Advanced Environmental Engineering

Major Theme

1. Mass and Energy Transfer

2. Environmental Chemistry
3. Water Pollution
4. Treatment of Water and Wastes
※ Include introduction of Membrane Separation Process

Chapter 1. Mass and Energy Transfer

1. Introduction
1) American unit verse SI units
2) Law of conservation of mass
- Important tool for quantitatively tracking pollutants
- Pollutant have to go somewhere
(Transport pollutants from one medium to another)
3) Law of conservation of energy
- Global climate change
- Thermal pollution
- Dispersion of air pollution

2. Units of Measurement

Table 1. Common Prefixes

- 1 -
 Quantity Prefix Symbol
18
10 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
10 deca da
-1
10 deci d
-2
10 centi c
-3
10 milli m
-6
10 micro μ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p

1) Liquid : weight of Substance per unit volume of Mixture

(weight of Solute per unit volume of Solution)
1 mg/L = 1 g/m3 = 1 ppm (W/V or W/W by weight) (1)
1 µg/L = 1 mg/m3 = 1 ppb (W/V or W/W by weight) (2)
where ppm : part per million and ppb : part per billion.
But, in special case like high concentration of high specific gravity of
pollutant,
mg/L = ppmw (W/W by weight) × Specific Gravity (3)
2) Gas : Express pollutant concentrations in Volumetric terms

 volume of gaseous pollutant

   ppmv by volume V V  (4)
 volumes of air

- 2 -
        
    ×  ×   
×    
  ×   
or more simply
 ×  
       ℃ and    (5)


For other temperature and pressure,

 ×      
     ×  ×  (6)
     

【Example 1】Converting ppm to ㎍/m 3

The federal air quality standard for carbon monoxide(based on an 8-hr

measurement) is 9.0 ppm. Express this standard as a percentage by volume as
well as in mg/m3 at 1 atm and 25 ℃.
<Solution>
There are 9.0 volumes of CO within a million volume of this air.

    ×    
 × 
To find the concentration in mg/m3,
- Molecular weight of CO : 28
 ×  
-    ×     at 25 ℃(298 K) by Eq.(1.6)
 
 ×  
※      ℃ and  


3. Material Balance

- 3 -
Figure 1. A material balance diagram.

(Input) = (Output) + (Decay) + (Accumulation) (8)

1) Steady State Conservation Systems

At steady state or equilibrium, nothing is changing with time.
Simplest system : Input rate = Output rate (9)
(if there are no decay like chemical reaction)

Figure 2. A steady state conservative system. Pollutants enter and leave the
region at the same time rate.

【Example 2】Two Polluted Stream

A stream flowing at 10.0 m3/s has a tributary feeding into it with a flowing 5.0
m3/s. The stream’s concentration of chlorides upstream of the junction is 10.0

- 4 -
mg/L and the tributary chloride concentration is 40.0 mg/L. Treating chlorides as
a conservative substance, and assuming complete mixing of the two streams, find
downstream chloride concentration.
<Solution>

Figure 3 Flow rate and chloride concentration for example stream and tributary.

     

From Eq.(1.10),     
   

 ×    ×    ·   


    
    

2) Steady State Systems with Non-conservative Pollutants

Input rate = Out rate + Decay rate (11)
(Steady State → No Accumulation)

If the rate of loss of the substance is proportional to the amount of the

substance, it means that the dissipation model of the substance 1st order reaction,
dC/dt = - KC (13)
where K = reaction rate coefficient, (time)-1
C= pollutant concentration
  
 

    


which yields

- 5 -
 
ln  ln   ln     


Solving for concentration gives us

      (13)
where C0 = initial concentration of pollutant at time=0.
Decay rate = - d(CV)/dt = - V dC/dt = KCV (14)
(if C is uniform throughout the fixed volume V like CSTR)
Then from Eq.(1.11) and Eq.(1.14),
Input rate = Output rate + KCV (15)

【Example 3】A Polluted Lake

Assuming
1. The pollution is completely mixed in the lake
2. No evaporation or other water losses or gain

Find the steady state concentration.

Figure 1.4 A lake with a non-conservative pollutant.

