaN, will cause CMV problems to become The semiconductor devices, due to the architecture of the
more habitual.84 The reason is because, if the frequency multilevel converters, can block lower voltages more eas-
increases, then the number of variations increases ily than a conventional two-level inverter.303-305 This
accordingly. In addition, as discussed in Section 2.2, observation brings with it two potential benefits for using
migrating battery systems to “800 V" systems and there- these converters in electric vehicles and for reducing
fore using power modules with higher operating voltages CMV. The first is that they can facilitate the introduction
(1200 V in the short term), also aggravates these wave- of other types of semiconductors that block lower volt-
forms, increasing the amplitude of the CMV ages, such as GaN HEMT, which could justify their use
variations.83,114,299 and increase several of the benefits of the propulsion sys-
Typically, a large number of solutions have been pro- tem. The second is that conventional Si devices of
posed in the industry to minimize the undesirable effects approximately 600 V blocking voltage can also be used in
arising from CMV, but mainly from the mechanical and newer “800 V" battery systems, which could allow for a
electric motor point of view. Among these, ceramic bear- smooth migration, rather than replacing all Si converters
ings, isolated bearings, grounding straps, and shaft with WBG devices.299
grounding rings have often been mentioned.83 However, On the other hand, as mentioned in Section 2.2, mul-
these types of solutions do not solve the problem from tiphase converters are a promising alternative in electric
the origin, that is, from the point of view of semiconduc- vehicles‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ as they increase power density and pro-
tor switching. Although at the device level there are few vide fault tolerance, an aspect that improves the reliabil-
possible alternative solutions, in recent decades a large ity of the electric vehicle propulsion systems.300,306
number of modulation techniques83,297,300 and alternative Specifically, the power system must be designed and
topologies to the conventional inverter82,301,302 have been dimensioned in a way that the Mean Time Between Fail-
investigated to reduce or to eliminate these reliability ures (MTBF) is maximized.1 However, as fault-free opera-
problems. tion cannot be 100% guaranteed, fault tolerance can be
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22254 ROBLES ET AL.

considered crucial and, therefore, due to the additional performance. In addition, the analysis carried out shows
degrees of freedom of multiphase topologies, various that there are no commercial GaN devices intended for
problems can be solved, in addition to the CMV.296 the electric drives for vehicles. Contrarily, SiC technology
represents a real solution for electric vehicle drives, and a
significant variety of relatively mature vertical devices
6 | C ON C L U S I ON S can be found in the market. Among them, the MOSFET
is the most suitable for this sort of application and is a
The silicon IGBT has been the preferred choice among potential rival that might one day replace Si IGBTs. The
automotive manufacturers for the development of their reduced power losses and higher operating temperatures
inverters, (using both discrete devices and power mod- stand out among their benefits. Likewise, the ability to
ules) over past decades. The main reason is that it is a block higher voltages (1200 V) makes them suitable for
mature technology that offered adequate performance “800 V" battery systems. It can therefore be stated that Si
levels for the first generations of electric vehicle power- and SiC technologies will continue in the short term to
trains, facilitating switching at “high” frequencies be part of electric vehicle power converters. In this sense,
(10-18 kHz) and withstanding high power levels (hun- it is likely that the use of SiC technology will have
dreds of amps and voltages within the range 600-1200 V). expanded 15% in 2025.
