1. Earth's Atmosphere 4.

Earth's Hydrosphere
● Layers of the Atmosphere: ● Water Distribution:
○ The atmosphere is divided into five ○ Oceans account for 97% of Earth's
layers based on altitude and water, with only 0.6% as accessible
temperature: liquid freshwater.
1. Troposphere: Closest to Earth, ○ Glaciers and polar ice caps hold 2.1%
where weather phenomena of Earth's water.
occur. Temperatures decrease ● The Water Cycle:
with altitude. ○ Describes the movement of water
2. Stratosphere: Contains the through evaporation, condensation,
ozone layer, which absorbs and precipitation, powered by solar
harmful UV radiation. energy.
3. Mesosphere: Temperature ○ Includes processes like infiltration
decreases as there’s little (into groundwater) and runoff (surface
ozone to absorb solar flow into bodies of water).
radiation. ● Ocean Salinity:
4. Thermosphere: Rapid ○ Salinity measures the dissolved salts
temperature increase due to in seawater, averaging 3.5% by mass.
high-energy particles; Dissolved ions include sodium (Na+),
temperatures can reach 1000°C. chloride (Cl-), calcium (Ca2+), and
5. Exosphere: The outermost layer magnesium (Mg2+).
transitioning into space. ● Desalination:
● Atmospheric Composition: ○ A process to remove salts from
○ Primarily composed of nitrogen (78%) seawater, making it suitable for
and oxygen (21%), with trace amounts drinking and irrigation.
of other gases.
○ Includes solids like dust, salts, and ice, 5. Earth's Lithosphere
which influence weather and climate.
● Photodissociation and Photoionization: ● Structure:
○ Processes that occur in the upper ○ The lithosphere consists of the crust
atmosphere. and the upper mantle.
○ Photodissociation: High-energy UV ○ Earth’s crust contains metals and
radiation breaks molecular bonds minerals essential for industry and
(e.g., splitting oxygen molecules to technology.
produce ozone). ● Periodic Properties of Elements:
○ Photoionization: Atoms/molecules ○ Elements form compounds based on
absorb energy to release electrons, their electronegativities. For example:
forming ions. ■ Transition metals form oxides
due to lower electronegativity.
2. Chemistry in the Stratosphere ■ Alkaline earth metals are
● Ozone Formation: commonly found as
○ Ozone (O3) forms when oxygen carbonates in rocks like
molecules are split by UV radiation, limestone.
producing reactive oxygen atoms that
combine with other O2 molecules. 6. Biogeochemical Cycles
○ The ozone layer shields Earth from
harmful UV radiation but is highly ● The Carbon Cycle:
reactive and unstable. ○ Carbon dioxide (CO2) cycles through
the atmosphere, biosphere, and
geosphere via:
3. Chemistry in the Troposphere
○ Photosynthesis: Plants absorb CO2 to
● Photochemical Smog: produce carbohydrates.
○ Smog forms when sunlight reacts with ○ Respiration: Organisms release CO2
pollutants like nitrogen oxides and as a waste product.
volatile organic compounds (from ○ Human activities, such as burning
fossil fuel combustion), creating fossil fuels and deforestation, disrupt
ground-level ozone and other this balance, increasing atmospheric
irritants. CO2 and contributing to the
● Acid Rain: greenhouse effect.
○ Combustion of fossil fuels releases ● The Greenhouse Effect:
sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen ○ A natural process where gases like
oxides (NOx), which react with CO2 trap heat, keeping Earth warm.
moisture to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4) However, excess greenhouse gases
and nitric acid (HNO3). This acidic can lead to global warming and
precipitation damages ecosystems, climate change.
structures, and human health.
 ● The Nitrogen Cycle: 7. Environmental Chemistry and Human Impact
○ Nitrogen (N2), though abundant, must ● Global Warming:
be fixed into usable forms (e.g., ○ Rising temperatures due to increased
nitrates) through: greenhouse gases (e.g., CO2 and
■ Natural processes like methane).
lightning and nitrogen-fixing ○ Consequences include melting ice
bacteria. caps, rising sea levels, and extreme
■ Human activities like fertilizer weather patterns.
production. ● Acid Rain:
○ Plants absorb nitrates, which enter ○ Industrial emissions increase sulfur
the food chain. Waste and and nitrogen compounds, leading to
decomposition recycle nitrogen back acid rain.
into the atmosphere. ○ Impacts include soil degradation,
● The Sulfur Cycle: aquatic ecosystem damage, and
○ Sulfur is essential for proteins and structural corrosion.
vitamins. It cycles through the ● Desalination and Water Treatment:
atmosphere, lithosphere, and ○ Technologies for freshwater include:
biosphere via natural processes (e.g., ■ Desalination to remove salts.
volcanic activity) and human activities ■ Municipal treatment plants
(e.g., burning fossil fuels). with processes like filtration,
aeration, and sterilization.
6. Biogeochemical Cycles ● Environmental Awareness:
● The Carbon Cycle: ○ Scientists have a moral responsibility
to consider the environmental impact
○ Carbon dioxide (CO2) cycles through
of their inventions and industrial
the atmosphere, biosphere, and
processes. Innovations like
geosphere via:
biodegradable plastics and
■ Photosynthesis: Plants absorb
non-chlorinated refrigerants aim to
CO2 to produce
reduce harm.
carbohydrates.
■ Respiration: Organisms release
CO2 as a waste product. 8. Implications of Environmental Chemistry
■ Human activities, such as ● Industry:
burning fossil fuels and ○ The sulfur cycle is critical for
deforestation, disrupt this industries like battery manufacturing,
balance, increasing gunpowder production, and
atmospheric CO2 and agriculture.
contributing to the greenhouse ● Agriculture:
effect. ○ Nitrogen and sulfur are vital for plant
● The Greenhouse Effect: growth and amino acid synthesis.
○ A natural process where gases like ● Global Significance:
CO2 trap heat, keeping Earth warm. ○ Understanding cycles like carbon and
However, excess greenhouse gases sulfur helps mitigate issues like
can lead to global warming and climate change and pollution.
climate change.
● The Nitrogen Cycle:
○ Nitrogen (N2), though abundant, must
be fixed into usable forms (e.g.,
nitrates) through:
■ Natural processes like
lightning and nitrogen-fixing
bacteria.
■ Human activities like fertilizer
production.
○ Plants absorb nitrates, which enter
the food chain. Waste and
decomposition recycle nitrogen back
into the atmosphere.
● The Sulfur Cycle:
○ Sulfur is essential for proteins and
vitamins. It cycles through the
atmosphere, lithosphere, and
biosphere via natural processes (e.g.,
volcanic activity) and human activities
(e.g., burning fossil fuels).