<Solution>
Input rate = QsCs + QwCw
= (5.0 m3/s×10.0 mg/L+0.5 m3/s×100.0 mg/L)×103 L/m3
= 1.0 × 105 mg/s

- 6 -
Output rate = QmCm = (Qs + Qw) × C, since Cm = C.
= (5.0 + 0.5)m3/s × C mg/L × 103 L/m3
= 5.5 × 103 mg/s
  ×   ×  ×   ×  
Decay rate = KCV = 
  ×   
= 23.1 × 103 C mg/s
So from Eq.(1.15),
1.0 × 105 = 5.5 × 103 C + 23.1 × 103 C = 28.6 × 103 C
 × 
     
   × 

【Example 4】A Smoky Bar

Figure 5 Tobacco smoke in a bar

① 50 smokers in a bar and each smoking two cigarettes per hour.

② An individual cigarette emits about 1.4 mg of formaldehyde(HCHO).
③ Formaldehyde converts to CO2 with a reaction rate coefficient K = 0.40/hr

Estimate the steady state concentration of HCHO in the air and how does the
results compare with the threshold for eye irritation of about 0.05 ppm?
Assuming complete mixing, 25℃, 1 atm.

<Solution>

- 7 -
Input rate = 50 smokers × 2 cigas/hr × 1.4 mg/ciga = 140.0 mg/hr
Output rate = 1000 m3/hr × C (mg/m3) = 1000 C mg/hr
Decay rate = KCV = (0.4/hr)×(C mg/m3)×(500 m3) = 200 C mg/hr
Input rate = Output + Decay rate
140 = 1000 C + 200 C = 1200 C
C = 0.117 mg/m3
Convert mg/m3 to ppm by using Eq.(1.7), MW of HCHO is 30,
   ×   × 

         
  
This is more than enough to cause eye irritation.

3) Step Function Response

Figure 1.6 A box model for a transient analysis

Accumulation rate = Input rate – Output rate – Decay rate


        (16)

where V = box volume(m3)
C = conc. in the box and in the exiting waste stream(g/m3)
S = total rate at which pollutants enter the box(g/hr)
Q = the total flow rate into and out of the box(m3/hr)
K = reaction rate coefficient(hr-1)

- 8 -
At steady state, dC/dt = 0, which yields

 ∞    (17)
  
At unsteady state, from Eq.(1.16)
  



     


     (18)

Let

     (19)
  
Then
 
   (20)
 
So, Eq.(1.18) becomes



       (21)

          (22)

where y0 = y at t = 0 and if C0 = C at t = 0, then from Eq.(1.19)


      (1.23)
  
Eq.(1.19) & Eq.(1.23) → Eq.(1.22) yields

 

     

   


     

or

      

   


     
 
  

(1.24)

By inserting the steady state solution, C(∞) from Eq.(1.17)

        ∞            ∞  (1.25)

- 9 -
Figure 7. Step function response for a complete-mix box model.

【Example 4】The Smoky Bar Revisited

∙ Volume (V) = 500 m 3
∙ Fresh air Q = 1,000 m /hr 3

∙ K = 0.4 hr ∙ S = 140 mg/hr ∙ C = 0 at 5 pm

-1
0

<Question> C after 1 hr?

<Solution>
∙ Steady state solution
C(∞) =
S 140 mg/hr mg
= = 0.117
Q + KV 1000 m /hr+0.4/hr×500 m3
3
m3

∙ C(t) from Eq (1.25) with C0 = 0

        ∞           ∞ 
                 
So, C(1 hr) = 0.106 mg/m3 after 1 hr(at 6 pm)

- 10 -
[Example 5] Cooling tower improvement

<Given Data>
1) Q5 = 0 (only air flow)
2) C4 = 0 (only pure water is evaporating)
3) Q1, Q̂ 6, C1, W5
<Question> Q4 and C2 = ?
<Solution>
▶ Overall Mass Balance : Q4 = Q̂ 1 – Q̂ 6 ①
▶ Component Balance : Accumulation = Input – Output
VdC/dt = (Q̂ 1C1 + W5) – (Q4C4 + Q6Ĉ 6) = 0 at steady state
and C4 = 0
∴ Q6C6 = Q̂ 1C1 + W5 → Ĉ 2 = Ĉ 6 = (Q̂ 1C1 + W5) / Q̂ 6 ②