Over the years, IGBTs have passed through different In terms of the design aspects, there are several cri-
stages of technological and structural development teria that must be considered when choosing a discrete
(Planar, Trench, PT, NPT, FS, etc.), which has made it device or a power module (packages, insulation, stray
possible to achieve higher power densities, operating inductances, cooling, connection terminals, etc.). In gen-
temperatures, and efficiencies, as well as better reliability eral, power modules have more advantages than discrete
characteristics. The latest trends followed by manufac- devices. In fact, practically all manufacturers have chosen
turers converge toward the same solution: to combine the option of installing power modules within their vehi-
enhanced Trench cell technology with optimized vertical cles. One of the main parameters that affects robustness
FS structure. These devices have over previous IGBT gen- is inductance. In this sense, parasitic inductance in power
erations reduced switching losses to approximately 55% modules (≈10 nH) is observably lower than in discrete
and the conduction voltage up to 35%, in addition to the semiconductors (≈40 nH in the case of the TO-247). In
innovation, in some cases, of new functionalities such as addition, from the point of view of current ratings, the
RB and RC. However, in the short term, these devices are high current conductivity of power modules must be
not expected to provide the high performance levels taken into account, resulting in high power density. Like-
required by automotive manufacturers and various inter- wise, the enhanced thermal behavior of the modules,
national programs such as Horizon Europe, USCAR, lower thermal resistance and impedance, and higher
DOE, and UN ESCAP, among others. In fact, in compari- thermal mass are all favorable points. It must not be for-
son with previous technologies, this performance gotten thatpower modules are also subject to heat spread-
requires improvements of between 30 and 50% in size, ing, which favors an even distribution of substrate
power density, thermal management, converter losses, temperature.
costs, etc. New interconnection techniques such as ribbon bond,
Considering the above, in recent years WBG devices flip-chip, and copper posts are also being used to improve
have emerged as an alternative to Si IGBTs, principally power module reliability and, to take advantage of WBG
due to the improved performance and great potential of technology, as well as new attach-solder joint techniques
these materials. Specifically, the GaN material has a high based on improved Ag sintering techniques and nano-
potential. However, the manufacture of GaN transistors copper materials. Likewise, one of the main goals of the
for the propulsion system of electric vehicles has not, to substrate is to improve thermal conductivity (as well as
date, reached the performance levels required by automo- to maximize the CTE mismatch), for which reason, the
tive manufacturers. The difficulty of developing semicon- new developments are attempts to reduce the thickness
ductors based on GaN-on-GaN technology has led to of the conductive layers (lead-frame technology) and of
these semiconductors being manufactured as lateral the ceramics (technology thin-film insulation). In addi-
devices, with reduced voltage (600-650 V) and current tion, new stack-up designs are also appearing such as
(10-60 A) ratings, and lower thermal conductivity. overmold and double-sided DBC that no longer use wire
Besides, the development of normally-on GaN HEMT bondings, making interconnections through copper areas
devices requires modifying the internal structure of these and cooling the module on both sides. Moreover, IPM
semiconductors, which deteriorates their initial (which integrates the control circuits within the power
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ROBLES ET AL. 22255

‡
module) and 3D structures (which combine substrates of Table 1 only provides some examples of commercial vehicles. It
various technologies within the same package) are also should be noted that there are probably more vehicle solutions
under development. under development that use SiC in their vehicles, however, it is
not usual for vehicle manufacturers to share this type of data.
Finally, as far as reliability is concerned, the main
§
failure mechanisms are produced in interconnections WBG-related improvements are mainly linked to the physical
properties of these semiconductor materials.31-35
and the attach-joint layers, due to the electro-thermal
¶
behavior of the power modules. The technical aspects This part of the device is also often referred to as cathode
technology.
and consequences of parasitic elements must be consid-
ered, given the importance of operating at high frequency ** The layers that are part of this area of the IGBT are also called
anode technology.
with WBG technology, thus achieving the long-term
††
objectives of the electric vehicle. The new trends consist Chapter 4 of92 describes semiconductor fabrication processes
using epitaxial and Float Zone techniques.
of switching at higher frequencies (’100 kHz) and block-
‡‡
ing higher voltages (1200 V) to reduce Joule effect losses, The initial enhanced Trench FS developments implement the
trench cells on the semiconductor surface following a square
gradually increasing battery systems from “400 V" to
arrangement.