- 11 -
<Given Data>
1) Q5 = 0 (only air flow)
2) C4 = 0 (only pure water is evaporating)
3) Q1, Q6, C1, W5
3) Recovery rate of filter = R = Qb/Qa → Qb = RQa ③
4) Rejection rate of filter = η = (Ca – Cb)/Ca = 1 – Cb/Ca
→ Cb = (1 – η)Ca = (1 – η)C2 ④
<Question> Q4 and C2 = ?
<Solution>
▶ Mass Balance :
Q1 = Q4 + Q6 → Q6 = Q1 – Q4 ⑤
Q6 = Qa – Qb ⑥
Eq③→Eq⑥ : Q6 = (1 – R)Qa → Qa = Q6 / (1 – R) ⑦
▶ Component Balance : Accumulation = Input – Output
V∙dC/dt = (Q1C1 + W5) – (Q4C4 + Q6C6) = 0 at steady state

- 12 -
 and C4 = 0
Q6C6 = Q1C1 + W5 ⑧
Q6C6 = QaCa – QbCb = QaC2 – QbCb ⑨
Eq④→Eq⑨ : Q6C6 = QaC2 – (1 - η)QbC2 ⑩
Eq⑧→Eq⑩ : Q1C1 + W5 = QaC2 – (1 – η)QbC2 ⑪
Eq③→Eq⑪ : Q1C1 + W5 = QaC2 – (1 – η)RQaC2
= QaC2[1 – (1 – η)R] ⑫
Eq⑦→Eq⑫ : Q1C1 + W5 = Q6C2[1 – (1 – η)R] / (1 – R)
Let ζ = R / (1 – R) → Q1C1 + W5 = Q6C2(1 + ζη) ⑬
Rearrange Eq⑬ → C2 = (Q1C1 + W5) / Q6(1 + ζη) ⑭

If Q̂ 6 = Q6 and Q̂ 1 = Q1, C2 is much smaller than Ĉ 2, because

≪ 1.0
C2 after improvement C2 1
= =
C2 before improvement Ĉ 2 1 + ζη

where R = 0.90 ∼ 0.95(ζ = 9 ∼ 19) and η = 0.9 normally.

It means that the cooling water quality could be enhanced by adding the filter,
if the make-up water quality and flow rate were not changed.

<Question> Q1/Q̂ 1? when Ĉ 2 = C2 after adding the filter.

<Solution>

From Eq②, Ĉ 2(Q̂ 1 – Q) 4 = Q̂ 1C1 + W5

Q̂ 1(Ĉ 2 – C) 1 = W5 + Q4Ĉ 2

Q̂ 1 =
W5 + Q4Ĉ 2
⑮
Ĉ 2 –C 1

- 13 -
 From Eq⑭,
–
W5 + Q1C1
C2 =
(1 + ζη)(Q1 Q4)
–
(1 + ζη)(Q1 Q4)C2 = W5 + Q1C1
Q1[(1 + ζη)C2 C1]– = W5 + (1 + ζη)Q4C2

Q1 =
W5 + (1 + ζη)Q4C2
(1 + ζη)C2 C1 – ⑯
Divide Eq ⑯ by ⑮, Q1 (Ĉ 2–C )[W
1 5 + (1 + ζη)Q4C2]
Q̂ 1
=
[(1 +ζη)C2 –C ](W1 5 + Q4Ĉ 2)

Because ζ = 9 ∼ 19 and C1 is normally very small, Q1≪Q̂ 1. It means most of

make-up water or waste water can be saved by installing the filter at cooling
tower. But it was not true if the filter could not removed soluble pollutants like
hardness, since they would be accumulated at the inside of cooling water.

- 14 -
[Extra Example 6] RO system with feed-and-bleed mode operation

<Given Data> Q1, C1, Q3, R, η

1) Recovery rate of RO : R = Q3/Q2 → Q2 = Q3 / R ①
2) Rejection rate of RO : η = (C2 – C3) / C2 = 1 – C3 / C2
→ C3 = (1 – η)C2 ②
<Question> C3 = ?
<Solution>
▶ Mass Balance :
Q6 = Q1 – Q3 ③
Q2 = Q1 + Q5 = Q3 / R → Q5 = Q3 / R – Q1 ④
Q4 = Q2 – Q3 = Q3 / R – Q3 = (1 / R – 1)Q3 ⑤
Q6 = Q4 – Q5 ⑥
▶ Component Balance (※ C4 = C5 = C6)
Q2C2 = Q3C3 + Q4C4 = Q3C3 + Q4C6
→ C2 = (Q3C3 + Q4C6) / Q2 ⑦
Q2C2 = Q1C1 + Q5C5 = Q1C1 + Q5C6 ⑧
Q6C6 = Q1C1 – Q3C3 → C6 = (Q1C1 – Q3C3) / Q6 ⑨
From Eq ⑧ and ⑨,
Q2C2 = Q1C1 + Q5C6 = Q1C1 + Q5(Q1C1 – Q3C3) / Q6 ⑩
From Eq ② and ⑩,
Q2C3 = (1 – η)Q2C2 = (1 – η)[Q1C1 + Q5(Q1C1 – Q3C3) / Q6]

- 15 -
 = (1 – η)(Q1C1 + C1Q1Q5 / Q6 – C3Q3Q5 / Q6)
= (1 – η)Q1C1 + (1 – η)C1Q1Q5 / Q6 – (1 – η)C3Q3Q5 / Q6
Multiply Q6 on both side and rearrange, then
Q2Q6C3 = (1 – η)Q1Q6C1 + (1 – η)Q1Q5C1 – (1 – η)Q3Q5C3
[Q2Q6 + (1 – η)Q3Q5]C3 = (1 – η)(Q5 + Q6)Q1C1 = (1 – η)Q1Q4C1

(1 – η)Q1Q4
C3 = × C1
Q2Q6 + (1 – η)Q3Q5

(1 – η)Q1(1 / R – 1)Q3
= × C1
(Q3/R)(Q1 – Q3) + (1 – η)Q3(Q3/R – Q1)

(1 – η)Q1(1 – R)Q3
= × C1
Q3(Q1 – Q3) + (1 – η)Q3(Q3 – RQ1)

(1 – η)(1 – R)Q1Q3
= × C1
Q3[(Q1 – Q3) + (1 – η)(Q3 – RQ1)]

(1 – η)(1 – R)Q1
= × C1
(Q1 – Q3) + (1 – η)(Q3 – RQ1)

C3 =
(1 – η)(1 – R)Q1
[1 – (1 – η)R]Q1 – ηQ3
× C1 ∥Ans ⑪
From Eq ②, C2 = C3 / (1 – η) ⑫
From Eq ⑪ and ⑫,

C2 =
(1 – R)Q1
[1 – (1 – η)R]Q1 – ηQ3
× C1 ∥Ans ⑬
From Eq ⑨ and ⑬,

- 16 -
 (1 – R)Q1Q3
C6 = [Q1C1 – ] / Q6
[1 – (1 – η)R]Q1 – ηQ3

(1 – R)Q1Q3
= [Q1C1 – ] / (Q1 – Q3)
[1 – (1 – η)R]Q1 – ηQ3

=
Q1C1
Q1 – Q3
–
(1 – R)Q1Q3
(Q1 – Q3){[1 – (1 – η)R]Q1 – ηQ3}
∥Ans

- 17 -
4 Energy Fundamentals

1st Law of Thermodynamics

(Energy Conservation)
⇒ Write Energy Balance Equations
Analysis of Energy Flow
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
(Some inefficiency in Work)
⇒ Heat is generated by doing Work
※ Interest is how the heat generated affected on the environment.
∙ Definition of Energy : Capacity for doing Work
∙ Definition of Work : Force × Displacement of Object
∙ Definition of Power : Rate of doing Work (Energy/Time)
= 1 J/s = 1 W = 3.412 Btu/hr

1) The 1st Law of Thermodynamics

▶ Open System
both energy and matter can flow across the boundary.
▶ Closed System
energy is allowed to flow across the boundary, but matter is not.