“800 V". Some techniques for reducing the harmful §§
Similar to FS technology, except that the epitaxial wafer material
effects of switching at high frequencies should therefore
is removed and a positive temperature coefficient is provided that
be used such as adding snubber capacitors, signal filter- simplifies the parallelization.
ing (ferrite beads and RLC), active gate drivers, and Kel- ¶¶
Many manufacturers offer this technology under different
vin connections. In addition, new advances in the names: ABB builds the Bi-mode Insulated Gate Transistor
automotive inverter will bring with them multiphase (BIGT), Infineon has the variant for resonant RC IGBT and hard
converter topologies and specific modulation techniques switching RC-D IGBT applications, and Mitsubishi uses the
to augment the reliability of electric vehicle propulsion name RC IGBT to refer to this technology.
systems, thereby increasing both power density and effi- *** The current ratings provided by each manufacturer are a function
ciency, as well as solving various CMV-related problems. of case temperature (Tc), typically measured in the ranges of 50 C
to 120 C. Therefore, the power modules shown in the operating
ACK NO WLE DGE MEN TS ranges of Figure 9 are not fully comparable. For specific informa-
tion, each manufacturer's information should be reviewed.
This work has been supported in part by the Government
†††
of the Basque Country through the fund for research The automotive-grade ensures the quality, performance, and
safety of the product under stringent automotive operating con-
groups of the Basque University System IT1440-22 and
ditions. As an example, the Automotive Electronics Council has
the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacio
n of Spain as part of
developed the AEC Q101 (Stress Test Qualification for Discrete
project PID2020-115126RB-I00 and FEDER funds. elements) standard, which establishes common part-
Finally, the collaboration of Yole Développement (Yole) is qualification and quality-system standards for automotive
appreciated for providing updated data on its resources. power semiconductors in terms of life-cycle, operating tempera-
ture, humidity, and vibrations.
‡‡‡
ORCID Manufacturers often also offer 900 V modules, however, these
voltages are sometimes not suitable for “800 V" vehicles.
Endika Robles https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4720-496X
§§§
Asier Matallana https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3588-4147 Multiphase systems provide several advantages over three-phase
configurations, such as improved fault tolerance, lower conduc-
Iker Aretxabaleta https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5651-
tion losses, and smoother DC-bus and torque ripples.
3786 ¶¶¶
Furthermore, the 2DEG layer may be highlighted, because it is
Jon Andreu https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2367-5513
the conductive layer, which is placed between the AlGaN and
Markel Fern
andez https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7280-
GaN layers, within the internal structure of this lateral type of
5196 device on heterogeneous GaN substrates.142,143
José Luis Martín https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5738-6376
**** There are other substrates to grow GaN devices, such as SiC
and sapphire.158
E N D N O T ES ††††
It is also expected that the GaN JBS diodes will improve the
* Generally, the power converter is an inverter, although some- behaviour of power rectifiers within the range of 600 V to
times it also includes a DC/DC converter between the battery 3.3 kV.177
pack and the inverter (Figure 1). ‡‡‡‡
Devices with BGA, DFN-8, GaNPX, PQFN56, PQFN88, and
†
Alternatively, there are other semiconductor materials under inves- TO-247 packages have been taken into account, all of which
tigation, such as gallium oxide (Ga2O3) and diamond (D), which were evaluated at 25 C.
could be part of the next generation of devices.22-25 However, their §§§§
The values provided are indicative based on the data manufac-
technological development is at present immature, so it will be
turer. Sometimes a manufacturer groups its modules in the
some time before they can be used in commercial power devices.
 1099114x, 2022, 15, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/er.8581 by Nat Prov Indonesia, Wiley Online Library on [12/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22256 ROBLES ET AL.

same current range but different temperatures are used (Tc), 3. Reimers J, Dorn-Gomba L, Mak C, Emadi A. Automotive trac-
therefore these variations must be considered when selecting tion inverters: current status and future trends. IEEE Trans
the module. Vehicul Technol. 2019;68:3337-3350.
¶¶¶¶ 4. Status of the Power Electronics Industry Report (Technical
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