▶ Accumulation = Macroscopic forms + Microscopic forms

▶ Macroscopic forms : kinetic and potential energies
▶ Microscopic forms : atomic and molecular structure of the system
- kinetic energies of molecules.
- energies associated with the forces acting between molecules, between

- 18 -
 atoms within molecules, and within atoms.
∴ E(Total) = U(Internal) + KE(Kinetic) + PE(Potential) (47)

▶ Specific Heat(c)
The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by 1 degree.
▶ British Thermal Unit(Btu)
the energy required to raise 1 lb of water by 1 ℉.
▶ Kilocalorie(kcal)
the energy required to raise 1 kg of water by 1 ℃
※ Conversion Factor : 1 kcal/kg℃ = 1 BTU/lb℉ = 4.184 kJ/kg℃
▶ Specific heat at constant volume(c ) & Specific heat at constant pressure(c )
v p

- For incompressible substances(liquids and solids) : cv = cp

- For gases : cv < cp
▶ Enthalpy(H) = U(Internal Energy) + P(Pressure)∙V(Volume) (48)
※ Unit of H or U : energy, kJ or Btu
For solids or liquids, cv = cp and ΔU = ΔH,
Change in stored energy = m c ΔT (51)

- 19 -
【Example 10】A Water Heater
∙Energy source : Water heater 5 kW
∙Boundary volume : 40 gallon
<Question> Time to raise the temperature 50 ℉ → 140 ℉ ?
<Assumption>
1) No energy loss during converting electrical energy to heat.
2) No energy losses from the tank.
3) No water withdrawn from tank.
<Solution>
∙ Rate of energy input = Power = 5 kW × Δt(hr) = 5∙Δt (kWhr)
∙ Energy output = 0
∙ Change in stored energy
=40gal×8.34lb/gal×1Btu/lb°F×(140-50)°F=30,060BTU=30×103BTU
※ specific gravity of water = 8.34 lb/gal
∙ By conservation, Input energy rate = Internal energy change rate,
5∙Δt (kWhr) × 3,412 ((BTU/hr)/kW) = 30 × 103 BTU
∴ Δt = 1.76 hr∥Answer
■ Phase Change

- 20 -
 Energy released or absorbed in phase change = m L (52)
where m = mass, L = latent heat of fusion or vaporization.
※ Melting energy of Ice at 0 ℃ = 333 kJ/kg
※ Vaporization energy of water at 100 ℃ = 2,256 kJ/kg

※ 15℃ is a useful number that can be used to estimate the amount of energy
required to cause surface water on the Earth to evaporate. The value of 15℃
has been picked as the starting temperature since that is approximately the
current average surface temperature of the globe.

- 21 -
Figure 13 The latent heats of fusion and vaporization for water.

【Example 11】Power for the Hydrologic Cycle

∙ Global rainfall = about 1 m of water per year
∙ Earth’s surface = 5.10 × 10 m14 2

<Question>
1) Energy required to cause that much water to evaporate each year.
2) Compare this to world energy consumption at 2007(4.7×1017 kJ).
3) Compare it to the average rate at which sunlight strikes the surface of the
Earth(168 W/m2).
<Solution>
In Table 4, Heat of vaporization at 15 ℃ = 2,465 kJ/kg
The total energy required to vaporize all of that water is
1) Increase in stored energy
= 1 m/yr × 5.10 × 1014 m2 × 103 kg/m3 × 2,465 kJ/kg
= 1.25 × 1021 kJ/yr ∥ Answer

- 22 -
2) 4.7×1017 kJ ÷ 1.25 × 1021 kJ ≃ 2,700 Times∥ Answer
3) From Answer 1), the rate of sunlight striking on the Earth is
1.25×1021 kJ 1000 J yr day hr 1 W
= 78 W/m2
yr kJ 365 day 24 hr 3600 sec 1 J/s 5.10×1014 m2

This can be compared with 168 W/m2.

- 23 -
■ Open System
Rate of change of stored energy = ṁ × c × ΔT
where ṁ =Q×d : the mass flow rate across the system boundary.

【Example 12】Thermal Pollution of a River

∙ 1/3 of coal energy is converted to electric energy(1,000 MW ). t

⇒ Total coal energy = 3,000 MW e

∙ Waste gas energy through stack = 15% of 2/3 of coal energy.

⇒ Waste energy through gas = 300 MW t

∙ Waste cooling water to river = 85% of 2/3 of coal energy.

⇒ Waste energy through water = 1,700 MW t

∙ River water flow rater, Q = 100 m /s at 20 ℃.

3

<Question>
1) ΔT of cooling water = 10 ℃, Q of cooling water?
2) Temperature of river water after receiving the heated cooling water?
<Solution>
1) Rate of change in internal energy = ṁ × c × ΔT
1,700 MWt = ṁ (kg/s) × 4,184(J/kg℃) × 10(℃) × 1(MWt/106 J/s)
ṁ = 40.6 × 103 kg/s = 40.6 m3/s ∥Answer
2) From Rate of change in internal energy = ṁ × c × ΔT

So, the temperature of the river water will be 24. 1 ℃

or
    ×     ×  
     


- 24 -
Figure 14 Cooling water energy balance for the 33.3 percent efficient, 1000
MWe power plant in Example 12.

- 25 -
2. The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics says that there will always
be some waste heat; that is, it is impossible to devise a machine that can
convert heat to work with 100 percent efficiency


   
 

max     
 
FIGURE 15 Definition of terms for a Carnot engine.
where T = absolute temperature,
K = ℃ + 273.15 (56)
R = ℉ + 459.67 (57)

- 26 -
FIGURE 16. A fuel-fired, steam-electric power plant.

※ Efficiency by rule of thump about thermal power plant

▶ Chemical energy → Thermal energy(ex, combustion) : ∼90%
▶ Well designed turbine(Mechanical → Electric) : ∼90%
▶ Nuclear power plant : 33%
▶ Thermal(Fuel Fired Steam) power plant : max 66%
※ ηmax of thermal power plant by reasonable estimation
Th = 600 ℃, Tc = 20 ℃
  
max         
  
- Steam turbine(Rankin cycle) power plant : 30∼40%
- Combined power plant : max 60%, normal 50%
※ Combined : Gas Turbine(Brayton cycle) + Steam Turbine

- 27 -
 Electricity
↑
Steam Turbine
Electricity
(Rankin Cycle)
↑ ↑
Combustion
Gas
→ Gas Turbine
(Brayton Cycle)
→ Steam
Generator
→ Off gas
to stack

【Example 13】Mass & energy balance for a Coal-fired power plant

∙Energy of typical coal = 24 kJ/g
∙Ave. content of carbon in coal = 62%
∙SO emission standard = 260 g of SO / 10 kJ of heat input
2 2
6

(130 g of S / 106 kJ of heat input)

∙Particulate emission standard = 13 g / 10 6
kJ of heat input
<Assumption>
∙S content in coal : 2%
∙Amount of ash generated : 10% of feed coal
∙Fly ash : 70%, Bottom ash : 30%
∙Conversion efficiency(η) = 33%
<Question>
1) Emission of SO2, particulate, carbon / kWe-hr?
(assume all of the carbon in the coal is released to the atmosphere).
2) Removal efficiency of SO2 and Particulate emission control system to meet
limitations?
<Solution>
1) Pollutant emission limitation / kWe ∙hr of electricity generation
∙ input
Heat ∙
3 kWt hr 1 kJ/s 3600 s kJ input
=
∙
1 kWe hr kWt hr
= 10,800
∙
kWe hr

- 28 -
 ∙ emission
Sulfur
=
130 g S
106 kJ input
10,800 kJ input
∙
kWe hr
= 1.4
g S
kWe hr ∙
∙ emission
SO 2
=
260 g SO2
106 kJ input
10,800 kJ input
∙
kWe hr
= 2.8
g SO2
∙
kWe hr

∙ Particulate
emission
=
13 g Part.
106 kJ input
10,800 kJ input
∙
kWe hr
= 0.14
g Part.
∙
kWe hr

∙ Coal
input
=
10,800 kJ input
∙
kWe hr
1 g coal
24 kJ
= 450
g coal
kWe hr ∙
∙ Carbon
emission
=
0.62 g carbon
g coal
450 g coal
kWe hr∙ = 280
g carbon
kWe hr∙
2) Removal efficiency to meet limitation
∙S % of coal = 2%
∙ Sefficiency
removal
= 1 -
1.4 g S by limitation
9.0 g S by raw emission
= 0.85 = 85%

∙ Fly ash
generated
= 10% × 70% ×
450 g coal
kWe hr∙ = 31.5
g fly ash
kWe hr ∙
∙ Part. removal
efficiency
= 1 -
0.14 g Part. by limitation
31.5 g S by raw emission
= 0.885 = 99.5%

- 29 -
FIGURE 17. Energy and mass balance for a coal-fired power plant generating 1
∙
kWe hr of electricity (see Example 13).

【Example 14】 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion(OTEC) System Efficiency

∙T = 30 ℃
h

∙T = 5 ℃
c

<Question> ηmax?

5 + 273
<Solution> ηmax = 1 - = 0.08 = 8%
30 + 273
※ Real efficiency in real OTEC plant : 2∼3%

- 30 -
3. Conductive and Convective Heat Transfer

▶ Heat will be transferred from the hotter object to the colder one.
▶ Conductive heat transfer is usually associated with solids, as one molecule
vibrates the next in the lattice.
▶ Convective heat transfer occurs when a fluid at one temperature comes in
contact with a substance at another temperature.
▶ Radiation can take place even in the absence of any physical medium
between the objects.

FIGURE 18. Heat transfer through a simple wall.

    
   (58)

where q = heat transfer rate through the wall (W) or (Btu/hr)
A = wall area (m2) or (ft2)
℃ ℉
Ti = air temperature on one side of the wall ( ) or ( )
℃
To = ambient air temperature ( ) or ( ) ℉

- 31 -
 ℃
R = overall thermal resistance (m2- /W) or (hr-ft2- /BTU) ℉
※ The overall thermal resistance R is called the R-value.
【Example 15】Reducing Pollution by Adding Ceiling Insulation
∙Heating season = 8 month per year = 8 × 30 × 24 = 5,760 hr
∙T = 40 ℉
o

∙T = 70 ℉
i

∙Cost for insulation = 1,000 $ from 11 to 40 hr-ft -℉/BTU 2

∙Heating cost = 8 ¢/kW -hr e

<Question>
1) Annual money saving? and pay back period?
2) Annual reduction in particulate, and carbon emissions?
Basis : 1 million homes, coal plants in Example 13
<Solution>
1) Annual saving and pay back period
∙ Heat loss rate with the existing insulation
A(Ti - To) 1500 ft2 × (70-40) ℉ BTU
q =
R
=
℉
11 (hr-ft2- /BTU)
= 4090
hr

∙ Heat loss rate after adding insulation

A(Ti - To) 1500 ft2 × (70-40) ℉ BTU

q =
R
=
℉
40 (hr-ft2- /BTU)
= 1125
hr

∙ Annual energy saving

Energy
=
(4090 –1125)BTU kWe-hr 5,760 hr
= 5005
kWe-hr
saved hr 3412 BTU yr yr

∙ Annual saving

Annual
Saving
=
5005 kWe-hr
yr
8 ¢
kWe-hr
= 40,040
¢
yr
≃ 400
$
yr

∙ Pay back period : 1000/400 ≃ 2.5 year

- 32 -
∙ Saving energy for 1 million same home = 5×109 kWe-hr/yr

2) Apply to 1 million home and reduce pollutants at power plant

∙ Carbon
reduction
=
280 g C
∙
kWe hr
5×109 kWe-hr
yr
MT
106 g
= 1400×103
MT
yr

∙ SO2
reduction
=
2.8 g SO2
∙
kWe hr
5×109 kWe-hr
yr
MT
106 g
= 14×103
MT
yr

∙ Particulate
reduction
=
0.14 g Part.
∙
kWe hr
5×109 kWe-hr
yr
MT
106 g
= 0.7×103
MT
yr

- 33 -